Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism (Sanskrit from the Vriddhi form of Vishnu meaning "belonging to Vishnu") is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism, and is distinguished from other schools by its primary worship of Vishnu (and his associated avatars) as the Supreme God. It is principally monotheistic in its philosophy, whilst also incorporating elements which could be described as being panentheistic. Its beliefs and practices, (known as Bhakti Yoga, or Bhakti) are based largely on Vedic and Puranic texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Isha Upanishad, and the Vishnu and Bhagavata, Puranas. The followers of Vaishnavism are referred to as 'Vaishnava(s)', sometimes 'Vaishnavites' in English. According to recent statistics Vaishnavas make up approximately 70% of the total of all followers of Hinduism with the vast majority of these being in India. The Gaudiya Vaishnava branch of the tradition has increased significantly in terms of both numbers and worldwide distribution in recent years, largely through the activities of the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON).

History

The Bhakti Movement of Hinduism (loosely translated as devotional love to God)was essentially founded in South India and later spread to Northern India during the late medieval period. A nascent consciousness of what 'Bhakti' constitutes is already to be found in the earliest Vedas, especially in relation to deities such as Varuna. A clearer expression of Bhakti began to be formed during the so-called Epic Period and the Puranic periods of Hindu history. Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion as a means to salvation.

The Bhakti Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon that crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual perfection. The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees).

The Vaishnavaite Bhakti movement was contemporaneous with the Shaiva Bhakti movement. The hymns of the twelve alvars are held together as the 'Nalayira Divya Prabandham' and recited in temple rituals. Whilst all the saints are held in great reverence, Aandaal (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special place among the Vaishnava saints. Not only is she the only female Vaishnava saint but also her hymns are among the best expressions of bridal mysticism in the Hindu religion.

The twelve Alvars and the sixty-three Nayanars nurtured the incipient bhakti movement in South India under the Pallavas and Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries C.E. They constitute South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti and were greatly influential in determining the expression of faith in South India. The path of devotion as expounded by these mystics would later be incorporated into Ramanuja and Madhva philosophical systems.

During the 12th and 13th centuries C.E., the Virashaiva movement and, during the rule of the Vijayanagar Empire in South India, the Haridasa movement spread from present-day Karnataka. The Virashaiva movement spread the philosophy of Basavanna, a Hindu reformer. The seeds of Carnatic music were sown, and the philosophy of Madhvacharya was propagated by the Kannada Haridasas. The Haridasa movement presented, like the Virashaiva movement, another strong current of Bhakti, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas presented two groups – Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people. The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha or Vyasaraja Naraharitirtha, Vadirajatirtha, Sripadaraya, Jayathirtha and others. In the fifteenth century, the Haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal; but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent disciples were Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa. Yakshagana, as a theatre form emerged as an offshoot of this movement in Karnataka.

The late Bhakti movement led to the proliferation of regional poetic literature in the various vernacular languages of India. The Bhakti movement in what is now Karnataka resulted in a burst of poetic Kannada literature in praise of Lord Vishnu. Some of its leaders include Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, whose contributions were essential to Carnatic music. The later Carnatic Trinity is also no doubt a product of this long Bhakti Movement.

The Bhakti movement began to spread to the North during the late medieval ages when North India was under Muslim domination. There was no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and Vaishnava devotees as it was in the South. The movement was spontaneous and the various mystics had their own version of devotional expression. Unlike in the South where devotion was centred on both Shiva and Vishnu (in all his forms), the Northern devotional movement was more or less centred on Rama and Krishna, both of whom were incarnations of Vishnu. Though this did not mean that the cult of Shiva or of the Devi went into decline. In fact for all of its history the Bhakti movement co-existed peacefully with the other movements in Hinduism. It was initially considered unorthodox as it rebelled against caste distinctions and made disregarded Brahmanic rituals which according to Bhakti saints not necessary for salvation. In the course of time however, owing to its immense popularity among the masses (and even royal patronage) it became 'orthodox' and continues to be one of the most important modes of religious expression in modern India.

In the period between the 14-17th centuries, a great bhakti movement swept through Northern India initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or 'Sants'. Caitanya, Vallabha, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsi Das, Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North. Their teachings were that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterised by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

Rama bhakti

The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda. Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century. He taught that Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his sacred name.

Ramananda's ashram in Varanasi became a powerful centre of religious influence, from which his ideas spread far and wide among all classes of Indians. One of the reasons for his great popularity was that he renounced Sanskrit and used the language of the people for the composition of his hymns. This paved the way for the modern tendency in northern India to write literary texts in local languages.

Devotees of Krishna worship Him in different mellows, known as rasas. Two major systems of Krishna worship developed, each with its own philosophical system. These two moods as called aishwaryamaya bhakti and madhuryamaya bhakti. Aishwaryamaya bhakti is revealed in the abode of queens and kingdom of Krishna in Dwaraka. Madhuryamaya Bhakti is revealed in the abode of braja. Thus krishna is variously worshipped according to the development of devotee's taste in worshipping the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Sri Krishna, as father, friend, master, beloved and many different varieties which are all extraordinary. Krishna is famous as Makhanchor, or butterthief. He loved to eat butter and is the beloved of his little village in Gokul. These are all transcendental descriptions. Thus they are revealed to the sincere devotees in proportion to the development in their love of Godhead.

Shri Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified God with Vishnu. His view of reality is purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. Madhva is considered one of the influential theologians in Hindu history. His influence was profound, and he is one of the fathers of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Great leaders of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement in Karnataka like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Raghavendra Swami and many others were influenced by Dvaita traditions.

Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531) called his system of thought Shuddhadvaita (pure monism). According to him, it is by God's grace alone that one can obtain release from bondage and attain Krishna's heaven. This heaven is far above the "heavens" of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, for Krishna is himself the eternal Brahman.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 - 1534) defined his system of philosophy as Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable and simultaneous oneness and difference). It synthesizes elements of monism and dualism into a single system. Chaitanya's philosophy is taught by the contemporary International Society for Krishna Consciousness, better known as the Hare Krishna movement.

Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1568) named his religion ek sarana naam dharma and propagated it in Assam. An example of dasa bhakti, in this form there was no place for Radha. The most important symbol of this religion is the naamghor or prayer hall, which dot Assam's landscape. This form of worship is very strong in Assam today, and much of the traditions are maintained by the monasteries called Satras.

Vaishnava bhakti

For more information about leaders of the Vaishnava bhakti movement, see Vaishnavism, Gaudiya Vaishnavism and Hare Krishna.

Prominent historical personalities include:

• Ramanuja
• Nimbarka
• Madhva
• Vallabha
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
• Bhakti Tirtha Swami

With the help of Alvars, a set of twelve people who with their devotional hymns spread the sect to the common people, Vaishnavism flourished in South India. Some of the prominent Alvars are:

1. Poigai Alvar
2. Bhoothathalvar
3. Peyalvar
4. Thirumalisai Alvar
5. Madhurakavi Alvar
6. Nammalvar
7. Periyalvar
8. Andal
9. Kulasekara Alvar
10. Thondaradippodi Alvar
11. Thiruppaana Alvar
12. Thirumangai Alvar

Temple dedicated to the worship of Vishnu as Venkateswara.

Vaishnavism is still particularly commonplace throughout South India as a result of the Alvars, especially in Tamil Nadu. The temples which the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira (Divya Prabandha).

In later years Vaishnava pracitices increased in popularity due to the influence of sages like Ramanuja, Vedantha Desikar, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tyagaraja, etc...

Theology

Vishnu: The Supreme

The principal belief of Vaishnavism is the supremacy of Vishnu or Narayana as the one Supreme God. This principle is also applicable to the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu as listed within the Puranas but excludes all other personalities referred in the Vedas or similar texts, (i.e Ganesh, Surya or Durga etc...) which are instead classified as 'demi-gods' or devas. Shiva is also viewed as subservient to Vishnu, although with the understanding that he is also above the category of an ordinary living being (jiva) . Some Vaishnava schools also identify the God of the Abrahamic religions with Vishnu, although it is not an essential tenet of Vaishnava belief, being outside of the scope of Vedic evidence.

Bhakti Worship

Bhakti movements are Hindu religious movements in which the main spiritual practice is the fostering of loving devotion to God, called bhakti. They are monotheistic movements generally devoted to worship of Shiva or Vishnu or Shakti. Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hindusim such as reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan) and performing deity worship (puja). Within their worship Vaishnava devotees will always see themselves as (at least partially) separate or distinct from their lord, Vishnu. Unlike other schools of Hinduism whose goal is liberation (moksha), or union with the Supreme Brahman, the ultimate goal of Vaishnava practice is an eternal life of bliss (ananda) in service to Vishnu, or one of his many avatars, in the spiritual realm of 'Vaikuntha', which lies beyond the temporary world of illusion (maya). The three features of the Supreme as described in the Bhagavata Purana—Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan—are viewed as the Universal Vishnu, Vishnu within the heart, and Vishnu the personality respectively.

Initiation

Vaishnavas commonly follow a process of initiation (diksha), given by a guru, under whom they are trained in order to understand Vaishnava practices. At the time of initiation the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which they will then repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa. The system of receiving initiation and training from a spiritual master is based on injunctions throughout scriptures held as sacred within the Vaishnava traditions:

"Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the truth".(Bhagavad Gita)

"One who is initiated into the Vaishnava mantra and who is devoted to worshiping Lord Vishnu is a Vaishnava. One who is devoid of these practices is not a Vaishnava."(Padma Purana)

Attitude to scriptures

Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradya (see below) as authoritive interpretations of scripture. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation of the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Goswami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27).

Sects

File:Vishnu.jpg

Vishnu as worshipped in the form of Satya Narayana

Within traditional Vaishnavism there are four main disciplic lineages (sampradayas), each of which traces its roots back to a specific Vedic personality. The four sampradayas follow subtly different philosophical systems regarding the relationship between the soul (jiva) and God (Vishnu), although the majority of other core beliefs are identical.

• Rudra-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Shuddhadvaita ("pure nondualism"), espoused by Vallabhacharya.

• Brahma-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Dvaita ("dualism"), espoused by Madhvacharya, and also -

Achintya Bheda Abheda ("inconceivable oneness and difference"), espoused by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (See Gaudiya Vaishnavism).

• Lakshmi-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita ("qualified nondualism"), espoused by Ramanuja (See Sri Vaishnavism).

• Kumara-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Dvaitad belowvaita ("duality in unity"), espoused by Nimbarka. (See Nimbarka Sampradaya)

Other Branches

• Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534) in India in the 16th Century. 'Gaudiya' refers to Gauda-desh (present day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning the worship of Vishnu. Its philosophical basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana, as well as other Puranic scriptures and Upanishads such as the Isha Upanishad.

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God. Most popularly this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as 'Hare', 'Krishna' and 'Rama', (most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna mantra) which is known as kirtan. The movement is sometimes referred to as the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya sampradaya referring to its traditional origins in the disciplic succession of spiritual masters (gurus) believed to originate from Brahma. It classifies itself as a monotheistic tradition, seeing the many forms of Vishnu as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God.

• The Ramanandi movement, begun by Ramananda.

• Mahapuruxiya Dharma, espoused by Sankardeva.

Scriptures

The two great Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are essential to Vaishnava philosophy and culture:

The Ramayana describes the story of the avatar known as Rama or Ramachandra, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based around the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita, his brother Lakshman and servant Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. As does the evil king Ravana who plays the opposite role of how not to behave.

The Mahabharata is centered around the popular avatar Krishna, and details the story of a dynastic war between two sets of cousins, with Krishna and his close the Pandavas playing pivotal roles in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is the chapter covering a conversation between Arjuna and Krishna prior to the final battle, individually known as the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, though influential in most philosophies of Hinduism, is of particular importance to Vaishnavas because it is believed to be an accurate record of the very words spoken by Krishna himself. Vaishnavas regard Krishna either as an avatar of Vishnu, or as the source of all avatars, including Vishnu himself (this is a view held especially by Gaudiya Vaishnavas). Thus, there is no higher source of information within Vaishnava theology than that of Krishna himself.

Both works are often re-enacted in part as dramas by followers of Vaishnavism, especially on festival days concerning each of the specific avatars. The Bhagavad Gita is widely studied as a theological textbook.

Vaishnava Upanishads

Of the 108 Upanishads of the Muktika, 13 are considered Vaishnava Upanishads. They are listed with their associated Veda (SV, ŚYV, KYV, AV):

1. Nṛsiṃhatāpanī (AV)
2. Mahānārāyaṇa (AV)
3. Rāmarahasya (AV)
4. Rāmatāpaṇi (AV)
5. Vāsudeva (SV)
6. Avyakta (SV)
7. Tārasāra (SYV)
8. Gopālatāpani (AV)
9. Kṛṣṇa (AV)
10. Hayagrīva (AV)
11. Dattātreya (AV)
12. Gāruḍa (AV)
13. Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa (Kali) (KYV)

Vaishnava tilak

File:Prabhupada 03.jpg

The yellow forehead marking known as tilak is the symbol of Gaudiya Vaishnavas.

The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of Tilak which depict the siddhanta of their particular lineage:

In the Vallabha, Rudra-sampradaya the tilak worn is generally a single vertical red line. This line represents Yamuna devi. The form of Krishna worshiped in the Vallabha line is Sri Nathji or Govardhana. The consort of the Govardhana hill is the river Yamuna. Their process of surrender goes through Yamuna devi.

The Madhva sampradaya mark two vertical lines representing Krishna's 'lotus feet'. In between a vertical black line is made from the daily coal of the yajna-kunda (fire sacrifice). In their sampradaya, the process of worship involves 'nitya-homa', or daily fire sacrifices to Narayana or Krishna. The remnant coal of the puja (worship) is used each day to mark the forehead. Underneath the black line, a yellow or red dot is added to indicate either Lakshmi or Radharani. Those who did not perform daily fire sacrifice wear the simple two line tilak only.

In the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya the tilak is usually made out of mud from Vrindavan. The main tilak is basically identical to the Madhva tilak. The slight difference arose due to the emphasis on the chanting (japa and kirtan) in the Gaudiya tradition. In Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's line, chanting is given as the essential devotional (bhakti) activity to be performed in Kali yuga in preference to fire sacrifices. As such, the black line made from the ash of the fire sacrifice is not included. The second difference arose due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's process of approaching Krishna. In the Gaudiya line devotees do not approach Radha and Krishna directly, but always indirectly through their servant. To indicate this, the red dot representing Radha is replaced with a tulsi leaf offered at the base of Krishna's feet. In Gaudiya belief only through the mercy of Tulsi Devi (or another pure devotee) can pure devotion to Radha & Krishna or Krishna & Balarama be awakened.

Members of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form tilak with two lines representing the feet of Narayana, with a red line in the middle which representing Lakshmidevi. Because the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya begins with Lakshmi, and because they approach Narayana through Lakshmi, their tilak reflects this process of surrender. A variant to this is found within the Ramanandi sect, begun by Ramananda, who wear a similar tilak design but in reference to Sita and Rama (whom their devotion is focused upon) rather than Lakshmi and Narayana.

In Nimbarka Sampradaya, the tilak is made of Gopi-Chandana (the clay from Gopi Kunda lake in Dwarka, Gujarat), as described in the Vasudeva Upanishad. It starts at the bridge of the nose and continues as two vertical lines to the top of the forehead. This is said to represent the temple of God. Within these lines, between the eyebrows is a black dot, made from the slate found in Barsana, Uttar Pradesh, the sacred birthplace of Radha. This is said to represent God as Radha and Krishna together. This tilak personifies the tenets of the Sampradaya, that God is Radha and Krishna together, none else. It is supposed to have been first given to Nimbarka at the time of his initiation to the Sage, Narada. The tilak is first given to an initiate by their guru at the time of initiation, and after this, daily the devotee will remember his guru before he adorns the tilaka on his head.

Academic study

Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.

The Journal of Vaishnava studies

Founded in 1992 by Steven J. Rosen the Journal of Vaishnava Studies (JVS) is an academic journal of Hindu studies, and Vaishnava studies in particular. Dedicated to scholarly research associated with all Vishnu-related traditions. The course has received praise from Indological entities for bringing Vaishnava studies into the Western academic environment. In the year 2002 the Journal affiliated with Christopher-Newport University, in Virginia.

Notes

1. Schouten, pages 11-26
2. Karavelane Kareikkalammeiyar, oeuvres editees et traduites, institut francais d'indologie, Pondicherry (1956)
3. Jagadeesan, N The Life and Mission of Karaikkal Ammaiyar Bhattacharya, N.N. [ed] Medieval Bhakti Movements in India Munishiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, (1989), pages 149-161

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Schouten, Jan Peter (Dutch) Goddelijke vergezichten - mystiek uit India voor westerse lezers, Ten Have b.v., Baarn, the Netherlands, (1996), ISBN 90-259-4644-5

External links

• Vaishnavism (Heart of Hinduism)
• Hinduism & Vaishnavism (veda.harekrsna.cz)
• Who is Vishnu? Vaishnava FAQ (dvaita.org)
• Ramanuja and Srivaishnavism (srivaishnavan.com)
• The Basic Premises of Vaishnavism (krishna.com)
• An Overview of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Tradition (gaudiya.com)
• Online library of articles on Vaishnavism and the Ramanuja Sampradaya (sadagopan.org)
• Path of Devotion
• International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
• Krishna.com All about Krishna. Info, books, MP3s, images, radio...
• The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)
• Waves of Devotion - Dhanurdhara Swami's Companion to A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's Nectar of Devotion (Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu)
• Pure Bhakti.com

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