Parenting

Parents with child Statue, Hrobákova street, Petržalka, Bratislava

Parenting is the process of raising and educating a child from birth until adulthood. This is usually done in a child's family by the mother and/or father (i.e., the biological parents). Where parents are unable or unwilling to provide this care, it is usually taken on by close relatives, such as older siblings, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. In other cases, children may be cared for by adoptive parents, foster parents, godparents, or in institutions (such as group homes or orphanages). There are also circumstances, such as on a kibbutz, where parenting is an actual job even when natural parents exist. Parens patriae refers to the public policy power of the state to usurp the rights of the natural parent, legal guardian or informal caregiver, and to act as the parent of any child or individual who is in need of protection (i.e. if the child's caregiver is exceedingly violent or dangerous).

The word "parenting"

The word parenting has recently appeared and has become very popular due to the necessity to clarify the process of upbringing a child at home by parents as the opposite to the formal education of a child at school. A teacher-student relationship is different than the parent-child relationship. Therefore a parent's methods of educating a child must be different than a teacher's. At school teachers give a child general literacy and scientific knowledge; at home parents give a child general wisdom of life as parents themselves understand it.

The term "parenting" is a derivative of the word "parent" taken as a verb. When people say "to parent" a child it means "to be a parent," or "to fulfill parental duties." Since everyone who has a child has to parent he or she has their own view on what their parental duties are. Generally, the majority of parents admit that those duties are to provide for the basic needs of a child - the child's need for security and development. This implies security and development of a child's body, mind and soul. In other words, it is physical, intellectual, and emotional security and development.

Parenting is usually done in a child's family by the mother and/or father (i.e., the biological parents). When parents are unable or unwilling to provide this care, it is usually undertaken by close relatives, such as older siblings, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. In other cases, children may be cared for by adoptive parents, foster parents, godparents, or in institutions (such as group homes or orphanages). There are also circumstances, such as on a kibbutz, where parenting is an occupation even when biological parents exist. Parens patriae refers to the public policy power of the state to usurp the rights of the natural parent, legal guardian or informal caregiver, and to act as the parent of any child or individual who is in need of protection (i.e. if the child's caregiver is exceedingly violent or dangerous).

Parental duties

Providing physical security

Providing physical security refers to a safety of a child's body, safety of a child's life.

• To provide physical safety: shelter, clothes, nourishment
• To protect a child from dangers; physical care
• To care for a child's health

Providing physical development

Developing a child physically refers to providing a conditions to a healthy growth of a child.

• To provide a child with the means to develop physically
• To train the body of a child, to introduce to sport
• To develop habits of health
• Psychical games

Providing intellectual security

Intellectual security refers to the conditions, in which a child's mind can develop. If the child's dignity is safe, that is nobody encroaches upon a child physically or verbally, then he is able to learn.

• To provide an atmosphere of peace and justice in family, where no one's dignity is encroached upon.
• To provide "no-fear," "no-threat,"no-verbal abuse" environment

Providing intellectual development

Intellectual development means providing opportunity to a child to learn - to learn about laws of nature and moral laws.

• Reading, writing, calculating etc.
• Intellectual games
• Social skills and etiquette
• Moral and spiritual development
  • Ethics and value systems
  • Norms and contributions to the child's belief and cultural customs

Providing emotional security

To provide emotional security to a child means to secure his or her soul. It is to provide a safe loving environment, give a child a sense of being loved, being needed, welcomed.

• To give a child a sense of being loved through:
  • Emotional support, encouragement
  • Attachment, caressing, hugging, touch, etc.

Providing emotional development

Emotional development refers to giving a child an opportunity to love other people, to care, to help. The ability to love is a quality of developed soul. A child doesn't grow selfish if he or she knows what a joy is to love another person.

• Developing in a child an ability to love through:
  • Showing emphathy and compassion to younger and older, weaker and sicker, etc.
  • Caring of others, helping grandparents, etc.
  • Teaching a child to organize parties for other people,play with younger siblings, etc.

Other parental duties

• Financial support: Money provided as child support by custodial or non-custodial parent(s), or the state
• Insurance coverage and payments for education

Parents

Mother

Faces of mother and child; detail of sculpture at Soldier Field, Chicago, Illinois, USA.

Female mallard duck and ducklings.

A mother is the natural or social female parent of an offspring.

In the case of a mammal such as a human, the mother gestates her child (called first an embryo, then a fetus) in the womb from conception until the fetus is sufficiently well-developed to be born. The mother then goes into labour and gives birth. Once the child is born, the mother produces milk, a process called lactation, to feed the child.

In non-sexual organisms, "mother" can sometimes be used to mean "parent"; in the case of single-celled organisms that reproduce by fission, the mother is a cell that divides to produce "daughters."

A mother may be able to receive ante-natal care during her pregnancy to assist her in several arising issues.

Mothers typically have a very important role in raising children, and the title mother can be given to a woman other than a biological parent who fills this role. This is most commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated wife of a child's father). Nowadays, with advances in reproductive technologies, the function of biological motherhood can be split between the genetic mother (who provides the ovum) and the gestational mother (who carries the pregnancy), and in theory neither might be the social mother (the one who brings up the child).

The term mother can also refer to a person with stereotypical traits of a mother such as nurturing and other-centredness.

Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are:

• mum or mummy, usual in the UK, Australia, and parts of Canada;
• mom or mommy, in North America (especially the U.S.), and in the Midland areas of England; especially the Black Country.
• mam or mammy, in parts of North Wales, the South Wales valleys , Ireland, Northern England and The Netherlands;
• mama and ma, in parts of Latin America and other Spanish-speaking cultures

In many European languages, similar pronunciations apply; maman in French, mamma in Italian, or mama in Russian. In many south Asian cultures, the mother is known as amma or oma or ammi, or variations thereof. The "M" sound seems to be near universal to the word mother in many different languages; this is thought to be related to one of the first sounds an infant learns to control, the smacking of its lips together as it comes off the breast. (See breastfeeding.) Many times these terms denote affection or a maternal role in a child's life.

In some societies, single motherhood, the state of being an unmarried mother, is treated as a serious social issue.

Father

Father with child

A Father is traditionally the male parent of a child. Like mothers, fathers may be categorised according to their biological, social or legal relationship with the child. Historically, the biological relationship paternity has been determinative of fatherhood. However, proof of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother.

This method of the determination of fatherhood has persisted since Roman times in the famous sentence: Mater semper certa; pater est quem nuptiae demonstrant (Mother is always certain; the father is whom the marriage shows). The historical approach has been destabilised with the recent emergence of accurate scientific testing, particularly DNA testing. As a result, the law on fatherhood is undergoing rapid changes. In the United States, the Uniform Parentage Act essentially defines a father as a man who conceives a child through sexual intercourse.

The most familiar English terms for father include dad, daddy, papa, pop and pa. Other colloquial expressions include my old man.

Categories

File:My Father.jpg

Rice farmer with daughter. Kantharalak, Thailand. (January 2005).

• Natural father - the most common category: child product of man and woman
• Birth father - the biological father of a child who, due to adoption or parental separation, does not raise the child
• Surprise father - where the men did not know that there was a child until possibly years afterwards
• Posthumous father - father died before children were born (or even conceived in the case of artificial insemination)
• Teenage father/youthful father - may be associated with premarital sexual intercourse
• Non-parental father - unmarried father whose name does not appear on child's birth certificate: does not have legal responsibility but continues to have financial responsibility (UK)
• Sperm donor father - a genetic connection but man does not have legal or financial responsibility if conducted through licensed clinics

Non-biological (social / legal relationship between father and child)

• Step-father - wife/partner has child from previous relationship
• Father-in-law - the father of one's spouse
• Adoptive father - child is adopted
• Foster father - child is raised by a man who is not the biological or adoptive father usually as part of a couple.
• Cuckolded father - where child is the product of the mother's adulterous relationship
• Social father - where man takes de facto responsibility for a child (in such a situation the child is known as a "child of the family" in English law)
• Mothers's partner - assumption that current partner fills father role
• Mothers's husband - under some jurisdictions (e.g. in Quebec civil law), if the mother is married to another man, the latter will be defined as the father
• DI Dad - social / legal father of children produced via Donor Insemination where a donor's sperm were used to impregnate the DI Dad's spouse.

Fatherhood defined by contact level with child

• Weekend/holiday father - where child(ren) only stay(s) with father at weekends, holidays, etc.
• Absent father - father who can or will not spend time with his child(ren)
• Second father - a non-parent whose contact and support is robust enough that near parental bond occurs (often used for older male siblings who significantly aid in raising a child).
• Stay at home dad - the male equivalent of a housewife with child

• Where man in couple originally seeking IVF treatment withdraws consent before fertilisation (UK)

• Where the apparently male partner in an IVF arrangement turns out to be legally a female (evidenced by birth certificate) at the time of the treatment (UK) (TLR 1st June 2006)

A biological child of a man who, for the special reason above, is not their legal father, has no automatic right to financial support or inheritance. Legal fatherlessness refers to a legal status and not to the issue of whether the father is now dead or alive.

Religion

Viktor Vasnetsov, Fatherhood

The word Father is, by followers of the Christian religion, applied to God, whom they believe is creator of the universe and humanity and who, according to them, is also the Father of Jesus Christ.

Father is also the title used almost universally for a Priest in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christian Churches. While not as widespread, it also had wide use in the Church of England, other churches in the Anglican Communion, as well as for ministers in several other denominations, such as some Lutheran denominations. The term "Padre" is used for military chaplains, being Spanish and Italian for "Father." The terms "Abbot" and "Pope" also mean "Father." Some Protestants believe priests should not be called "Father" because Jesus said, "And do not call anyone on earth 'father,' for you have one Father, and he is in heaven" (Matthew 23:9).

Catholic & Orthodox Christians give this title to their clergy because they believe that all Christian believers make up the Body of Christ (or the Church). They believe that the clergy who receive this title are spiritual fathers because as one is a member of the Body, so there are also "elders,," "rabbis," and other leaders. Father can be translated as an elder because it presumes that one has, because of age or study, wisdom and knowledge of the doctrines of the Church. St. Paul also refers to himself as having spiritually begotten his fellow Christians in Christ due to their "new birth" (or baptism) as in 1 Cor 2:15, 2 Tim 1:2, 2 Tim 2:1, 1 Tim 5:1, Titus 1:4, 1 Pet 1:18, 2 Pet 3:4, 1 Jn 2:13, etc.

The title father is also applied to certain influential early Christian figures: church father and apostolic fathers.

Aspects of parenting

• Physical care:
  • Reliably providing shelter, education, medical care, physical safety, and nourishment.
• Social development and emotional support:
  • Love, play, and physical touch
  • Social skills and etiquette
  • Ethics and value systems
  • Moral and spiritual development
  • Norms and contributions to the child's religion and ethnic customs
• Financial support:
  • Money provided as child support by custodial or non-custodial parent(s), or the state
  • Insurance coverage and payments for education

Parenting methods and practices

Parenting typically utilizes rewards, praise, and discipline or punishment as tools of behavioral control. Most child development experts now agree that corporal punishment is not an effective behavior modification tool, and many parents have adopted non-physical approaches to child discipline. In some jurisdictions, corporal punishment (e.g., spanking or whipping) has been prohibited by law.

"Attachment parenting" seeks to create strong emotional bonds and avoids physical punishment, with discipline being accomplished through interactions recognizing a child's emotional needs. The term "child training" implies a specific type of parenting that focuses on holistic understanding of the child. The "Taking Children Seriously" philosophy sees both praise and punishment as manipulative and harmful to children and advocates other methods to reach agreement with them.

• Parenting fundamentals:
  • Love
  • Consistency
  • Structure
  • Motivation
  • Accountability

• Discipline:
  • Time-out
  • Parental supervision

Nurturant parent model

The nurturant parent model envisions a family model where children are expected to explore their surroundings with protection from their parents. This model believes that children inherently know what they need and should be allowed to explore. The parents are responsible for protecting their child during this exploration, including protecting their child from themselves by offering guidance. A child will be picked up if the child cries because the parent wants the child to feel safe and nurtured. If a child grows up believing that its needs will be met, it will be more confident when facing challenges.

The nurturant parent model is discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics and Whose Freedom?. In these books, the nurturant parent model is contrasted with the strict father model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then progressive politics correspond to the nurturant parent model. For example, progressives want the government to make sure that the citizens are protected and assisted to achieve their potential. This might take the form of tough environmental regulations or healthcare assistance.

Strict father model

The strict father model of parenting is one which places strong value on discipline as a means to survive and thrive in a harsh world.

Ideas involved in this model include:

• That children learn through reward and punishment, as in operant conditioning.
• That children become more self-reliant and more self-disciplined by having strict parents.
• That the parent, particularly the father, is meant to mete out rewards for good behavior as well as punish bad behavior.

So this model of child-rearing would involve allowing a child to cry themselves to sleep. Picking up a child when it should be sleeping might foster dependence on the parents and is not a display of discipline. In his book Dare to Discipline, James Dobson advocates the strict father model. However, researchers have linked authoritarian childrearing with children who withdraw, lack spontaneity, and have lesser evidence of conscience (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

The strict father model is discussed by George Lakoff in his books, including Moral Politics and Whose Freedom?. In these books, the strict father model is contrasted with the nurturant parent model. Lakoff argues that if the metaphor of nation as family and government as parent is used, then conservative politics correspond to the strict father model. For example, conservatives think that adults should not look to the government for assistance, lest they become dependent. Likewise, economically productive behavior should be rewarded by incentives such as tax cuts.

Attachment parenting

Attachment parenting, a phrase coined by pediatrician William Sears, is a parenting philosophy based on the principles of the attachment theory in developmental psychology. According to attachment theory, a strong emotional bond with parents during childhood, also known as a secure attachment, is a precursor of secure, empathic relationships in adulthood.

History

Attachment parenting describes a parenting approach inspired in part by attachment theory. Attachment theory, originally proposed by John Bowlby, states that the infant has a tendency to seek closeness to another person and feel secure when that person is present. In comparison, Sigmund Freud proposed that attachment was a consequence of the need to satisfy various drives. In attachment theory, children attach to their parents because they are social beings, not just because they need other people to satisfy drives and attachment is part of normal child development.

Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth devised a procedure, called The Strange Situation, to observe attachment relationships between a human mother and child. She observed disruptions to the parent/child attachment over a 20 minute period, and noted that this affected the child's exploration and behavior toward the mother. This operationalization of attachment has recently come under question, as it may not be a valid measure for infants that do not experience distress upon initial encounter with a stranger (e.g., Clarke-Stewart, Goossens, & Allhusen, 2001).

According to Dr. Sears there are 8 ideals that foster healthy attachment between the caretaker and infant. However, none of these ideals stem directly from original attachment theory.

Dr. Sears' Eight Ideals of Attachment Parenting

Per Dr. Sears' theory of attachment parenting (AP), proponents attempt to foster a secure bond with their child by promoting eight "ideals," which are identified as goals for parents to strive for. These eight ideals are:

1. Preparation for childbirth
2. Emotional responsiveness
3. Breastfeeding
4. Babywearing
5. Co-sleeping safely
6. Avoiding frequent and prolonged separations between parents and a baby
7. Positive discipline
8. Maintaining balance in family life

These values are interpreted in a variety of ways across the movement. Many attachment parents also choose to live a natural family living (NFL) lifestyle, such as natural childbirth, home birth, stay-at-home parenting, homeschooling, unschooling, the anti-circumcision movement, the anti-vaccination movement, natural health, cooperative movements, and support of organic food.

However, Dr. Sears does not require a parent to strictly follow any set of rules, instead encouraging parents to be creative in responding to their child's needs. Attachment parenting, outside the guise of Dr. Sears, focuses on responses that support secure attachments.

Attachment Parenting and Childcare

Attachment parenting proponents value continuous attachment to a primary caregiver. However, many still engage childcare, regardless of whether a parent stays at home. AP-friendly childcare focuses on meeting the child's needs first, but without denying the working parent of their duties outside of the home.

Attachment Parenting and Discipline

Attachment parents seek to understand the biological and psychological needs of the children, and to avoid unrealistic expectations of child behavior. In setting boundaries and limits that are appropriate to the age of the child, attachment parenting takes into account the physical and psychological stage of development that the child is currently experiencing. In this way, parents may seek to avoid the frustration that occurs when they expect things their child is not capable of.

Attachment parenting holds that it is of vital importance to the survival of the child that he be capable of communicating his needs to the adults and having those needs promptly met. Dr. Sears advises that while still an infant, the child is mentally incapable of outright manipulation. Sears says that in the first year of life, a child's needs and wants are one and the same. Unmet needs are believed, by Dr. Sears and other AP proponents, to surface beginning immediately in attempts to fulfill that which was left unmet. AP looks at child development as well as infant and child biology to determine the psychologically and biologically appropriate response at different stages. Attachment parenting does not mean meeting a need that a child can fulfill himself. It means understanding what the needs are, when they arise, how they change over time and circumstances, and being flexible in devising ways to respond appropriately.

Similar practices are called natural parenting, instinctive parenting, intuitive parenting, immersion parenting or "continuum concept" parenting.

Criticisms of attachment parenting

One criticism of attachment parenting is that it can be very strenuous and demanding on parents. Without a support network of helpful friends or family, the work of parenting can be difficult. Writer Judith Warner contends that a “culture of total motherhood,” which she blames in part on attachment parenting, has lead to an “age of anxiety” for mothers in modern American society. Sociologist Sharon Hays argues that the "ideology of intensive mothering" imposes unrealistic obligations and perpetuates a "double shift" life for working women.

Another criticism is that there is no conclusive or convincing body of research, aside from testimonials from participating parents, that shows this labor-intensive approach to be in any way superior to what attachment parents term "mainstream parenting" in the long run. Psychologist Jerome Kagan has criticised attachment parenting studies for neglecting the influence of innate temperament. He argues that personality factors such as shyness are partially inherited. A child in the “strange situation” may be securely attached to his mother but cry because he has a highly reactive temperament.

The American Academy of Pediatrics has recently amended its policy statement regarding SIDS prevention, and has come out against sharing a bed with small babies (though it does encourage room-sharing).

Response to criticisms

Attachment parenting adherents argue that the extra parenting effort is an investment in future ease, since the resulting strong relationship often makes future parenting simpler. Rather than being "strenuous," attachment parenting theory regards being available to one's children as natural and instinctive.

In response to the above-mentioned American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement recommending against co-sleeping, Attachment Parenting International (API) issued a response which alleged the data referenced in the statement was unreliable, and that co-sponsors of the campaign had created a conflict of interest. API's response also outlines calls for an "objective, comprehensive, and independent report which analyzes the relative risk of all types of sleeping environments. Only when that is available can the CPSC truly assist parents in making the best decisions for their family."

Parenting Across the Lifespan

See also: Pregnancy , antenatal care , Prenatal care , and Childcare

Pregnancy and prenatal parenting

During pregnancy the unborn child is affected by many decisions his or her parents make, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative impact on the child.

Many people believe that parenting begins with birth, but the mother begins raising and nurturing a child well before birth. Scientific evidence indicates that from the fifth month on, the unborn baby is able to hear sound, be aware of motion, and possibly exhibit short-term memory. Several studies (e.g. Kissilevsky et al., 2003) show evidence that the unborn baby can become familiar with his or her parents' voices. Other research indicates that by the seventh month, external schedule cues influence the unborn baby's sleep habits. Based on this evidence, parenting actually begins well before birth.

Infants

Being the parent of an infant is a major responsibility. Infants require a lot of care including (but not limited to) feeding, bathing, changing diapers, and health care.

Toddlers

Parenting a Toddler is a lot of work. Parenting responsibilities during the toddler years include (but are not limited to) feeding, bathing, potty training, ensuring their safety, teaching, and attending to their well being. Common parenting issues with toddlers:

• Toilet training
• bathing

Preschoolers

Parenting responsibilities for preschool age children often include (but are not limited to)feeding, bathing,teaching, ensuring their safety, and attending to their well being. Parents are expected to make decisions about preschool education. Issues related to parenting preschool age children:

• preschool education
• early childhood education

Elementary and Middle School Years

Parenting responsibilities during the school years include (but are not limited to) feeding, assisting with education, ensuring their safety and wellness, and providing them with a loving and nurturing home environment. Issues related to parenting school age children:

• Education:
  • Kindergarten
  • Primary education

Adolescents

During adolescence children are beginning to form their identity and are testing and developing the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Although adolescents look to peers and adults outside of the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents remain influential in their development. Parents should make efforts to be aware of their adolescents activities, provide guidance, direction, and consultation. Adolescence can be a time of high risk for children, where newfound freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities.

• • High School/Secondary education

Young Adults

• • College/Tertiary education

Adults and Older Adults

The roles parents play in their relationship with their adult children and grandchildren is an area studied in a field called Gerontology.

Assistance

Parents may receive assistance from a variety of individuals and organizations. Employers may offer specific benefits or programs for parents.

• Parental leave

Observers

Benjamin Spock was an authority on parenting to a generation of North American parents. A current authority is T. Berry Brazelton, the founder of the Child Development Unit at Children's Hospital, Boston, and Professor of Pediatrics Emeritus at Harvard Medical School.

Parenting assessment

There are several parent self-report measures that have been developed for use by clinicians and researchers to assess parenting, such as the Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin, 1995) and Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavolek, 1984). Parenting measures can also be observational, such as the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 1999).

See:

• Abidin, R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: Professional Manual. 3rd Ed. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
• Bavolek, S. J. (1984). Handbook for the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory. Eau Claire, Wisconsin: Family Development Associates, Inc.
• Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H. (1999). Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 63(3), 413–428.

Parenting styles

Some information in this article or section has not been verified and may not be reliable.
Please check for inaccuracies, and modify and cite sources as needed.

The neutrality of this article or section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.

Four main parenting styles have been identified in early child development research: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive and neglectful.

Authoritative parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance to parental rules and directions, an open dialogue about those rules and behaviors, and is a child-centered approach characterized by a warm, positive affect.

Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance to parental rules and directions, the use of more coercive techniques to gain compliance, little parent-child dialogue. This is a parent-centered approach characterized by cold affect.

Permissive parenting is characterized as having few behavioral expectations for the child, and is a child-centered approach characterized by warm affect.

Neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting but is a parent centered approach characterized by cold affect.

Research into the child behavior outcomes associated with each type of parenting has traditionally shown a strong benefit to authoritative parenting. These children have been shown to have more self-discipline, emotional self-control, more friends and better school performance. However, recent research has identified a number of caveats. First, authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts and in social groups other than those studied in early research. Second, little research has examined the genetic influences that may underlie the findings. For instance, harsh parenting may produce harsher children through the mechanism of genetic transmission of these traits. Behavior genetics research is currently examining the influence of genes as they pertain to parenting styles. The final and most important criticism of the parenting styles research is that parenting has been shown to be part of a bi-directional relationship between parent and child. Thus, characterizing a parenting style as arising from the parent leaves out the essential influence of the child on the parent-child dyad.

Christian parenting

Christian parenting is popular amongst Evangelicals and fundamentalist Christian parents who see it as applying biblical principles to parenting. Information on Christian parenting is found in publications, Christian Parenting websites and in seminars devoted to assisting parents to apply Christian principles to parenting. Particualy influential has been James Dobson and his guide "Dare to Discipline".

While some Christian parenting models are strict and authoritarian, others are "grace-based" and share methods advocated in attachment parenting and positive parenting theories.

In a study of Christian parents done by Christian Parenting Today in 2000, 39% have family devotions once a week or more, and 69% of parents consider Sunday school, youth and children's programs extremely important.

Some scientists, including Richard Dawkins, consider christian or other religious parenting to be child abuse.[1]

Further Reading

• Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner (eds) (2006). Family in society : essential primary sources.. Thomson Gale. ISBN 1414403305. 

Baumrind, Diana (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children. Youth and Society 9: 238-276.

• Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In Handbook of Child Psychology (4th ed.), edited by P. H. Mussen, vol. 4: Socialization, personality, and social development, edited by E. M. Heatherington, 1-101. New York: Wiley.

• Attachment Parenting, Instinctive Care for Your Baby and Young Child, Katie Allison Granju (ISBN 0-671-02762-X)
• The Natural Child: Parenting from the Heart, Jan Hunt (ISBN 0-86571-440-1) http://www.naturalchild.org/book
• A Gift for Baby, Jan Hunt (ISBN 0-9685754-3-9) http://www.naturalchild.org/baby
• The Paradox of Natural Mothering, Chris Bobel(ISBN 1-56639-907-6)
• The Continuum Concept: In Search of Happiness Lost, Jean Liedloff (ISBN 0-201-05071-4)
• "Measuring infant-mother attachment: Is the Strange situation enough?" Clarke-Stewart, A.K., Goosens, F.A., & Allhusen, V.D. (2001)Social Development, 10, p143-169

• S Kraemer (1991) The Origins of Fatherhood: An Ancient Family Process. Family Process 30 (4), 377–392. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00377.x

External links

• Raising Exceptional Children Successful Parenting Techniques — From Brigham Young University
• Raising Children Network Comprehensive, expert-reviewed resource — the national parenting website of Australia
• Berkeley Parents Network
• Natural Child Project Resources for parents
• Fight 4 Kids Internet Parenting Support
• Being a Nurturing Parent From the University of Florida/IFAS Department of Family Youth and Community Sciences
• Helping Children Thrive / Supporting Woman Abuse Survivors as Mothers: A Resource to Support Parenting
• Daily Parenting Articles & Advice
• Biblical Parenting The National Center for Biblical Parenting
• Your Parenting SolutionsThe Connection Parenting Resource

• Attachment Parenting information and support forum
• Attachment Parenting International
• Attachment Parenting Canada
• Ask Dr Sears
• Attachment Parenting News
• Natural Child Project
• Kelly Mom
• Thriving Babies Manual
• Attachment Parenting Blog
• What is Attachment Parenting?
• Natural Parenting Magazine
• Attached Mama (Geocities website)
• Gentle Christian Mothers
• Healthy Parenting Forum
• Crunch Lite, a Gentle Parenting Forum
• Birth Ecology Project
• Your Parenting Solutions, the Connection Parenting Resource

Critical articles

• The Mommy Mystique Review of Judith Warner’s book. The Washington Post, February 20 2005
• The temperamentalist Interview with Jerome Kagan. The Boston Globe, August 29 2004

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