Difference between revisions of "Dowry" - New World Encyclopedia

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A '''dowry''' is a gift of [[money]] or valuables given by the [[bride]]'s [[family]] to the [[groom]] and the newly formed household at the time of their [[marriage]]. It has been an ancient and widespread practice. Often, the dowry is reciprocated with a [[bride price]] given from the groom and his family to the bride. The original intent sas to help with expenses in the creation of the new family, help bond the families of the new couple, and provide a support for the bride in case of future problems such as widowhood or [[divorce]].  
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A '''dowry''' is a gift of money or valuables given by the [[bride]]'s family to the [[groom]] and the newly formed household at the time of their [[marriage]].<ref>http://m-w.com/dictionary/dowry</ref> It is often a reciprocal part of a similar gift given from the groom and his family to the bride called a [[bride price]].  The two customs have been so intertwined, dowry is often used to mean bride price.  It has been an ancient and widespread practice of unknown origin. The original intent seems to be to help with expenses in the creation of the new family, help bond the families and provide a support for the bride in case of future problems such as widowhood or divorce. Today, it is practiced throughout the world in various areas and cultures, with some controversy over the rolie it plays in domestic violence and abuse of women.
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Today, the practice has decreased in developed countries and urban areas. In areas where it persists, especially in [[India]], [[China]], and [[Africa]], there is controversy over the role it plays in [[domestic violence]] and the abuse of women, with debate over how dowries should be legislated. The [[United States]] has developed it's own unique version of the dowry in the application of Hope Chests. The Hope Chest includes not only material items, such as quilts, linens, and utensils, but also represents the hope the girl has that her preparation will make her a good wife. Such preparation includes not only material [[wealth]] but wisdom from her mother with regards to conjugal [[love]] and [[parenting]], her own internal [[character]] development, and her purity as she prepares to offer herself as a [[virgin]] bride to her new husband.
  
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==Historically==
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==Overview==
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Historically most societies have brides go to their husband's families, and often they could not own property. Usually, the husband has been primarily responsible for the economic prosperity of the household, while women cared for children and the household needs. When a woman or girl would marry into a family that was agricultural, she often was welcomed as another worker. In families that were more prestigious, however, she may have been viewed as another mouth to feed.  In such cases, the dowry would show an acknowledgement of the privelege she was to have as a member of her husband's family. The earliest dowries were usually land entitlements, but later were attached to various commodities and even later to cash.
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A '''dowry''' is a gift given by the [[bride]]'s [[family]] to the [[groom]] and the newly formed household at the time of their [[marriage]].<ref>[http://m-w.com/dictionary/dowry Definition of "dowry"], Merriam-Webster. Retrieved December 11, 2007.</ref> Historically most societies have had brides go to their husband's families, and often women could not legally own [[property]]. The husband would be primarily responsible for the economic prosperity of the household, while women would care for children and the household needs. When a woman or girl married into a family that was [[agriculture|agricultural]], she often was welcomed as another worker. In families that were more prestigious, however, she may have been viewed as another mouth to feed, and the dowry was an important sign of her gratitude for becoming a member of her husband's family. The earliest dowries were usually land entitlements, but later were attached to sentimental and decorative items as well as various commodities and even later to [[money]].
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[[Image:Desert Flower NGM-v31-p261.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A DESERT FLOWER. "Somewhere in the Sahara" lived this child of the Desert until she came to Biskra, the "Garden of Allah," to earn her dowry as a dancer. One would imagine that she is dreaming of some turbaned knight left behind and counting the days until she may return to her natal tent.]]
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The size of the necessary dowry was directly proportional to the groom's [[social status]], thus making it virtually impossible for lower [[social class|class]] women to marry into upper class families. It is recorded that in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, some families would [[mortgage]] their house in order to provide a suitable dowry. In cases where a woman's family was too poor to afford a dowry, she may have been forbidden from ever marrying, or became a [[concubine]] to a richer man who could afford to support a large household.  
  
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Unmarried women have been seen to attract [[social stigma|stigma]] and tarnish family reputations in soem earlier societies.  In these cases,it have been in the bride's family's interest to marry off their daughter as soon as she wass eligible{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. The size of the necessary dowry was directly proportional to the groom's [[social status]], thus making it virtually impossible for lower class women to marry into upper class families. In cases where a woman's family was too poor to afford a dowry,she may have been forbidden from ever marrying, or became a [[concubine]] to a richer man who could afford to support a large household. Dowries have been part of civil law in almost all countries, Europe included. Dowries were important components of ancient [[Greek]]and [[Roman marriage]]s.
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Conversely, the similar custom of property given to the bride by the groom and his family has been called a "dower" or [[bride price]]. This gift has been traditionally used to show the love of the family toward their daughter and gratitude to the family of the girl for "giving" her to the husband's family.  
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Conversely, the similar custom of property given to the bride by the groom and his family has beem called a[[dower]] or a bride price. This gift has been traditionally used to show gratitude to the family of the girl for "giving" her to the husband's family.  Some have benefited greatly from this practice.
 
  
 
In either case, the bride has usually been entitled to her dowry or dower in the event of widowhood, hence the terms "dowry" and "dower" are sometimes confused. The children of the bride were also traditionally included in inheritance of the dowry, and often this provided the only support such children had where there were other children by other women involved.
 
In either case, the bride has usually been entitled to her dowry or dower in the event of widowhood, hence the terms "dowry" and "dower" are sometimes confused. The children of the bride were also traditionally included in inheritance of the dowry, and often this provided the only support such children had where there were other children by other women involved.
  
 
==The Ancient World==
 
==The Ancient World==
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It is described in the oldest records, such as the [[Code of Hammurabi]] as a pre-existing custom, where it prescribed only regulations for how dowry was to be handled. The code also included regulations for a [[bride price]]. If a woman died without sons, her husband had to refund the dowry but could deduct the value of the bride price, the dowry would normally have been the larger of the sums. It marks the first record of long-lasting customs, such as the wife being entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children by other women.
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The dowry is described in the oldest records, such as the [[Code of Hammurabi]], as a pre-existing custom, where it prescribed only regulations for how the dowry was to be handled. The code also included regulations for a [[bride price]]. If a woman died without sons, her husband had to refund the dowry but could deduct the value of the bride price; the dowry normally having been the larger of the sums. It marks the first record of long-lasting customs, such as the wife being entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children by other women.
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Dowries have been part of [[civil law]] in almost all countries, [[Europe]] included. Dowries were important components of ancient [[classical Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[marriage]]s. In [[Homer]]ic times, the usual Greek practice was of a bride price. When dowries were practiced in classical times, there would also be a (smaller) bride price being given by the groom to the bride's family.  
  
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In Homeric times, the usual [[classical Greece|Greek]] practice was of a [[bride price]]. When dowries were practiced in classical times, there would also be a (smaller) bride price being given by the groom to the bride's family. Ancient Romans and Athenian Greeks did not allow women to own property. A widow needed a male relative to administer her estate that would included the dowry. The Roman [[Tacitus]] noted that among the Germans, the practice was the reverse: a groom settled a [[dower]] on the bride. The dowry only became part of ancient Egyptian culture after they were under the Greek and Roman influence. Women in Egypt were always legally allowed to own property and manage their own affairs, so probably they had less need of this type of provision.
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Ancient Romans and Athenian Greeks did not allow women to own property. A widow needed a male relative to administer her estate that would included the dowry. The Roman [[Tacitus]] noted that among the Germans, the practice was the reverse: a groom settled a [[dower]] on the bride. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian culture did not use dowry until after they were under the Greek and Roman influence. Women in Egypt had always been legally allowed to own property and manage their own affairs, so probably they had less need of this type of provision.
  
 
==Europe==
 
==Europe==
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With the advent of Christianity and religious orders, women brought their dowries with them when they became [[nun]]s, as they were becoming the "bride" of Christ.
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With the advent of [[Christianity]] and religious orders, women brought their dowries with them when they became [[nun]]s, as they were becoming the "bride" of [[Christ]].
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Dowry in Europe continued through [[Victorian England]]<ref>Gail MacColl and Carol McD. Wallace, ''To Marry An English Lord'', p166-7, ISBN 0-89480-939-3 </ref>. It was seen as an early payment of her [[inheritance]], and as such only daughters who had not received their dowry were entitled to part of the estate when their parents died.  If a couple died without children, the dowry reverted to the bride's family.
 
  
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Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could call off a marriage. [[William Shakespeare]] made use of this in ''[[King Lear]]'' — one of Cordelia's wooers ceases to woo her on hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry — and ''[[Measure for Measure]]'' —  Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after the betrothal, and Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana is the loss of her dowry at sea.
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Dowry in Europe continued through [[Victorian England]].<ref>Gail MacColl and Carol McD. Wallace, ''To Marry An English Lord'', Workman Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0894809393.</ref> It was seen as an early payment of her [[inheritance]], and as such only daughters who had not received their dowry were entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children, the dowry reverted to the bride's family.
  
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Folklorists often interpret ''[[Cinderella]]'' and its variants as competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide a dowry. [[Gioacchino Rossini]]'s opera ''[[La Cenerentola]]'', makes this economic basis explicit:  Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowry larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry. <ref>[[Marina Warner]], ''From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales And Their Tellers'', p 213-4 ISBN 0-374-15901-7</ref>
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Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could call off a marriage. [[William Shakespeare]] made use of this in ''[[King Lear]]''—one of Cordelia's wooers ceases to woo her on hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry—and ''[[Measure for Measure]]''—Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after the [[betrothal]], and Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana is the loss of her dowry at sea.
  
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One common penalty of the time for the kidnapping and rape of unmarried women was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry.
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Folklorists often interpret ''[[Cinderella]]'' and its variants as competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide a dowry. [[Gioacchino Rossini]]'s opera ''[[La Cenerentola]]'', makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowry larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry.<ref>[[Marina Warner]], ''From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales And Their Tellers'', Farrar Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0374159017.</ref>
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Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of [[charity]]. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of [[St. Nicholas]], in which he threw [[gold]] into the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. [[Elizabeth of Portugal]] and St. [[Martin de Porres]] were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and the Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of [[Pope Urban VII]].
  
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Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of [[Nicholas of Myra#Deeds and miracles attributed to Saint Nicholas|St. Nicholas]], in which he threw gold in the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. [[Elizabeth of Portugal]] and St. [[Martin de Porres]] were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and the Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of [[Pope Urban VII]].
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One common penalty of the time for the [[kidnapping]] and [[rape]] of unmarried women was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry.
  
 
In some parts of Europe, ''land dowries'' were common. In [[Bentheim (county)|Grafschaft Bentheim]], for instance, it was not uncommon for people who had no sons to give a land dowry to their new son-in-law with the stipulation attached that with the land comes the family name whence it came, thus a condition of the land dowry was that the groom would take on the family name of his bride.
 
In some parts of Europe, ''land dowries'' were common. In [[Bentheim (county)|Grafschaft Bentheim]], for instance, it was not uncommon for people who had no sons to give a land dowry to their new son-in-law with the stipulation attached that with the land comes the family name whence it came, thus a condition of the land dowry was that the groom would take on the family name of his bride.
  
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In Europe it is common for the bride's family to pay for the majority of the wedding costs.
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In Europe it is still common for the bride's family to pay for the majority of the wedding costs.
  
 
==India==
 
==India==
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The origins of the dowry custom in India is lost in antiquity, although there is some evidence for it being practiced prior to 300 BCE among the upper castes such as the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. It is unknown if it was brought with the conquering armies and mass marriages of Alexander the Great, or if it was practiced prior to that. The earliest dowries were usually of land.
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The origins of the dowry custom in [[India]] is lost in antiquity, although there is some evidence for it being practiced prior to 300 B.C.E. among what became the upper [[caste]]s such as the [[Brahmin]]s and [[Kshatriya]]s. It is unknown if it was brought with the conquering armies and mass marriages of [[Alexander the Great]], or if it was practiced prior to that. The earliest dowries were usually of land. The advent of [[Buddhism]] in India, with [[Ashoka]] the compassionate began a period of the influence of Buddhist law on a large part of India. Under Buddhist law, women had rights and could own property, therefore dowries served no purpose. When [[Muslim]]s came to power in large parts of India in the eighth century, they did not approve the practice of dowry. They were not adamant, however, and as Hindu areas increased, the Brahmin castes increasingly isolated themselves and continued and popularized the practice of dowry once again.
  
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The Indian dowry system changed under the colonial rule of the Brittish Empire, where farmers were subjected to taxes and foreign currency in ways they were not previously familir.  Previously, some villages had a socialistic type of system with no single person holding land ownership - the village as a whole "owned" the land, so they did not give dowries which originally related to land. Once individual and fractious land ownership was forcibly introduced by the British, it became possible for land to be traded and offered as gift or transferred. Prior to the British Dowry system, the only wealth given during weddings was the jewelry/ornaments passed from mother to daughter as has been happening since generations. Even now this tradition continues, but has been subsumed by the larger British Dowry system.
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The [[India]]n dowry system became more widespread under the colonial rule of the [[Britain|British]] Empire, and with the increased [[urbanization]] that developed. Some poorer families were not prepared for the new expenses involved, and some social problems developed as they tried to cope with this new demand.
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In India, although illegal, the dowry practice is still common. It is especially common in [[arranged marriage]]s and rural areas and widely recognized as a traditional ritual of marriage. The country is largely divided religiously with a majority of [[Hindu]]s and the largest minority being Muslim. There are separate laws involving each religious background, including [[Christian]]s and [[Sikh]]s. Demanding dowry has been prohibited by law for all since 1961, but many loopholes in the law provide opportunities for many instances of dowry practices actually being sanctioned by the law.  
  
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In [[India]], the practice is still common, in arranged marriages and in rural areas  as it is widely recognized as a Traditional Ritual of Marriage. Demanding dowry is [[Dowry law in India|prohibited by law]] as of 1961  More information can be found by searching for the phrase "IPC 498a." In spite of refusing to be part of dowry systems many grooms have been brought to grief.
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The woman may be provided for by a dowry, but she may also come back to the courts to present her continued need and collect more dowry later. The government of India made several laws detailing severe [[punishment]] to anyone demanding dowry and a law in the Indian Penal Code (Section 498A). While this gives a boost to a woman and her family, it also may put a man and his family in a great disadvantage. Misuse of this law by women in urban India and several incidents of [[extortion]] of money from the husband by the wife and her family have come to light.  
  
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There are legal controls on the practice of dowry and related violence, but in the some of cases, the system has no impact on the practice. The girl child's dowry and wedding expenses often sends her family into a huge debt trap. As consumerism and wealth increase in India, dowry demands are growing. The dowry trap pushes many families into debt. In rural areas, families sell their land holdings, while the urban poor sell their houses.
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Another serious problem comes from a related practice as a result of extortion from the husband and/or his family. This involves the practice of [[SATI]], or self-immolation of the bride upon becoming a widow. In this practice a wife seeks to emulate a legendary faithful and loving wife who showed her devotion to her husband by jumping on her husband's [[funeral]] pyre and dying there together with him. In modern India, often this immolation is not voluntary, but imposed by the husband and his family as punishment for not being able to provide continued dowry. In 1999 there were about 6,000 reported [[dowry deaths]] or [[bride burning(s)]] where the husband and his family were shown to have [[murder]]ed the wife because of lack of dowry.  
  
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Increasing education and awareness has  reduced the instances of this and in some areas notably West Bengal it has virtually been wiped out. Actually education is the biggest hope against this evil as again the Bengalis(residents of West Bengal) being Great Britain's first colony on the subcontinent benefited the maximum from British Education and social ethos in general. India had many evil systems in the past like "SATI"(where the widow would burn herself to protect the honor) were eradicated due to powerful influence of education and the outlawing of the practice by Lord Bentik of the East India Company.
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A more pervasive and socially impacting problem arises when the bride's dowry and wedding expenses are so exorbitant, her family goes into a huge debt trap. In rural areas, families sell their land holdings, while the urban poor sell their houses.
  
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The practice of the bride giving a dowry to the groom is said to have originated in the system of recognition that not only the husband was responsible for providing for his wife, but her father shared this responsibility. It is not clear when the practice began in India. In the recent times, as women have better economic opportunities, this tradition no longer holds valid. While the burden is removed from a woman's father and brothers, it still remains with the husband. In India, the practice of giving women a dowry on breakage of marriage by husband still holds and is assisted by the judiciary and the police through threat of imprisonment.
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Increasing [[education]], awareness, and compassion have reduced dowry practice. In some areas, notably [[West Bengal]], it has virtually been wiped out. This type of awareness is the biggest factor in ending forced dowries, as the Bengalis (residents of West Bengal) were Great Britain's first colony on the subcontinent and benefited most from the education system of the English. The Bengalis were particularly interested in inheriting that system based on the compassion and heroism of [[Lord Bentik]] of the [[East India Company]]. He had been alerted to the sati custom and asked by the Muslim Raj to help eliminate it when he heard of an upcoming immolation of great political impact. It was a perfect opportunity to research the topic and prevent ongoing cruelty, so he became famous for his 450 mile ride on horseback to save the Queen of [[Johdpur]] from her sati immolation. Naturally, many people were moved by the heroism, and it became fashionable to emulate British custom. Thus the practice of dowry was eradicated in West Bengal.
  
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Many times the transaction never ends; the women can come back to the courts for more dowry if she feels it necessary.
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==China==
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Ancient [[China]] has been a [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] society influenced by [[Confucianism|Confucian]] [[ethics]] and traditions. Confucian ethics dictates that the man should provide for his [[family]], yet the dowry is left under some control of the wife. The priorities of where the dowry money should be spent by the wife are dictated by Confucian rule, and are quite specific as to who is first, who is next, and so on.
  
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What began as a sharing of the economic burden of protector and provider role between the two families in an essentially agricultural economy has degenerated into gifts of gold, clothes, consumer durables, and large sums of money, in a few rare cases impoverished or heavily indebted poor families. The dowry is often used by the receiving family for business purposes, family members' education, or given to the husband's sisters, mostly as dowry in their marriage. Unfortunately, many times the bride’s family is unable to continuously provide such gifts to the groom’s (depending on whether or not the groom will continue to ask for gifts) after the wedding. Therefore, the bride’s family will disown her because they can not afford her and eventually, the groom will no longer “want” her. In some cases, this results in the death of the bride, either by suicide or murder. Dowry related deaths are still on the rise in the rural areas.
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The [[bride price]] was and still is far more important and to the onset of the acceptance of the [[marriage]] arrangements and is usually larger than the dowry. A family would not "lose face" if they could not come up with dowry, but the man's family would be very embarrassed if they could not produce the bride price.
  
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To curb the practice of dowry, the government of India made several laws detailing severe punishment to anyone demanding dowry and a law in Indian Penal Code (Section 498A) has been introduced. While it gives boost to a woman and her family, it in the same time also put a man and his family in a great disadvantage. Misuse of this law by women in urban India and quite a few incidents of extortion of money from the husband done by the wife and her family have come to light. The law states jailing of ANY person the wife names in a written complaint. Old people and children have been jailed by the misuse of this law. The law has a [[misandry]] tone to it. The Indian government's main motive for ensuring that removing evidence requirement (under section 113B) which is required in other penal cases is currently not clearly understood.  
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In the traditional Chinese society, dowry is a symbol of [[social status]] as well as affection from the bride's family. The parading of the dowry during the traditional Chinese wedding procession from the bride's home to the groom's home was and is still to some extent important in the various rituals.
  
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There are reports of [[domestic violence]] associated with dowry related demands, these include [[homicide]], see the articles on [[dowry death]] & [[bride burning]].
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The [[Cultural Revolution]]under [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s reign, was a time of tumultuous change. Both the dowry and the bride price were denounced as being [[feudalism|feudalistic]] and [[materialism|materialistic]], thus degrading morals, and traditional Chinese weddings that were associated with dowry and bride price became nearly extinct. Due to the [[Chinese economic reform]], there was a resurgence of traditional Chinese weddings and along with it, both the dowry and the bride price have re-emerged in China since the 1980s.
  
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==China and Asia==
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==South America==
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The similarity between the dowry system in China and the dowry system in India is that it serves as a way for the family to secure some of its wealth for its daughters, as women could not inherit property in the orthodox Confucian society of China. However, there are many important differences between the two and these include:
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Although dowry and [[bride price]] has been practiced by many indigenous tribes, since the [[Spain|Spanish]] colonization of most of [[South America]] and the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonization of [[Brazil]], the practice has changed inexorably toward those of Spain and Portugal. Spanish law differs significantly from English law, in terms of dowry the remnant of [[Roman Law]] can be seen. In many countries, dowry is still honored as a contractual obligation for the benefit of the wife. This has not been the case in [[England]] and most of her colonies for a few hundred years.  
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* Unlike the Indian dowry system which was brought in by the foreign colonialists and imperialists, the Chinese dowry system is indigenous and has lasted for thousands of years.
 
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* Unlike the Indian dowry system in which the transactions seldom end with the wedding, the Chinese dowry system is often an one-shot deal that ends with the wedding.
 
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* Ancient China (as well as modern China to a certain degree) is a patriarchal society dominated by the orthodox Confucian traditions, in which it is a great shame for a man who cannot provide for his wife and thus has to survive on his wife's assets, such as her income or her dowry. Since dowry is one-shot deal, it is optional for the bride's family to contribute additional financial support after the wedding in order to improve the family relations. It is commonly considered as a shame if the groom's family is requesting additional support. As a result, the dowry is often served as a private savings, properties, jewelries. The groom and his family have control over the properties, but far less power in controlling the private savings and jewelries. Although the Chinese wife might have greater autonomy than her Indian counterpart, the orthodox Confucian tradition dictates that the dowry assets should be used in the following order to support her husband when the assets of husband is not enough. The bride would only allow to use her private savings and personal properties to support:
 
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** the eldest son's education when his livelihood can be provided but not enough for his education,
 
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** the remaining sons' education when their livelihood can be provided but not enough for their education,
 
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** the livelihood of the eldest son when there is not enough to do so,
 
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** the livelihood of the remaining sons when there is not enough to do so,
 
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** the livelihood of daughters until they marry,
 
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** the livelihood of the parents,
 
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** the education of the groom's brothers when there is enough for their livelihood but not enough for their education (often until the brothers marry),
 
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** the education of daughters.
 
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* Most importantly, due to the patriarchal society dominated by the orthodox Confucian traditions in ancient China (as well as modern China to a certain degree), [[bride price]] was and still is far more prevalent than dowry in Chinese society than Indian society. As a result, the amount of wealth for the bride price in China was (and still is) often greater than that of the wealth for the dowry. Furthermore, it was customary for the traditional Chinese society to accept the fact that the bride and her family have little or no dowry, but it is not acceptable for the groom and his family having little or no bride price.
 
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* In the traditional Chinese society, dowry is also a symbol of social status, and thus in China, especially in the northern part of China, dowry is shown in public during the traditional [[Chinese marriage#Traditional Marriage Rituals|Chinese wedding]]: when the wedding procession from the bride's home is on its way to the groom's home, the wealth of the dowry in forms other than money was carried behind the sedan of the bride and maids of honor. The presence of dowry is more important than maid of honor because in [[China]], particularly the northern part, it was acceptable to lack the maid of honor, but not acceptable for lacking a form of dowry, no matter how small it is.  
 
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* Unlike the relatively stable Indian society, there were drastic changes in the customs and practice of dowry and [[bride price]] in China due to the political movements in [[China]] (especially due to the [[Cultural Revolution]]). During [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s reign, both the dowry and the bride price were denounced as being feudalistic and materialistic, thus degrading morals, and traditional [[Chinese marriage#Traditional Marriage Rituals|Chinese weddings]] that were associated with dowry and bride price became nearly extinct. Due to the [[Chinese economic reform]], there was a resurgence of traditional Chinese weddings and along with it, there is a gradual come back of both the dowry and the bride price in China since 1980s, and then rapidly in recent years because the current economic development in China has accelerated this comeback greatly. Again, this recent comeback reflects the Chinese tradition in which the bride price is far more important than the dowry.
 
  
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==South America==
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[[Catholicism]] was a state church of Spain during the colonial years, and as they administer marriages the bride price has been incorporated into the ceremony in terms of a symbol of 13 gold coins that represent the sincerity of the groom to provide for his new wife. Thirteen represents [[Jesus]] and the 12 disciples, and after the presentation of the gift, the Priest wraps a cloth around the hand of each in a figure eight pattern to bind them together.
  
 
==Africa==
 
==Africa==
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Dowry and [[bride price]] has been part of various societies within the continent. Modernization has influenced the practice, and there is much current debate on whether it is good or bad. As tribal practices vary widely, and many laws are still pending, it is hard to draw any universal patterns. Even the [[Islam]]ic community seems divided in that some do continue this cultural practice, while others claim it is opposite to the true faith one should show in Islam.
  
 
==The United States==
 
==The United States==
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Marriage has traditionally been a state issue in the United States, not under the Federal legal system. Dowry has not been included in the civil law in all of states except Louisiana, which is heavily influenced by the Napoleonic Code and Roman Civil Law. In Louisiana, Dowry rights are protected where in the other states they are not recognized and property rights upon any such dowry must be proved in another way.
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[[Marriage]] has traditionally been a state issue in the [[United States]], not under the federal legal system. Dowry has not been included in the civil law in all of states except [[Louisiana]], which is heavily influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]] and [[Roman Civil Law]]. Historically, Louisiana is used to dowries and [[King Louis XIV]] paid for dowries of some 25 ladies in Louisiana during their French colonial period. Recognition of dowry rights means that the contract holds in court, and the full power of the law will protect a woman's right to collect that is proscribed circumstances.
  
−
The United States has kept alive an original intent of the Dowry system in an unusual way. The [[Hope Chest]], or [[Glory Chest]] as it is called in the Australian outback, was a method to provide a type of dowry for the daughter while pioneering the frontier. In the UK, it's often known as the [[Bottom Drawer]], a place where things are bought, collected, made, stored. In the difficult situation presented in the westward movement in the United States in the 1800 s, the mother would teach her daughter how to make the things she would need to start up her household. Together they made items like quilts, aprons, china ware, pots and anything that would have sentimental value for the present and the future. These would fill the chest, and often became precious heirlooms for many generations.  "A ready hand and heart, my girl, that's what we're making, not just a hope chest, a hope that you're prepared for any eventuality".  
+
In the United States, the dowry system continues in an unique way. The [[Hope Chest]], or [[Glory Chest]] as it is called in the [[Australia]]n outback, was a method to provide a type of dowry for the daughter while pioneering the frontier. In the [[United Kingdom]], it is often known as the [[Bottom Drawer]], a place where things are stored to prepare for the future. In the difficult situation presented by the westward movement in the United States in the 1800s, the mother would teach her daughter how to make the things she would need to start up her household. Together they made items like quilts, aprons, pillow cases and collect china ware, pots and anything that would have functional or sentimental value for the preparation of the girl's future marriage and home. These items would fill the chest, and often became precious heirlooms for many generations.  
  
−
In the United States, this custom has been preserved by many American woman and was quite popular through the 1950 s.  There is some resurgence in the custom and some activity on the internet to help provide networks of goods and services and ideas for all types of Hope Chests. In the twenty first century, this Hope Chest has become something more than only a preparation for practical married life, something beyond the property aspects of a "dowry." This movement contemporarily serves to help young women stay chaste and ready to give to her prospective husband and family rather than only receive.  
+
"A ready hand and heart, my girl, that's what we're making, not just a hope chest, a hope that you're prepared for any eventuality." This represented a mother's expression to her daughter on the frontier by [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], the author of the popular [["Little House on the Prairie"]] series. She herself records that by the time she was a woman, she had more than a dozen quilts in her chest. The popular movie ''How to Make an American Quilt'' portrays some of the atmosphere of a "hope chest," where a community of elder women help a younger woman prepare for the responsibilities involved in her future family, not only with skills and material things, but also through sharing the lessons they have learned.  
  
−
Laura Ingles Wilder, the author of the popular "Little House on the Prairie" series records that by the time she was a woman, she had more than a dozen quilts in her chest.
+
The hope chest has remained a popular practice through the 1950s, especially in the Midwest. Except for some rural areas, the tradition died out during the 1960s to the year 2000. There is some resurgence in the custom in the twenty-first century and activity on the [[internet]] to help provide networks of goods and services and ideas for all types of Hope Chests. The Hope Chest has become something more than a  practical preparation for married life, beyond the [[property]] aspects of a "dowry." This movement serves to help a young woman stay [[chastity|chaste]], understand her value, and prepare various skills and attitudes to help her be ready to offer to her prospective husband and family.
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
 
<references />
 
<references />
 +
 +
==References==
 +
*Ember, Carol R, and Melvin Ember. ''Cultural Anthropology''. New Jersey: Pearson, Prentis Hall, 2004. ISBN 0131116363
 +
*Kaplan, Marion A (ed.). ''Marriage Bargain: Women and Dowries in European History''. Institute for Research in History, 1984. ISBN 0866563113
 +
*MacColl, Gail and Carol McD. Wallace. ''To Marry an English Lord or, How Anglomania Really Got Started''. Workman Publishing Company, 1989. ISBN 0894809393
 +
*Nair P. T. ''Marriage and Dowry in India''. South Asia Books, 1978. ISBN 0883869071
 +
*Oldenburg, Veena Talwar. ''Dowry Murder: The Imperial Origins of a Cultural Crime''. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0195150716
 +
*Warner, Marina. ''From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers''. Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1995. ISBN 0374159017
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.iheu.org/node/1049 Female foeticide in India]
+
All links retrieved January 30, 2024.
−
*[http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/grhf-asia/forums/foeticide/articles/foeticide.html Female Foeticide]
 
−
*[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030420/edit.htm#1 Counter male fixation to fight adverse sex ratio in Punjab]
 
−
*[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India/Sex_ratio_keeps_getting_worse/articleshow/756509.cms Sex ratio keeps getting worse]
 
−
*[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India/Man_dies_of_shock_as_wife_bears_baby_girl/articleshow/1939982.cms Man dies of shock as wife bears baby girl]
 
−
*[http://www.498a.org Misuse of dowry laws]
 
−
*[http://www.pariwariksuraksha.org Anti-dowry laws in India]
 
−
*[http://www.forgottenwomen.org mothers and sister suffer due to abuse and misuse of Anti dowry laws]
 
−
*[http://www.idontwantdowry.com Matrimonial websites for the people who oppose dowry system]
 
−
*[http://www.saveindianfamily.org A Self help website for the people who have been abused by the Indian anti-dowry Laws 498A]
 
−
 
 
  
 +
*[http://www.chinabridal.com/etiquette/guide.htm Complete Guide to Chinese Wedding]
 +
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=UJtQanKSYMQC&dq=dowry&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=lw5R80n1F0&sig=KgSOTeJ7AYoe4dl4dG7qeiNIsXM Disappearance of the Dowry: Women, Families, and Social Change in São Paulo]
 +
*[http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1843519 Hope Chest]
  
  
 
{{Credits|Dowry|114643556|}}
 
{{Credits|Dowry|114643556|}}

Latest revision as of 17:30, 30 January 2024


A dowry is a gift of money or valuables given by the bride's family to the groom and the newly formed household at the time of their marriage. It has been an ancient and widespread practice. Often, the dowry is reciprocated with a bride price given from the groom and his family to the bride. The original intent sas to help with expenses in the creation of the new family, help bond the families of the new couple, and provide a support for the bride in case of future problems such as widowhood or divorce.

Today, the practice has decreased in developed countries and urban areas. In areas where it persists, especially in India, China, and Africa, there is controversy over the role it plays in domestic violence and the abuse of women, with debate over how dowries should be legislated. The United States has developed it's own unique version of the dowry in the application of Hope Chests. The Hope Chest includes not only material items, such as quilts, linens, and utensils, but also represents the hope the girl has that her preparation will make her a good wife. Such preparation includes not only material wealth but wisdom from her mother with regards to conjugal love and parenting, her own internal character development, and her purity as she prepares to offer herself as a virgin bride to her new husband.

Overview

A dowry is a gift given by the bride's family to the groom and the newly formed household at the time of their marriage.[1] Historically most societies have had brides go to their husband's families, and often women could not legally own property. The husband would be primarily responsible for the economic prosperity of the household, while women would care for children and the household needs. When a woman or girl married into a family that was agricultural, she often was welcomed as another worker. In families that were more prestigious, however, she may have been viewed as another mouth to feed, and the dowry was an important sign of her gratitude for becoming a member of her husband's family. The earliest dowries were usually land entitlements, but later were attached to sentimental and decorative items as well as various commodities and even later to money.

A DESERT FLOWER. "Somewhere in the Sahara" lived this child of the Desert until she came to Biskra, the "Garden of Allah," to earn her dowry as a dancer. One would imagine that she is dreaming of some turbaned knight left behind and counting the days until she may return to her natal tent.

The size of the necessary dowry was directly proportional to the groom's social status, thus making it virtually impossible for lower class women to marry into upper class families. It is recorded that in Roman times, some families would mortgage their house in order to provide a suitable dowry. In cases where a woman's family was too poor to afford a dowry, she may have been forbidden from ever marrying, or became a concubine to a richer man who could afford to support a large household.

Conversely, the similar custom of property given to the bride by the groom and his family has been called a "dower" or bride price. This gift has been traditionally used to show the love of the family toward their daughter and gratitude to the family of the girl for "giving" her to the husband's family.

In either case, the bride has usually been entitled to her dowry or dower in the event of widowhood, hence the terms "dowry" and "dower" are sometimes confused. The children of the bride were also traditionally included in inheritance of the dowry, and often this provided the only support such children had where there were other children by other women involved.

The Ancient World

The dowry is described in the oldest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi, as a pre-existing custom, where it prescribed only regulations for how the dowry was to be handled. The code also included regulations for a bride price. If a woman died without sons, her husband had to refund the dowry but could deduct the value of the bride price; the dowry normally having been the larger of the sums. It marks the first record of long-lasting customs, such as the wife being entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children by other women.

Dowries have been part of civil law in almost all countries, Europe included. Dowries were important components of ancient Greek and Roman marriages. In Homeric times, the usual Greek practice was of a bride price. When dowries were practiced in classical times, there would also be a (smaller) bride price being given by the groom to the bride's family.

Ancient Romans and Athenian Greeks did not allow women to own property. A widow needed a male relative to administer her estate that would included the dowry. The Roman Tacitus noted that among the Germans, the practice was the reverse: a groom settled a dower on the bride. Ancient Egyptian culture did not use dowry until after they were under the Greek and Roman influence. Women in Egypt had always been legally allowed to own property and manage their own affairs, so probably they had less need of this type of provision.

Europe

With the advent of Christianity and religious orders, women brought their dowries with them when they became nuns, as they were becoming the "bride" of Christ.

Dowry in Europe continued through Victorian England.[2] It was seen as an early payment of her inheritance, and as such only daughters who had not received their dowry were entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children, the dowry reverted to the bride's family.

Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could call off a marriage. William Shakespeare made use of this in King Lear—one of Cordelia's wooers ceases to woo her on hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry—and Measure for Measure—Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after the betrothal, and Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana is the loss of her dowry at sea.

Folklorists often interpret Cinderella and its variants as competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide a dowry. Gioacchino Rossini's opera La Cenerentola, makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowry larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry.[3] Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of St. Nicholas, in which he threw gold into the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. Elizabeth of Portugal and St. Martin de Porres were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and the Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of Pope Urban VII.

One common penalty of the time for the kidnapping and rape of unmarried women was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry.

In some parts of Europe, land dowries were common. In Grafschaft Bentheim, for instance, it was not uncommon for people who had no sons to give a land dowry to their new son-in-law with the stipulation attached that with the land comes the family name whence it came, thus a condition of the land dowry was that the groom would take on the family name of his bride.

In Europe it is still common for the bride's family to pay for the majority of the wedding costs.

India

The origins of the dowry custom in India is lost in antiquity, although there is some evidence for it being practiced prior to 300 B.C.E. among what became the upper castes such as the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. It is unknown if it was brought with the conquering armies and mass marriages of Alexander the Great, or if it was practiced prior to that. The earliest dowries were usually of land. The advent of Buddhism in India, with Ashoka the compassionate began a period of the influence of Buddhist law on a large part of India. Under Buddhist law, women had rights and could own property, therefore dowries served no purpose. When Muslims came to power in large parts of India in the eighth century, they did not approve the practice of dowry. They were not adamant, however, and as Hindu areas increased, the Brahmin castes increasingly isolated themselves and continued and popularized the practice of dowry once again.

The Indian dowry system became more widespread under the colonial rule of the British Empire, and with the increased urbanization that developed. Some poorer families were not prepared for the new expenses involved, and some social problems developed as they tried to cope with this new demand.

In India, although illegal, the dowry practice is still common. It is especially common in arranged marriages and rural areas and widely recognized as a traditional ritual of marriage. The country is largely divided religiously with a majority of Hindus and the largest minority being Muslim. There are separate laws involving each religious background, including Christians and Sikhs. Demanding dowry has been prohibited by law for all since 1961, but many loopholes in the law provide opportunities for many instances of dowry practices actually being sanctioned by the law.

The woman may be provided for by a dowry, but she may also come back to the courts to present her continued need and collect more dowry later. The government of India made several laws detailing severe punishment to anyone demanding dowry and a law in the Indian Penal Code (Section 498A). While this gives a boost to a woman and her family, it also may put a man and his family in a great disadvantage. Misuse of this law by women in urban India and several incidents of extortion of money from the husband by the wife and her family have come to light.

Another serious problem comes from a related practice as a result of extortion from the husband and/or his family. This involves the practice of SATI, or self-immolation of the bride upon becoming a widow. In this practice a wife seeks to emulate a legendary faithful and loving wife who showed her devotion to her husband by jumping on her husband's funeral pyre and dying there together with him. In modern India, often this immolation is not voluntary, but imposed by the husband and his family as punishment for not being able to provide continued dowry. In 1999 there were about 6,000 reported dowry deaths or bride burning(s) where the husband and his family were shown to have murdered the wife because of lack of dowry.

A more pervasive and socially impacting problem arises when the bride's dowry and wedding expenses are so exorbitant, her family goes into a huge debt trap. In rural areas, families sell their land holdings, while the urban poor sell their houses.

Increasing education, awareness, and compassion have reduced dowry practice. In some areas, notably West Bengal, it has virtually been wiped out. This type of awareness is the biggest factor in ending forced dowries, as the Bengalis (residents of West Bengal) were Great Britain's first colony on the subcontinent and benefited most from the education system of the English. The Bengalis were particularly interested in inheriting that system based on the compassion and heroism of Lord Bentik of the East India Company. He had been alerted to the sati custom and asked by the Muslim Raj to help eliminate it when he heard of an upcoming immolation of great political impact. It was a perfect opportunity to research the topic and prevent ongoing cruelty, so he became famous for his 450 mile ride on horseback to save the Queen of Johdpur from her sati immolation. Naturally, many people were moved by the heroism, and it became fashionable to emulate British custom. Thus the practice of dowry was eradicated in West Bengal.

China

Ancient China has been a patriarchal society influenced by Confucian ethics and traditions. Confucian ethics dictates that the man should provide for his family, yet the dowry is left under some control of the wife. The priorities of where the dowry money should be spent by the wife are dictated by Confucian rule, and are quite specific as to who is first, who is next, and so on.

The bride price was and still is far more important and to the onset of the acceptance of the marriage arrangements and is usually larger than the dowry. A family would not "lose face" if they could not come up with dowry, but the man's family would be very embarrassed if they could not produce the bride price.

In the traditional Chinese society, dowry is a symbol of social status as well as affection from the bride's family. The parading of the dowry during the traditional Chinese wedding procession from the bride's home to the groom's home was and is still to some extent important in the various rituals.

The Cultural Revolutionunder Mao's reign, was a time of tumultuous change. Both the dowry and the bride price were denounced as being feudalistic and materialistic, thus degrading morals, and traditional Chinese weddings that were associated with dowry and bride price became nearly extinct. Due to the Chinese economic reform, there was a resurgence of traditional Chinese weddings and along with it, both the dowry and the bride price have re-emerged in China since the 1980s.

South America

Although dowry and bride price has been practiced by many indigenous tribes, since the Spanish colonization of most of South America and the Portuguese colonization of Brazil, the practice has changed inexorably toward those of Spain and Portugal. Spanish law differs significantly from English law, in terms of dowry the remnant of Roman Law can be seen. In many countries, dowry is still honored as a contractual obligation for the benefit of the wife. This has not been the case in England and most of her colonies for a few hundred years.

Catholicism was a state church of Spain during the colonial years, and as they administer marriages the bride price has been incorporated into the ceremony in terms of a symbol of 13 gold coins that represent the sincerity of the groom to provide for his new wife. Thirteen represents Jesus and the 12 disciples, and after the presentation of the gift, the Priest wraps a cloth around the hand of each in a figure eight pattern to bind them together.

Africa

Dowry and bride price has been part of various societies within the continent. Modernization has influenced the practice, and there is much current debate on whether it is good or bad. As tribal practices vary widely, and many laws are still pending, it is hard to draw any universal patterns. Even the Islamic community seems divided in that some do continue this cultural practice, while others claim it is opposite to the true faith one should show in Islam.

The United States

Marriage has traditionally been a state issue in the United States, not under the federal legal system. Dowry has not been included in the civil law in all of states except Louisiana, which is heavily influenced by the Napoleonic Code and Roman Civil Law. Historically, Louisiana is used to dowries and King Louis XIV paid for dowries of some 25 ladies in Louisiana during their French colonial period. Recognition of dowry rights means that the contract holds in court, and the full power of the law will protect a woman's right to collect that is proscribed circumstances.

In the United States, the dowry system continues in an unique way. The Hope Chest, or Glory Chest as it is called in the Australian outback, was a method to provide a type of dowry for the daughter while pioneering the frontier. In the United Kingdom, it is often known as the Bottom Drawer, a place where things are stored to prepare for the future. In the difficult situation presented by the westward movement in the United States in the 1800s, the mother would teach her daughter how to make the things she would need to start up her household. Together they made items like quilts, aprons, pillow cases and collect china ware, pots and anything that would have functional or sentimental value for the preparation of the girl's future marriage and home. These items would fill the chest, and often became precious heirlooms for many generations.

"A ready hand and heart, my girl, that's what we're making, not just a hope chest, a hope that you're prepared for any eventuality." This represented a mother's expression to her daughter on the frontier by Laura Ingalls Wilder, the author of the popular "Little House on the Prairie" series. She herself records that by the time she was a woman, she had more than a dozen quilts in her chest. The popular movie How to Make an American Quilt portrays some of the atmosphere of a "hope chest," where a community of elder women help a younger woman prepare for the responsibilities involved in her future family, not only with skills and material things, but also through sharing the lessons they have learned.

The hope chest has remained a popular practice through the 1950s, especially in the Midwest. Except for some rural areas, the tradition died out during the 1960s to the year 2000. There is some resurgence in the custom in the twenty-first century and activity on the internet to help provide networks of goods and services and ideas for all types of Hope Chests. The Hope Chest has become something more than a practical preparation for married life, beyond the property aspects of a "dowry." This movement serves to help a young woman stay chaste, understand her value, and prepare various skills and attitudes to help her be ready to offer to her prospective husband and family.

Notes

  1. ↑ Definition of "dowry", Merriam-Webster. Retrieved December 11, 2007.
  2. ↑ Gail MacColl and Carol McD. Wallace, To Marry An English Lord, Workman Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0894809393.
  3. ↑ Marina Warner, From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales And Their Tellers, Farrar Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0374159017.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ember, Carol R, and Melvin Ember. Cultural Anthropology. New Jersey: Pearson, Prentis Hall, 2004. ISBN 0131116363
  • Kaplan, Marion A (ed.). Marriage Bargain: Women and Dowries in European History. Institute for Research in History, 1984. ISBN 0866563113
  • MacColl, Gail and Carol McD. Wallace. To Marry an English Lord or, How Anglomania Really Got Started. Workman Publishing Company, 1989. ISBN 0894809393
  • Nair P. T. Marriage and Dowry in India. South Asia Books, 1978. ISBN 0883869071
  • Oldenburg, Veena Talwar. Dowry Murder: The Imperial Origins of a Cultural Crime. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0195150716
  • Warner, Marina. From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers. Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1995. ISBN 0374159017

External links

All links retrieved January 30, 2024.


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