Difference between revisions of "Henotheism" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | Henotheism is a term used to refer to religious systems which acknowledge the existence of many gods (as in [[polytheism]]) but worship one as | + | Henotheism is a term used to refer to religious systems which acknowledge the existence of many gods (as in [[polytheism]]) but worship one as supreme deity assuming primacy over the other gods. The term was constructed from the Greek henos (“one”) combined with theos (“god”). [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling]] was the first to use the term to describe what he thought to be a precursor to strict [[monotheism]] in prehistoric spirituality. Later, linguist [[Max Muller]] brought the term into common usage in order to better characterize the nuances of [[polytheism]] as it appears in the [[Vedas]] of [[Hinduism]]. Muller used the term interchangeably with [[kathenotheism]] (from the Greek kath’hena, “one by one”), a term closely related to henotheism referring to the worship of one god (among many) at a particular time. Similarly, henotheism should not be confused with [[monolatrism]], or belief systems which assert that many gods do exist, although they may exert their power on those individuals who worship them. Henotheism is less exclusive than [[monolatry]] since a monolator exclusively worships one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], depending on circumstances. Anthropologist [[E.B. Tylor]] conceived of henotheism as a natural phase in the progression of religious development: after transcending the supposedly primitive [[polytheism]], cultures adopted henotheistic views as a precursor to [[monotheism], what he presumed to be the supreme manifestation of religious thought. |
===Classical Greco-Roman Henotheism=== | ===Classical Greco-Roman Henotheism=== | ||
| − | Perhaps the most salient example of henotheism in Western consciousness is that of the classical Greco-Roman culture. Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, although during the Classical period the religion became thoroughly henotheistic. While the Greeks believed in multiple gods, each of whom took on specific roles or personalities, it was clear that [[Zeus]], god of the sky and thunder was the superior deity, presiding over the Greek Olympic pantheon and siring many of the other heroes and heroines. In addition, he was also the most telling artifact of Greek culture, with certain forms of [[Zeus]] worship and ritual shared across the Greek world. The means by which this position on the throne of the gods was attained and held was of great importance to the Greeks and created much drama in their myth. At first, [[Uranus]] was the supreme deity, until he became tyrannical and was usurped by his son [[Cronus]]. [[Cronus]] ruled during the mythological Golden age, but became | + | Perhaps the most salient example of henotheism in Western consciousness is that of the classical Greco-Roman culture. Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, although during the Classical period the religion became thoroughly henotheistic. While the Greeks believed in multiple gods, each of whom took on specific roles or personalities, it was clear that [[Zeus]], god of the sky and thunder, was the superior deity, presiding over the Greek Olympic pantheon and siring many of the other heroes and heroines. In addition, he was also the most telling artifact of Greek culture, with certain forms of [[Zeus]] worship and ritual shared across the Greek world. The means by which this position on the throne of the gods was attained and held was of great importance to the Greeks and created much drama in their myth. At first, [[Uranus]] was the supreme deity, until he became tyrannical and was usurped by his son [[Cronus]]. [[Cronus]] ruled during the mythological Golden age, but became tyrannical himself, unwilling to give up his own position of supremacy to potential heirs. Paranoid, [[Cronus]] swallowed each of his children by [[Rhea]] ([[Demeter]], [[Hades]], [[Hera]], [[Hestia]], [[Poseidon]]) whole as soon as they were born. When Zeus was about to be born, however, [[Rhea]] sought [[Uranus]] and [[Gaia]] to devise a plan to save him, so that [[Cronus]] would get his comeuppance for doing away with his father. [[Rhea]] gave birth to [[Zeus]] in Crete, handing [[Cronus]] a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. After reaching manhood, [[Zeus]] forced [[Cronus]] to disgorge the other children. Along with his brothers and sisters, [[Zeus]] overthrew [[Cronus]] and the other [[Titans]] so that he could ascend to the throne as supreme god. |
===Hinduism=== | ===Hinduism=== | ||
| − | Similarly, henotheism seems to be evident in early Vedic [[Hinduism]], which covers the historical period before [[1000s B.C.E.|1000 B.C.E.]]. | + | Similarly, henotheism seems to be evident in early Vedic [[Hinduism]], which covers the historical period before [[1000s B.C.E.|1000 B.C.E.]]. While it is difficult to classify [[Hinduism]] as a whole, (as it assumes features of pantheistic monism, as in [[Vedanta]], stricter [[monotheism]], as in [[Smarta]] [[Hinduism]], or polytheism, in the case of popular understanding) the Rig Veda, one of the formative Hindu texts, was the sole artifcat which lead [[Max Müller]] to introduce the term henotheism. In the four [[Vedas]], Müller posited that an impulsion towards One divinity was actually being cultivated through the worship of the various cosmic principles. These included [[Agni]], god of fire, [[Indra]], god of thunder and the sky, as well as [[Varuna]], keeper of the celestial waters. Each of these gods were hailed as supreme in different sections of the books, and again, as is found in the [[mythology]] of the Greeks, the Vedic gods underwent their own battles for supremacy. In pre-Vedic times, [[Varuna]] was the supreme lord of the cosmos; however, in the [[Vedas], he is supplanted by [[Indra]] as king of the gods. Subsequently, Indra entered into primacy in terms of Vedic worship and sacrificial ritual. What further prevents this early [[Hinduism]] as being classified simply as [[polytheistic]] is the idea of Rita, or the supreme order of the universe which bound all the gods. Other phrases such as ''Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti'' (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) provides additional evidence that the Vedic people identified a fundamental oneness beyond the personalities of their many gods. Based on this mixture of [[monism]], [[monotheism]] and naturalistic [[polytheism]] [[Max Müller]] decided that henotheism was the most suitable classification for Vedic [[Hinduism]]. Whether the collective term of henotheism adequately addresses these complexities still remains a matter of contention. The term may underestimate the ideas of pure [[monism]] which can be identified even in the early [[Rig Veda]] [[Samhita]], notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheistic movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the [[Upanishads]]. |
| − | While the Vedic period of [[Hinduism]] most closely corresponds to henotheism as Müller understood it, more subtle manifestations of henotheism can be | + | While the Vedic period of [[Hinduism]] most closely corresponds to henotheism as Müller understood it, more subtle manifestations of henotheism can be discerned within the later traditions. Classical [[Hinduism]] evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into its own in the [[Puranas]], focusing on particular gods such as [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]], who represented aspects of a greater, undefinable God. Medieval Hinduism saw the emergence of devotional sects with the onset of the essentially monotheistic [[bhakti]] (loving devotion) movement. These worshippers, while admitting the existence of other deities, saw the particular deity of their choice as derivative from one principal source. As a result, different devotional traditions have disputed the relative importance of various gods, some insisting on the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and vice-versa, for example. Extreme monists within the [[Advaita Vedanta]] movement, [[Yoga]] philosophy and certain non-dual [[Tantra]] schools of [[Hinduism]] seem to preclude the categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic. They developed the concept of [[Brahman]], a formless non-being which is said to be the Divine Ground from which all finitude arises. However, this transcendence subsumes the fundamental Hindu trinity, [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]], gods which respectively represent creation, preservation and destruction in one cycle of being. This cycle of being is ultimately transcended with the attainment of [[moksha]], which refers to union with the transcendent [[Brahman]]. This notion of [[Brahman]], then, could be interpreted as the paramount principle in a belief system that is ultimately henotheistic. Again, "henotheism" proves to be a pliable term which can serve to clarify such ambiguities in vast, multifarious religious systems such as [[Hinduism]]. |
===Christianity=== | ===Christianity=== | ||
| − | Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as [[monotheism|monotheists]], some argue that [[Christianity]] is best described as a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[Jesus]], and the [[Holy Spirit]], with God the Father being dominant "actor" and "creator", since most Christians eschew the idea that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians strongly reject the view that the three entities comprising the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The [[Council of Nicea]] (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek ''Ousia'') and three Persona (Greek ''[[Hypostasis]]'')". In addition, many Christians believe in what | + | Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as [[monotheism|monotheists]], some argue that [[Christianity]] is best described as a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[Jesus]], and the [[Holy Spirit]], with God the Father being dominant "actor" and "creator", since most Christians eschew the idea that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians strongly reject the view that the three entities comprising the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The [[Council of Nicea]] (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek ''Ousia'') and three Persona (Greek ''[[Hypostasis]]'')". In addition, many Christians believe in what could be considered to be a "pantheon" of [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, and/or [[Saint]]s that are inferior to the [[Trinity]]. Christians do not label these beings as "gods", although they are attributed with supernatural powers and occassionally serve as an the object of prayer. |
| − | Some [[non-trinitarian]] Christian denominations are more | + | Some [[non-trinitarian]] Christian denominations are more overtly henotheistic. In the [[Gnostic]] cosmology, there is an ultimate God who brought forth from within Himself the substance of all worlds. Further, various Gnostic myths refer to Aeons, deific beings who serve as intermediaries between the transcendent God and humanity. In addition, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] as three distinct beings, where [[God the Father]] is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in canonical LDS scripture, some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also infer the existence of numerous other [[god]]s and [[goddess]]es who have no direct relevance to humanity on Earth. Some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also acknowledge a [[Heavenly Mother]] in addition to [[God the Father]]. However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons," the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God. |
===Israelite and Judaic Beliefs=== | ===Israelite and Judaic Beliefs=== | ||
| − | It is generally accepted that many of the Iron Age religions found in | + | It is generally accepted that many of the Iron Age religions found in Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the [[Moab|Moabites]] worshipped the god, [[Chemosh]], and the [[Edom|Edomites]], [[Qaus]], both of whom were part of the greater [[Canaan|Canaanite]] pantheon, headed by the chief god, [[El (Canaanite god)|El]]. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and [[Asherah|Asherat]] as the chief deities, with 70 sons between them who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, and became national gods worshipped within each region. More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] culture in the Iron Age has put forth the thesis that Hebrew religion, like those around it, was henotheistic. The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom suggest that in at least some sections of Israelite society, [[Yahweh]] and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple. Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from [[syncretism|syncretistic]] [[Mythology|myths]] found within the [[Hebrew Bible]] itself. Various battles between Yahweh and [[Leviathan]], [[Mot]], the [[tannin|tanninim]], and [[Yamm]] are already presented in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at [[Ugarit]] (ancient Ras-Shamra). In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had assumed El's roles. |
| − | According to Genesis, [[Abraham]] is revered as the individual who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding peoples by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with Him. In addition, he laid the foundations for what has been called by scholars "[[Ethical]] [[Monotheism]]". The first of the [[Ten commandments]] is commonly interpreted to forbid the Israelites from worshiping any god other than the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the [[Torah]]. However, | + | According to Genesis, [[Abraham]] is revered as the individual who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding peoples by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with Him. In addition, he laid the foundations for what has been called by scholars "[[Ethical]] [[Monotheism]]". The first of the [[Ten commandments]] is commonly interpreted to forbid the Israelites from worshiping any god other than the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the [[Torah]]. However, this commandment can also be read in scholarly circles as a henotheistic assertion, since the Hebrew God states that the Israelites should have "no other gods before me" and henceforth insinuates the existence of other gods. Unfortunately, as recorded in the [[Tanakh]] ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god [[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as [[Baal]], [[Asherah]], and [[El (Canaanite god)|El]]. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the [[Jewish Temple in Jerusalem]] and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. Thus, by the end of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]] in the [[Tanakh]], Judaism is strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. |
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 26: | Line 26: | ||
* "Indra" Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online. | * "Indra" Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online. | ||
<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/indra.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. | <http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/indra.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. | ||
| − | * "Henotheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. | + | * "Henotheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. |
* "The Gnostic Worldview: A Brief Summary of Gnosticism." <http://www.webcom.com/gnosis/gnintro.htm> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. | * "The Gnostic Worldview: A Brief Summary of Gnosticism." <http://www.webcom.com/gnosis/gnintro.htm> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. | ||
Revision as of 00:39, 12 March 2006
Henotheism is a term used to refer to religious systems which acknowledge the existence of many gods (as in polytheism) but worship one as supreme deity assuming primacy over the other gods. The term was constructed from the Greek henos (“one”) combined with theos (“god”). Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling was the first to use the term to describe what he thought to be a precursor to strict monotheism in prehistoric spirituality. Later, linguist Max Muller brought the term into common usage in order to better characterize the nuances of polytheism as it appears in the Vedas of Hinduism. Muller used the term interchangeably with kathenotheism (from the Greek kath’hena, “one by one”), a term closely related to henotheism referring to the worship of one god (among many) at a particular time. Similarly, henotheism should not be confused with monolatrism, or belief systems which assert that many gods do exist, although they may exert their power on those individuals who worship them. Henotheism is less exclusive than monolatry since a monolator exclusively worships one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the pantheon, depending on circumstances. Anthropologist E.B. Tylor conceived of henotheism as a natural phase in the progression of religious development: after transcending the supposedly primitive polytheism, cultures adopted henotheistic views as a precursor to [[monotheism], what he presumed to be the supreme manifestation of religious thought.
Classical Greco-Roman Henotheism
Perhaps the most salient example of henotheism in Western consciousness is that of the classical Greco-Roman culture. Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, although during the Classical period the religion became thoroughly henotheistic. While the Greeks believed in multiple gods, each of whom took on specific roles or personalities, it was clear that Zeus, god of the sky and thunder, was the superior deity, presiding over the Greek Olympic pantheon and siring many of the other heroes and heroines. In addition, he was also the most telling artifact of Greek culture, with certain forms of Zeus worship and ritual shared across the Greek world. The means by which this position on the throne of the gods was attained and held was of great importance to the Greeks and created much drama in their myth. At first, Uranus was the supreme deity, until he became tyrannical and was usurped by his son Cronus. Cronus ruled during the mythological Golden age, but became tyrannical himself, unwilling to give up his own position of supremacy to potential heirs. Paranoid, Cronus swallowed each of his children by Rhea (Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon) whole as soon as they were born. When Zeus was about to be born, however, Rhea sought Uranus and Gaia to devise a plan to save him, so that Cronus would get his comeuppance for doing away with his father. Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. After reaching manhood, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge the other children. Along with his brothers and sisters, Zeus overthrew Cronus and the other Titans so that he could ascend to the throne as supreme god.
Hinduism
Similarly, henotheism seems to be evident in early Vedic Hinduism, which covers the historical period before 1000 B.C.E. While it is difficult to classify Hinduism as a whole, (as it assumes features of pantheistic monism, as in Vedanta, stricter monotheism, as in Smarta Hinduism, or polytheism, in the case of popular understanding) the Rig Veda, one of the formative Hindu texts, was the sole artifcat which lead Max Müller to introduce the term henotheism. In the four Vedas, Müller posited that an impulsion towards One divinity was actually being cultivated through the worship of the various cosmic principles. These included Agni, god of fire, Indra, god of thunder and the sky, as well as Varuna, keeper of the celestial waters. Each of these gods were hailed as supreme in different sections of the books, and again, as is found in the mythology of the Greeks, the Vedic gods underwent their own battles for supremacy. In pre-Vedic times, Varuna was the supreme lord of the cosmos; however, in the [[Vedas], he is supplanted by Indra as king of the gods. Subsequently, Indra entered into primacy in terms of Vedic worship and sacrificial ritual. What further prevents this early Hinduism as being classified simply as polytheistic is the idea of Rita, or the supreme order of the universe which bound all the gods. Other phrases such as Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) provides additional evidence that the Vedic people identified a fundamental oneness beyond the personalities of their many gods. Based on this mixture of monism, monotheism and naturalistic polytheism Max Müller decided that henotheism was the most suitable classification for Vedic Hinduism. Whether the collective term of henotheism adequately addresses these complexities still remains a matter of contention. The term may underestimate the ideas of pure monism which can be identified even in the early Rig Veda Samhita, notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheistic movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the Upanishads.
While the Vedic period of Hinduism most closely corresponds to henotheism as Müller understood it, more subtle manifestations of henotheism can be discerned within the later traditions. Classical Hinduism evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into its own in the Puranas, focusing on particular gods such as Shiva and Vishnu, who represented aspects of a greater, undefinable God. Medieval Hinduism saw the emergence of devotional sects with the onset of the essentially monotheistic bhakti (loving devotion) movement. These worshippers, while admitting the existence of other deities, saw the particular deity of their choice as derivative from one principal source. As a result, different devotional traditions have disputed the relative importance of various gods, some insisting on the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and vice-versa, for example. Extreme monists within the Advaita Vedanta movement, Yoga philosophy and certain non-dual Tantra schools of Hinduism seem to preclude the categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic. They developed the concept of Brahman, a formless non-being which is said to be the Divine Ground from which all finitude arises. However, this transcendence subsumes the fundamental Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, gods which respectively represent creation, preservation and destruction in one cycle of being. This cycle of being is ultimately transcended with the attainment of moksha, which refers to union with the transcendent Brahman. This notion of Brahman, then, could be interpreted as the paramount principle in a belief system that is ultimately henotheistic. Again, "henotheism" proves to be a pliable term which can serve to clarify such ambiguities in vast, multifarious religious systems such as Hinduism.
Christianity
Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as monotheists, some argue that Christianity is best described as a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a Christian Godhead consisting of God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, with God the Father being dominant "actor" and "creator", since most Christians eschew the idea that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, Trinitarian Christians strongly reject the view that the three entities comprising the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The Council of Nicea (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek Ousia) and three Persona (Greek Hypostasis)". In addition, many Christians believe in what could be considered to be a "pantheon" of angels, demons, and/or Saints that are inferior to the Trinity. Christians do not label these beings as "gods", although they are attributed with supernatural powers and occassionally serve as an the object of prayer.
Some non-trinitarian Christian denominations are more overtly henotheistic. In the Gnostic cosmology, there is an ultimate God who brought forth from within Himself the substance of all worlds. Further, various Gnostic myths refer to Aeons, deific beings who serve as intermediaries between the transcendent God and humanity. In addition, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the Christian Godhead as three distinct beings, where God the Father is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in canonical LDS scripture, some Latter Day Saints also infer the existence of numerous other gods and goddesses who have no direct relevance to humanity on Earth. Some Latter Day Saints also acknowledge a Heavenly Mother in addition to God the Father. However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons," the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God.
Israelite and Judaic Beliefs
It is generally accepted that many of the Iron Age religions found in Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god, Chemosh, and the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherat as the chief deities, with 70 sons between them who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, and became national gods worshipped within each region. More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the Hebrew culture in the Iron Age has put forth the thesis that Hebrew religion, like those around it, was henotheistic. The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom suggest that in at least some sections of Israelite society, Yahweh and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple. Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from syncretistic myths found within the Hebrew Bible itself. Various battles between Yahweh and Leviathan, Mot, the tanninim, and Yamm are already presented in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at Ugarit (ancient Ras-Shamra). In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had assumed El's roles.
According to Genesis, Abraham is revered as the individual who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding peoples by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with Him. In addition, he laid the foundations for what has been called by scholars "Ethical Monotheism". The first of the Ten commandments is commonly interpreted to forbid the Israelites from worshiping any god other than the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the Torah. However, this commandment can also be read in scholarly circles as a henotheistic assertion, since the Hebrew God states that the Israelites should have "no other gods before me" and henceforth insinuates the existence of other gods. Unfortunately, as recorded in the Tanakh ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god YHWH was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as Baal, Asherah, and El. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. Thus, by the end of the Babylonian captivity of Judah in the Tanakh, Judaism is strictly monotheistic.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- "Varuna." Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online.
<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/v/varuna.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
- "Indra" Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online.
<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/indra.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
- "Henotheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987.
- "The Gnostic Worldview: A Brief Summary of Gnosticism." <http://www.webcom.com/gnosis/gnintro.htm> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
See also
- Kathenotheism
- Monolatry
- Monotheism
- Polytheism
- Polydeism
- Comparative religion
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