Difference between revisions of "Ayurveda" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Dwanandhari Deva.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ayurveda—intertwined with [[Indian mythology|mythology]] and [[Indian religion|religion]]—traces the origin of traditional Indian medicine to the legendary [[Dhanvantari]], who received his knowledge from [[Brahma]]—the [[Hindu]] God of creation.]]
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[[Image:Cardomom plant.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]], both of which are believed to stimulate [[digestive enzymes]] that break down [[polymeric]] [[macromolecules]] in the Human body.<ref name=Mitra2>Mitra & Rangesh, page 363</ref>]]
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[[Image:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|200px|right|Several philosophers In India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of [[Buddhism]] and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher [[Nagarjuna]]—known chiefly for his doctrine of the ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (middle path)—who wrote medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection'', among others.<ref name=CliffordMLBD>Clifford, Terry (2003). ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry''. 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120817842.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Fruit I IMG 9577.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Research suggests that ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' is useful in alleviating the [[pain and nociception|pain]] of [[angina pectoris]] and in treating [[heart failure]] and [[coronary artery disease]]. Terminalia may also be useful in treating [[hypercholesterolemia]]<ref name="pmid9855567">{{cite journal |author=Miller A.L.|title=Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease |journal=Altern Med Rev |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=422–31 |year=1998 |pmid=9855567}}</ref>]]
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[[Image:Seven chakras.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The seven ''[[chakras]]'' (Devanāgarī: चक्र) and the ''[[Mahābhūta]]'' (Devanāgarī: महाभुत्) in [[Tantra|Tantric tradition]]. [[Yoga]] and Tantra have influenced traditional Ayurvedic medicine. ]]
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[[Image:Neemtree.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Azadirachta indica]]''—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of [[IL-2]] and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting [[lymphocyte]] and [[T-cell]] count in three weeks.<ref name=Mungantiwar>Mungantiwar, A.A. & Phadke, A.S. (2003) in "Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda", ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' edited by Mishra, L.C. 72. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Cataract in human eye.png|thumb|right|200px|Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician [[Sushruta]].<ref name=finger66/> In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the ''Jabamukhi Salaka'', a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.<ref name=finger66/> The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.<ref name=finger66>Finger, page 66</ref>]]
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[[Image:Pepper091.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Black pepper]] and [[long pepper]] are combined with [[ginger]] to form the traditional ''trikatu'' mixture in Ayurveda. This mixture increases appetite, promotes the secretion of [[digestive juices]], and cures certain [[gastric|gastric disorder]]s—particularly [[Achlorhydria]] and [[Hypochlorhydria]].<ref name=MitraCRC>Mitra & Rangesh, page 319</ref>]]
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[[Image:Mune wall col.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[mantra]] [[Om mani padme hum|ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ]] written on rocks. Chanting mantras has been a feature of Ayurveda since the [[Atharvaveda]]—a largely religious text—was compiled.<ref>Kasulis, Thomas P.; Aimes, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (1993). ''Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice''. State University of New York Press. 104. ISBN 079141079X.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Sesame oil.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Oils—such as [[sesame oil|sesame]] and [[sunflower oil]]—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of [[linoleate]] in [[triglyceride]] form. Oils rich in [[linoleic acid]] may have [[antineoplastic|antineoplastic properties]].<ref name=SahuCRC>Sahu, S. & Mishra, L.C. (2003) in "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors", ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' edited by Mishra, L.C. 300. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Curcumin structure (keto).svg|thumb|200px|right|Chemical structure of [[curcumin]] used in Ayurvedic medicine. Shown here in its [[keto]] form.]]
  
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{{Alternative medical systems}}
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'''Ayurveda''' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: आयुर्वॆद, the 'science of life') is a system of [[traditional medicine]] native to [[India]],<ref name=Chopra75>Chopra, page 75</ref> and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of [[alternative medicine]].<ref name=AYUSH/> In [[Sanskrit]], the word Ayurveda comprises the words ''{{IAST|āyus}},'' meaning 'life'  and ''{{IAST|veda}}'', meaning 'science'.<ref name=Chopra75/> Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in [[South Asia]].<ref>In Sharma & Bodeker 2008 and Chopra 2003 </ref> The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the [[Vedic period]] in India.<ref name=AYUSH>[http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm ''Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy''. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (Government of India).]</ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' and the ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.<ref name=AYUSH/> Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/>
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'''Ayurveda''' ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|आयुर्वेद}}) or '''Ayurvedic medicine''' is an ancient system of health care that is native to the [[Indian subcontinent]].  It is presently in daily use by millions of people in [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]] and indirectly through it being the major influence on [[Unani]], Chinese and [[Tibetan Medicine]].  The word "Ayurveda" is a [[tatpurusha]] compound of the word ''{{IAST|āyus}}'' meaning "life" or "life principle," and the word ''{{IAST|veda}}'', which refers to a system of "knowledge."  Thus "Ayurveda" roughly translates as the "knowledge of life."  According to [[Charaka Samhita]], "life" itself is defined as the "combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul, the factor responsible for preventing decay and death, which sustains the body over time, and guides the processes of rebirth" <ref>[http://www.toddcaldecott.com/pdf%20files/publications/Ayurvedic%20medicine/Chapter_one.pdf Theory and Practice of Ayurveda] - toddcaldecott.com. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> <ref>'Suddha medicine' refers to classical Ayurvedic medicine. The word "suddha" is translated as "pure".</ref> According to this perspective, Ayurveda is concerned with measures to protect "ayus," which includes healthy living along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony.  Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional systems of medicine to contain a sophisticated system of [[surgery]] (which is referred to as "salya-chikitsa").
 
  
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== Overview ==
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Ayurveda has become an [[alternative medicine|alternative form of medicine]] in the [[western world]], where patents for its medicine have been passed, and the intellectual property rights contested by Western and Indian institutions.<ref>In Kurup 2003, Mitra 2003, and Sharma & Bodeker </ref> Ayurveda is considered to be a form of [[complementary and alternative medicine]] (CAM) within the [[United States of America]], where several of its methods—such as herbs, massage, and [[Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine]]—are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.<ref name=nccam1>[http://nccam.nih.gov/news/newsletter/2006_winter/ayurveda.htm ''A Closer Look at Ayurvedic Medicine''. NIH: Focus on Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Volume XII, Number 4: Fall 2005/Winter 2006. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, National Institutes of Health.]</ref>
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According to the Ayurvedavatarana (the "descent of Ayurveda"), the origin of Ayurveda is stated to be a [[divinity|divine]] revelation of the ancient Indian creator God Lord [[Brahma]]<ref name="AYUSH-de"> [http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm#de Development and its Status of Ayurveda] - ''Department of AYUSH. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Govt of India''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> as he awoke to recreate the universe.  This knowledge was passed directly to Daksha Prajapati in the form of [[shloka]] sung by Lord Brahma, and this was in turn passed down through a successive chain of deities to Lord [[Indra]], the protector of [[dharma]].  According to this account, the first human exponent of Ayurveda was [[Bharadvaja]], who learned it directly from Indra.  Bharadvaja in turn taught Ayurveda to a group of assembled sages, who then passed down different aspects of this knowledge to their students.  According to tradition, Ayurveda was first described in text form by [[Agnivesha]], in his book the ''[[Agnivesh tantra]]''. The book was later redacted by [[Charaka]], and became known as the [[Charaka Samhitā]].<ref>[http://ayurveda.in/ Ayurveda] - ayurveda.in  All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Another early text of Ayurveda is the [[Sushruta Samhitā]], which was compiled by Sushrut, the primary pupil of Dhanvantri, sometime around [[1000s B.C.E.|1000]] [[Common Era|BCE]]. Dhanvantri is known as the Father of Surgery, and in the Sushrut Samhita, the teachings and surgical techniques of Dhanvantri are compiled and complemented with additional findings and observations of Sushrut regarding topics ranging from obstetrics and orthopedics to ophthalmology. Sushrut Samhita together with Charaka Samhitā, served as the textual material within the ancient [[University|Universities]] of [[Takshashila]] and [[Nalanda]]. These texts are believed to have been written around the beginning of the Common Era, and are based on a [[holism|holistic]] approach rooted in the philosophy of the Vedas and [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] culture.
 
  
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==Eight Branches (Ashthanga) of Ayurveda==
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The eight branches of Ayurveda are:
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==Overview==
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#Internal medicine - Kayachikitsa
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Ayurveda believes in 'five great elements' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: पन्छतत्व‌; [[earth]], [[water]], [[fire]], [[air]] and [[space]]) forming the universe, including the human body.<ref name=Chopra75/> [[Blood]], [[flesh]], [[fat]], [[bone]], [[bone marrow|marrow]], [[chyle]], and [[semen]] are the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, [[phlegm]], and [[bile]], each representing divine forces.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The doctrine of these three ''Dosa''s (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—''vata'' (wind/spirit/air), ''pitta'' (bile) and ''kapha'' (phlegm)—is important.<ref name=Chopra77/> Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of ''Dosa''s.<ref name=Chopra77>Chopra, page 77</ref> In Ayurveda, the human body has 20 ''Guna'' (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning quality).<ref name=Chopra76>Chopra, page 76</ref> Surgery and surgical instruments are employed.<ref name=Chopra76/> It is believed that building a healthy [[metabolism|metabolic system]], attaining good [[digestion]], and proper [[excretion]] leads to vitality.<ref name=Chopra76/> Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, [[yoga]], [[meditation]], and [[massage]].<ref name=encarta-ayurveda/>
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#Surgery - Shalya Tantra
 
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#Ears, eyes, nose and throat - Shalakya tantra
 
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#Pediatrics - Kaumarabhritya Tantra
 
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#Toxicology - Agada Tantra
 
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#Purification of the genetic organs - Bajikarana (or Vajikarana) Tantra
 
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#Health and Longevity - Rasayana Tantra
 
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#Spiritual Healing/Psychiatry - Bhuta Vidya
 
  
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{{see also|The Eight Armed Ayurveda}}
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The concept of ''[[Panchakarma]]'' (Devanāgarī: पन्छ्कर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body.<ref>Sharma, A.K. (2003) in "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine", ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' edited by Mishra, L.C. 43. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.</ref> Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (Devanāgarī: अश्ताग्), are given below:<ref name=Chopra80>Chopra, page 80</ref>
  
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==History==
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* [[Surgery]] (''Shalya-chkitsa'').
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[[Image:Brahma Halebid.jpg|200px|thumb|A statue of the Hindu God, [[Brahma]]. Hinduism believes in the divine origin of Ayurveda]]
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* Treatment of diseases above the [[clavicle]] (''Salakyam'').
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[[Image:Godofayurveda.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Dhanvantari]], the God of Ayurveda]]
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* Internal [[medicine]] (''Kaya-chikitsa'').
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[[Image:Nagarjuna at Samye Ling Monastery.JPG|200px|thumb|[[Nagarjuna]], a follower of [[Buddha]], was a well known [[herbologist]], known for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments]]
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* [[Demonic possession]] (''[[Bhuta]] [[VIDYA|vidya]]''): Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences.<ref name=WujastykXXI>Wujastyk, page XXI</ref> ''Bhuta vidya'' has been called psychiatry.<ref name=AYUSH/>
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* [[Paediatrics]] (''Kaumarabhrtyam'').
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* [[Toxicology]] (''Agadatantram'').
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* Prevention and building [[immunity]] (''[[rasayana]]m'').
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* [[Aphrodisiacs]] (''Vajikaranam'').
  
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Documented references to the precise timing of the origins of Ayurveda are not available. The age of Ayurveda has been established on the basis of correlating the evidence with other disciplines as well as circumstantial evidence. Ayurveda is said to have been first compiled as a text by Agnivesha, in his book ''Agnivesh tantra'', which was written during Vedic times.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The book was later revised by Charaka, and renamed to Charaka Samhitā (encyclopedia of the physician Charaka).<ref>[http://www.ayurvediccure.com/ayurveda_ayurvedic_herbs/ayurveda_history.htm History of Ayurveda] - ayurvediccure.com All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Other early texts of Ayurveda include the ''Charaka Samhitā'' and the ''Sushruta Samhitā'' The system was orally transferred via the [[Gurukul system of Ayurveda|Gurukul]] system until a script came into existence.
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==Practices==
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[[Buddhism]] may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (Devanāgarī: मद्यमिका).<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> Balance is emphasized and suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> Ayurveda emphasizes on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.<ref name=WujastykXVIII>Wujastyk, page XVIII</ref>
  
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The earliest scripts would have been written on perishable materials such as [[Taalpatra]] and [[Bhojapatra]], which could not be readily preserved.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The script was later written on stone and copper sheets.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Verses dealing with Ayurveda are included in the [[Atharvaveda]], which implies that some form of Ayurveda is as old as the Vedas. Ayurvedic practices have also evolved over time, and some practices may be considered innovations upon earlier Vedic practices, such as the advances made during the Buddhist period in India. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations.<ref name=Chopra75/> Chopra (2003)—on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics—writes:<ref name=Chopra78>Chopra, page 78</ref>
  
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Hinduism attributes the genesis of Ayurveda to several theories in which the knowledge is believed to have been passed on from being to being, initially, through its realization by the divine sages, and gradually into the human sphere by a complex system of mnemonics. Details of Ayurvedic traditions vary between writers, as is expected when oral traditions are transcribed from multiple sources. The earliest authors of Ayurvedic manuscripts recorded divergent forms of the tradition.
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{{quotation2|Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways.}}
  
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==Development==
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For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed.<ref name=Chopra79/> The ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' recommends a tenfold examination of the patient.<ref name=Chopra79/> The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.<ref name=Chopra79>Chopra, page 79</ref> Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The study of the vital [[pressure points]] or ''[[marmam|marma]]'' is of special importance.<ref name=Chopra76/>
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Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 B.C.E.) , and in this period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using [[mercury (element)|Mercuric]]-[[sulphur]] combination based medicines.<ref name="rasa tantram">
 
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{{cite book
 
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| author =Dr. Prabhakar Chatterjee
 
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| title = Ras Chkitsa
 
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</ref> In this period mercury, sulphur and other metals were used in conjunction with herbs to prepare the different medications.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} An important Ayurvedic practitioner of this period was [[Nagarjuna]], a [[Buddhist]] [[herbologist]], famous for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Nagarjuna was accompanied by [[Surananda]], [[Nagbodhi]], [[Yashodhana]], [[Nityanatha]], [[Govinda]], [[Anantdev]], [[Vagbhatta]] etc. The knowledge of Ayurveda progressed a lot during this period, including  development of newer and  more effective medicines, and is therefore termed as the ''Golden Period of Ayurveda''.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
  
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After emerging victorious at the [[Kalinga War]], Emperor [[Ashoka]] (304 B.C.E.-232 B.C.E.) influenced by the Buddhist teachings, banned any bloodshed in his kingdom in 250 B.C.E. Therefore many Ayurveda practitioners, who were practicing surgery along with medicine, left the surgical intervention and adopted totally new medicinal treatments. In this period, Ayurveda again evolved and flourished with the invention of new drugs, new methodology and new innovations. The practice of the accompanying surgery slowly died out during this period.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'<ref name=Chopra79/>
  
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During the regime of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (375-415 C.E.), Ayurveda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continued to be so until the colonisation by the [[United Kingdom|British]].
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[[Hygiene]]—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/>
  
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[[Chakrapani Dutta (DuttaSharma)]] was a Vaid [[Brahman]] of [[Bengal]] who wrote books on Ayurveda such as "[[Chakradutta]]" and others. [[Chakrapani Dutta]] was the Rajavaidya of Great King Laxman Sen {some says rajVaid of King Nayapala (1038 - 1055)}. It is believed by some practitioners that Chakradutta is the essence of Ayurveda.
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Ayurveda stresses on [[vegetable]] drugs.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Fats are used both for consumption and for external use.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]].<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Some animal products may also be used, for example [[milk]], [[bones]], and [[gallstone]]s etc.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> [[Mineral]]s—including [[sulfur]], [[arsenic]], [[lead]], [[copper sulfate]], [[gold]]—are also consumed as prescribed.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/>
  
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Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life," despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.
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[[Alcohol]] is used as a [[narcotic]] for the patient undergoing operation in some cases.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The advent of [[Islam]] introduced [[opium]] as a narcotic.<ref name=Chopra80/> Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, [[anointing]], smearing, ''[[champissage|head massage]]'', and prescribed application to infected areas.<ref name=WujastykXX>Wujastyk, page XX</ref>
  
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{{see also|The Eight Armed Ayurveda}}
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The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX>Wujastyk, pages XIX-XX</ref> Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to [[rheumatism]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], and [[convulsion]]s as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX/> [[Sweating]] is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the ''Dosha''s causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take [[Steambath|steam bathing]] and other [[steam]] related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX/>
  
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===Gurukul system of Ayurveda===
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==History==
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In the earlier days of its conception, the system of Ayurvedic medicine was orally transferred via the [[Gurukul]] system until a written script came into existence.
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Ayurveda traces its origins to the [[Vedas]]—the [[Atharvaveda]] in particular—and is connected to [[religion]] and [[mythology]].<ref>
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<small>Indian medicine has a long history. Its earliest concepts are set out in the sacred writings called the [[Veda]]s, especially in the metrical passages of the [[Atharvaveda]], which may possibly date as far back as the 2nd millennium B.C.E.. According to a later writer, the system of medicine called Āyurveda was received by a certain [[Dhanvantari]] from [[Brahma]], and Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king who died of snakebite. — Underwood & Rhodes (2008)</small></ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' of [[Sushruta]] appeared during the 1st millennium B.C.E.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/> Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)— on the work of the surgeon Sushruta—write:<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)</ref>
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In this system, the [[Guru]] gave a solemn address where he directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and [[vegetarianism]]. The student was to strive with all his being to heal the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage.  He was required to dress modestly and avoid alcohol or drugs.  He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times.  He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill.  At the patient's home, he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.
 
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The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years.  Before graduation, the student was to pass a test.  But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation ([[pratyaksha]]), and through inference ([[anumāna]]).  In addition, the [[vaidyas]] attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The practitioners also gained knowledge of unusual remedies from laypeople who were outside the huffsteter community such as hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers.
 
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{{see also|Teachings of Ayurveda}}
 
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== Tridosha system ==
 
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The central concept of Ayurvedic medicine is the theory that health exists when there is a balance between three fundamental bodily humours or doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.  
 
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*'''Vata''' is the ''impulse'' principle necessary to mobilize the function of the nervous system
 
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*'''Pitta''' is the ''energy'' principle which uses bile to direct digestion and hence metabolism into the venous system.
 
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*'''Kapha''' is the ''body fluid'' principle which relates to mucous, lubrication and the carrier of nutrients into the arterial system.
 
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All Ayurvedic physicians believe that these ancient ideas, based in the  knowledge discovered by the Rishis and Munis, exist in harmony with physical reality. These Ayurvedic concepts allow physicians to examine the homeostasis of the whole system.  People may be of a predominant dosha or constitution, but all doshas have the basic elements within them.
 
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==Ayurvedic tastes==
 
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Ayurveda holds that the tastes of foods or herbs have specific physiological effects. Those tastes that transform after digestion (Vipaka) are more powerful.
 
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;Sweet - Madhura
 
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:Sweet foods nourish, cool, moisten, oil, and increase weight
 
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;Sour - Amla
 
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:Sour foods warm, oil, and increase weight
 
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;Salty - Lavan
 
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:Salty foods warm, dissolve, stimulate, soften, oil, and increase weight
 
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;Bitter - Katu
 
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:Bitter foods cool, dry, purify and decrease weight
 
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;Pungent  - Tikta
 
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:Pungent foods warm, dry, stimulate, and decrease weight
 
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;'''Astringent - Kasaya'''
 
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:Astringent foods cool, dry, reduce stickiness.
 
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==Medications==
 
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[[Image:Tulsi2.jpg|thumb|Ayurvedic practitioners believe that the [[tulsi]] (holy basil) plant has medicinal qualities]]
 
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Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health.
 
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Ayurvedic medicaments are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs, either alone or in combination with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes.
 
  
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Writers and compilers of Ayurvedic literature such as Charaka, Sushruta, Vagabhatta, Bhav Mishra, Shaligram and others have written about the qualities, characteristics and medicinal uses of the herbs, mineral, metals, chemicals, animal parts, cooked food articles, natural foods, fruits etc. Among them, the ''[[Bhav Prakash Nighantu]]'', written by Bhav Mishra, is known for its detail <!-—by whom? POV--->.The composition of the ''Nighantu part'' (Ayurvedic Materia Medica) of the Bhav Prakash is part of the classical book. The details of the medicinal herbs are given according to the nature, effects, and curative properties as observed by the Ayurvedic practitioners.
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{{quotation2|The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was by oral method. The language used was [[Sanskrit]] — the [[Vedic sanskrit|vedic language]] of that period (2000-500 B.C.E.). The most authentic compilation of his teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called ''Sushruta Samhita''. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.}}
  
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Ayurvedic literature has been written by several authors in languages such as [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi]], [[Kannada]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu]] and more recently, in [[English language|English]].The ''Shaligram Nighantu'' was written in Sanskrit. The ''Banaushadhi Chandrodaya'' was written in Hindi.The ''Indian Materia Medica'' was written in English.
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Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified '[[fever]] (takman), [[cough]], [[consumption]], [[diarrhea]], [[dropsy]], [[abscesses]], [[seizure]]s, [[tumour]]s, and [[skin disease]]s (including [[leprosy]]).'<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Treatment of complex ailments—including [[Angina pectoris]], [[diabetes]], [[hypertension]], and [[Calculus (medicine)|stones]]—also ensued during this period.<ref name=Lock836>Lock etc., page 836</ref><ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/> [[Plastic surgery]], [[cataract surgery]], puncturing to release fluids in the [[abdomen]], extraction of foreign elements, treatment of [[anal fistula]]s, treating [[fractures]], [[amputation]]s, [[cesarean sections]], and stitching of wounds were known.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)>Underwood & Rhodes (2008)</ref>
  
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{{Seealso|List of herbs and minerals in Ayurveda}}
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Other early works of Ayurveda include the ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'', attributed to [[Charaka]].<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the ''[[Bower Manuscript]]''—dated to the 4th century CE.<ref>Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII</ref> The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in [[Central Asia]].<ref name=WujastykXXVI/> [[Vagbhata (Ayurveda)|Vagbhata]]—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—<ref>Wujastyk, page 224</ref> also compiled his works on traditional medicine.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.<ref name=AYUSH/> Tradition holds that the text ''[[Agnivesh tantra]]''—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage [[Bharadwaja]]—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.<ref>Vināyaka Jayānanda Ṭhākara. (1989). ''Methodology of Research in Ayurveda'', p. 7. Gujarat Ayurved University.</ref>
  
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==Panchakarma and Ayurvedic massage==
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The [[Chinese people|Chinese]] pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (ca. 337 - 422 C.E.) wrote about the health care system of the [[Gupta empire]] (320 - 550 C.E.) and—in process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Caraka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.<ref name=WujastykXV-XVI>Wujastyk, pages XV-XVI</ref> Madhava (700 C.E.), Sarngadhara (1300 C.E.), and Bhavamisra (1500 C.E.) compiled works on Indian medicine.<ref name=WujastykXXVI>Wujastyk, page XXVI</ref> The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into [[Arabic language]] during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750 C.E.).<ref>Lock etc., page 607</ref> These Arabic works made their way into [[Europe]] via intermediaries.<ref name=Lock607/> In [[Italy]] the Branca family of [[Sicily]] and Gaspare Tagliacozzi ([[Bologna]]) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.<ref name=Lock607>Lock etc., page 607</ref>
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[[Panchakarma]] (the five actions or modalities) is a collection of purification techniques that Ayurveda prescribes for some diseases and for periodic cleansing. A course of Pancharkarma typically includes a short-term dietary prescription, massage, herbs, and may include purgatives, sweat baths, medicated enemas, and nasal cleansing.
 
  
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Ayurvedic massage is a form of treatment for various age related and other common disorders. Some of the advantages which can be cited are  pain relief, improved circulation, stress relief, better sleep, flexibility, athletic performance and emotional benefits {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Massage therapy can soothe pain, relax stiff muscles, and reduce the swelling that accompanies arthritis {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Advocates claim that, with ayurvedic massage, deep-seated toxins in the joints and tissues are loosened and released into the system for elimination through natural toxin-release processes.<ref>[http://www.bestayurveda.com/massage.php Ayurveda is Life] - Best Ayurveda. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Ayurvedic massage is especially developed in [[Sri Lanka]] and the Indian state of [[Kerala]]
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[[England|British]] physicians traveled to India to see [[Rhinoplasty]] being performed by native methods.<ref name=Lock651>Lock etc., page 651</ref> Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' by 1794.<ref name=Lock651/> [[Joseph Constantine Carpue]] spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods.<ref name=Lock651/> Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the [[western world]] by 1815.<ref name=Lock652>Lock etc., page 652</ref> Instruments described in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' were further modified in the Western World.<ref name=Lock652/>
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{{see also|Panchakarma}}
 
  
 
==Current status==
 
==Current status==
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In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional associations and to promote their case for national recognition and funding.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} This began to become a reality after [[History of the Republic of India|Indian independence]] in 1947.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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===Within South Asia===
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In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the [[Parliament of India]], which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.<ref name=WujastykXXII/> In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.<ref name=encarta-ayurveda/> Indian Government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.<ref name=WujastykXVI>Wujastyk, page XVI</ref> The state-sponsored [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.<ref name=Kurup7/> The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.<ref name=Kurup7>Kurup, page 7</ref>
  
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Ayurveda is now a statutory, recognised medical system of health care like other medical systems existing in India. The Central Council of Indian Medicine {CCIM} governs and recommends policies for the research and development of the system. An Encyclopedia on Ayurveda - Ayushveda.com[http://www.ayushveda.com] has been developed to promote the knowledge of Ayurveda worldwide.
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Many successful clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.<ref name=WujastykXXII>Wujastyk, page XXII</ref> Mukherjee & Wahile cite [[World Health Organization]] statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.<ref name=Mukherjee&Wahile>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16271286|title=Mukherjee P.K., Wahile A. in ''Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines'', Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2006 Jan 3;103(1):25-35.}}</ref> In [[Sri Lanka]] the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained [[History_of_medicine#Modern_medicine|modern medicine]] professionals.<ref>''Health and welfare (from Sri Lanka)''. Encyclopedia Britannica (2008).</ref> The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several [[pharmaceutical]] companies.<ref name=WujastykXXII>Wujastyk, page XXII</ref>
  
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In India, practitioners in Ayurveda are trained in select Ayurveda Medical Schools wherein they earn the professional doctorate degree of Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery[B.A.M.S.] which includes 5 and 1/2 year of training including 1 year of internship!
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===Outside India===
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A Bachelor's degree with a major in Science [Physics, Chemistry, Biology] with a minor in Sanskrit is desirable in candidates interested in taking up the course.
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Ayurveda practitioners require a license in another stream of health care in the [[United States of America]].<ref name=encarta-ayurveda>[[MSN Encarta]] (2008). [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761596196/Ayurveda.html ''Ayurveda'']</ref> Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility.<ref name=Kurup6>Kurup 2003</ref> Kurup (2003) comments on the role of [[Gujarat Ayurved University]]:<ref name=Kurup6>Kurup, page 6</ref>
  
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Select institutions like the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi offer higher doctorates and postgraduate training: MD [Ayurveda] which includes a 3 year residency and a dissertation similar to the MD/MS degrees in modern system of medicine!
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{{Quotation2|The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the [[Memorandum of Understanding]] (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in [[Japan]], [[Australia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Argentina]], and [[Germany]] to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of [[Russia]] had signed the MoU with the Government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities.}}
  
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Ayurveda gained recognition in the [[Western world]] as medical scholars researched and outlined its various postulates.<ref>Ninivaggi, Frank John (2007). ''Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West''. Praeger Press: ISBN 0313348375.</ref> In the [[United States of America]], the NIH [[NCCAM]] expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://niam.com/corp-web/index.htm|title=''National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine'' (United States)}}</ref> Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals.<ref>Gerson, S. & Green, L.H. in ''Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn.'', Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol. A-66:13 May 2002</ref> The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/wujastyk.html Dr Dominik Wujastyk, University College London.] Accessed on September, 2008</ref>
  
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===Ayurvedic institutions and practitioners===
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===Patents===
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Ayurvedic practitioners have been appointed as Honorary Ayurvedic Physician to the [[President of India]]. Every year on the occasion of [[Dhanvantari]] jayanti, a prestigious [[Dhanvantari Award]] is conferred on a famous personality of Medical Sciences including Ayurveda. Kerala is the leading state in India that promotes research and practices of Ayurveda. This has been attributed to Kerala's well established Ayurveda centers, Ayurveda pharmaceutical companies, and Ayurveda medical college's. Today besides Kerala, Gujarat, Maharastra, and Karnataka are also promoting Ayurveda. For example, there are many Ayurvedic centers (known as ''Vaidya shalas'') all over Kerala.
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In December 1993, the [[University of Mississippi]] Medical Center had a patent issued to them by [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] on the use of [[turmeric]] for healing.<ref>US Patent No. 5,401,504</ref> The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, [[CSIR India|Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R)]], on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of [[bio-piracy]].<ref name="HerbalGram">{{cite journal| author = Johnston, Barbara & Webb, Ginger| year = 1997| title = Turmeric Patent Overturned in Legal Victory| journal = HerbalGram| volume = Fall 1997| issue = 41| pages = 11| url = http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=108&sid=ecc8454b-c5ab-4d0c-9358-e355356593fe%40sessionmgr103}}</ref> The [[Government of India]] had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.<ref name=Sharma&Bodeker/> Sharma & Bodeker report on the various government activities in relation with Ayurveda:<ref name=Sharma&Bodeker>Sharma & Bodeker in ''Encyclopedia Britannica 2008''</ref>
  
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===Practice in the West===
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{{Quotation2|In India the government became involved in traditional drug production when the Central Drug Research Institute patented two new drugs from ancient Ayurvedic formulas. One, a mixture of [[black pepper]], [[long pepper]], and [[ginger]], allows for the dosage of the antibiotic [[rifampicin]] to be halved in the treatment of [[tuberculosis]] and other [[mycobacterial]] infections. The other is a memory tonic produced from the traditional plant called [[brahmi]]. Overseas patenting of turmeric and products of the [[neem]] tree caused controversy in India and other nations. In August the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office canceled a U.S. patent on the wound-healing properties of [[turmeric]] when the Indian government proved that records had existed for this use for centuries.}}
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As a result of strong regulations in medical practice in Europe and [[United States|America]], the most commonly practiced Ayurvedic treatments in the west are massage and dietary and herbal advice.
 
  
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In the United States, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (established by Scott Gerson) is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.<ref>[http://niam.com/corp-web/index.htm National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, United States] All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in medical journals.<ref>Gerson, S, Green, LH, Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn., Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol. A-66:13 May 2002</ref>
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=== Scientific evidence ===
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As a [[traditional medicine]], many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and [[clinical trials]].<ref name=NewYorkTimes2008-09-17/> In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the [[Government of India|Central Government]], the [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.<ref name="ccras">{{cite web | title=Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (Government of India)| url= http://www.ccras.nic.in/}}</ref> A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid [[arthritis]] concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits.<ref name=Park2005>{{cite journal |author=Park J., Ernst E. |title=Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review |journal=Semin. Arthritis Rheum. |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=705–13 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15846585 |doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2004.11.005 |url=}}</ref> A review of Ayurveda and [[cardiovascular disease]] concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate, some herbs are promising, and [[yoga]] is also a promising complementary treatment.<ref name=Mamtani2005>{{cite journal |author=Mamtani R., Mamtani R. |title=Ayurveda and yoga in cardiovascular diseases |journal=Cardiol Rev |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=155–62 |year=2005 |pmid=15834238 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1061-5377&volume=13&issue=3&spage=155}}</ref>  
  
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Several Pharmecutical companies and Academic Institutions in the west have come into conflict with Indian academic institutions and traditional Ayurvedic practitioners over the intellectual property rights of herbal products researched by the western agencies. The Ayurvedic practitioners have known about the efficacy of such products for centuries and so contend that they carry precedence with regards to patent rights on such products.
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Despite these misgivings, some ayurvedic products, mainly [[herbalism|herbs]] used for [[phytotherapy]], have been tested with promising results. [[Turmeric]] and its derivative [[curcumin]] appears to have beneficial properties.<ref name=Aggarwal2007>{{cite journal |author=Aggarwal B.B., Sundaram C., Malani N., Ichikawa H. |title=Curcumin: the Indian solid gold |journal=Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. |volume=595 |issue= |pages=1–75 |year=2007 |pmid=17569205 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Tinspora cordifolia has been tested.<ref name=Panchabhai2008>{{cite journal |author=Panchabhai T.S., Kulkarni U.P., Rege N.N. |title=Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review |journal=Phytother Res |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=425–41 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18167043 |doi=10.1002/ptr.2347 |url=}}</ref> Among the medhya ''rasayanas'' (intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of sage have been tested; one improved word recall in young adults,<ref name="pmid12895685">{{cite journal |author=Tildesley N.T., Kennedy D.O., Perry E.K., ''et al'' |title=Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers |journal=Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=669–74 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=12895685 |doi= |url=}}</ref> and another improved symptoms in Alzheimer's patients.<ref name="pmid12605619">{{cite journal |author=Akhondzadeh S., Noroozian M., Mohammadi M., Ohadinia S., Jamshidi A.H., Khani M. |title=Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial |journal=J Clin Pharm Ther |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=53–9 |year=2003 |month=February |pmid=12605619 |doi= |url=}}</ref> In some cases Ayurvedic medicine may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of [[snake venom]] have various therapeutic properties.<ref name=Koh2006>{{cite journal |author=Koh D.C., Armugam A., Jeyaseelan K. |title=Snake venom components and their applications in biomedicine |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=63 |issue=24 |pages=3030–41 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17103111 |doi=10.1007/s00018-006-6315-0 |url=}}</ref> Many plants used as ''rasayana'' (rejuvenation) medications are potent antioxidants.<ref name=Govindarajan2005>{{cite journal |author=Govindarajan R., Vijayakumar M., Pushpangadan P. |title=Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda |journal=J Ethnopharmacol |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=165–78 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15894123 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2005.02.035 |url=}}</ref> [[Neem]] appears to have beneficial pharmacological properties as well.<ref name=Subapriya2005>{{cite journal |author=Subapriya R., Nagini S. |title=Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review |journal=Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=149–6 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15777222 |doi= |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=1568-0118&volume=5&issue=2&spage=149&aulast=Subapriya}}</ref>
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On December 1993, the [[University of Mississippi]] Medical Center had a patent issued to them by U.S patents and trademarks office on the use of [[turmeric]] (U.S. patent No. 5,401,504) for healing. The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, [[CSIR_India|Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R)]], on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of [[bio-piracy]].
 
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{{cite journal
 
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| author = Johnston, Barbara and Webb, Ginger
 
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| year = 1997
 
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| title = Turmeric Patent Overturned in Legal Victory
 
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| journal = HerbalGram
 
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| volume = Fall 1997
 
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| issue = 41
 
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| pages = 11
 
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| url = http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=108&sid=ecc8454b-c5ab-4d0c-9358-e355356593fe%40sessionmgr103
 
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}}. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>
 
  
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After a complex legal battle, the U.S. Patents and Trademarks Office ruled on August 14,1997 that the patent was invalid because it was not a novel invention, giving the intellectual property rights to the principle back to the traditional practitioners of Ayurveda. R. A. Mashelkar, director-general of the CSIR, was satisfied with the result, saying:
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Mitra & Rangesh (2003) hold that [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]] are believed to stimulate [[digestive enzymes]] that break down [[polymeric]] [[macromolecules]] in the Human body.<ref name=Mitra2>Mitra & Rangesh, page 363</ref> Research suggests that ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' is useful in alleviating the [[pain and nociception|pain]] of [[angina pectoris]] and in treating [[heart failure]] and [[coronary artery disease]].<ref name="pmid9855567"/> ''Terminalia arjun'' may also be useful in treating [[hypercholesterolemia]].<ref name="pmid9855567"/> ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'' is believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and is used often as an anti-infective.<ref name=Mungantiwar/> It has been found to enhance the production of [[IL-2]] and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting [[lymphocyte]] and [[T-cell]] count in three weeks.<ref name=Mungantiwar/> Both [[black pepper]] and [[long pepper]] find application in Ayurvedic medicine in conjunction with [[ginger]] to form ''trikatu''—a the traditional mixture.<ref name=MitraCRC/> ''Trikatu'' has been suggested to increase appetite, promote the secretion of [[digestive juices]], and cure certain [[gastric|gastric disorder]]s—particularly [[Achlorhydria]] and [[Hypochlorhydria]].<ref name=MitraCRC/>
  
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<blockquote>
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===Safety Concerns===
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"This success will enhance the confidence of the people and help remove fears about India's helplessness on preventing bio-piracy and appropriation of inventions based on traditional knowledge
 
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</blockquote>
 
  
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The turmeric patent was just one of the hundreds that the several academic organizations and Pharmecutical companies in the west have claimed by ignoring Ayurvedic knowledge. Vandana Shiva, a global campaigner for a fair and honest Intellectual Property Rights system, says patents on herbal products derived from  [[Neem]], [[Amla]], Jar Amla, [[Anar]], [[Salai]], [[Dudhi]], [[Gulmendhi]], [[Bagbherenda]], [[Karela]], [[Erand]], Rangoon-kibel, [[Vilayetishisham]] and [[Chamkura]] also need to be revoked.
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A study by Saper etc. published in 2004 in the [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] studied the chemistry of Ayurveda compounds and found significant levels of [[toxic metals|toxic heavy metals]] such as [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]] in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale around Boston and extrapolated the data to America.<ref name="pmid15598918">{{cite journal |author=Saper R.B., Kales S.N., Paquin J., ''et al'' |title=Heavy metal content of Ayurveda herbal medicine products |journal=JAMA |volume=292 |issue=23 |pages=2868–73 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15598918 |doi=10.1001/jama.292.23.2868 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/292/23/2868}}</ref> The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20% of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards"<ref name="pmid15598918"/> There is a technique of detoxification applied to heavy metals and toxic herbs called [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]], which is similar to the Chinese [[pao zhi]] although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques.<ref>Alan Keith Tillotson (2001) in ''The One Earth Herbal Sourcebook: Everything You Need to Know About Chinese, Western, and Ayurvedic Herbal Treatments''<blockquote><small>Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance. However, the science of Ayurveda looks upon aconite as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed i.e. it undergoes 'samskaras' before being utilised in the Ayurvedic formulations. This study was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether 'processed' aconite is less toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of 2.6&nbsp;mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite). Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete detoxification. - {{cite journal |author=Thorat S, Dahanukar S |title=Can we dispense with Ayurvedic samskaras? |journal=J Postgrad Med |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=157–9 |year=1991 |month=July |pmid=1784028 |doi= |url=http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=1991;volume=37;issue=3;spage=157;epage=9;aulast=Thorat}}</small></blockquote></ref> There is evidence that using some Ayurveda medicine, especially those involving [[herbs]], [[metals]], [[minerals]], or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including [[toxicity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nccam.nih.gov/health/ayurveda/#concerns|title=''Ayurvedic Medicine: An Introduction'' (2005). National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine}}</ref><ref name=NewYorkTimes2008-09-17>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html?em=&pagewanted=all| title=Skin Deep: Ancient, but how safe?| publisher=[[New York Times]]| author=Ellin, Abby | date=2008-09-17| accessdate=2008-09-19|quote=A report in the Aug. 27 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained lead, mercury or arsenic.}}</ref>
  
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Seven American and four Japanese firms have filed for grant of patents on formulations containing extracts of the herb [[Ashwagandha]]. Fruits, leaves and seeds of the Indian medicinal plant [[withania somnifera]] have been traditionally used for the Ayurvedic system as aphrodisiacs, diuretics and for treating memory loss. The Japanese patent applications are related to the use of the herb as a skin ointment and for promoting reproductive fertility. The U.S based company Natreon has also obtained a patent for an Ashwagandha extract.
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Following the study conducted by Saper etc. the Government of India ruled that Ayurvedic products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product.<ref name=Valiathan06>Valiathan, M. S. in ''Ayurveda: Putting the house in order'', Current Science, Vol. 90, No. 1, 5-6, 10 January 2006. [[Indian Academy of Sciences]].</ref> The harmful effects of the samples is attributed in part to the adulterated raw material and lack of workers trained in traditional medicine.<ref name=Dubeyetc./> In a letter to the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]], Patwardhan Bhushan—director of the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, [[University of Pune]]—cites Saper etc. and states that contamination and carelessness during the modern manufacturing processes, quicker than the safer traditional methods of preparation, is to blame for the heavy level of toxicity in traditional medicine.<ref name=Bhusanetc.>Bhushan etc. in ''Heavy metals and Ayurveda'', Current Science, Vol. 88, No. 10, 25 May 2005. Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref> Bhushan further writes: "Presence of spurious substances in market samples is not new. However, it does not reflect adversely on the importance of modern medicine. For instance, cyanidetainted Tylenol5. Therefore, conclusion of Saper et al. that ‘users of Ayurvedic medicine may be at risk for heavy metal toxicity’ is certainly not justified. It only relates to certain samples of Ayurvedic medicines from certain companies in certain locations."<ref name=Bhusanetc./> The flawed output has resulted in decline of Ayurveda in India as well as abroad.<ref name=Dubeyetc.>Dubey, N. K.; Kumar, R., and Tripathi, P. in ''Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity'', Current Science, Vol. 86, No. 1, 37-41, 10 January 2004. Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref>
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Another US establishment, the New England Deaconess Hospital, has taken a patent on an Ashwagandha formulation claimed to alleviate symptoms associated with [[arthritis]]. It is clear that the Ashwagandha plant is catching the attention of scientists and more patents related to Ashwagandha are being filed or granted by different patent offices since 1996.<ref>[http://www.hvk.org/articles/0501/69.html Ashwagandha next on patent hunters list],''Hindu Vivek Kendra'' archive of the ''Times of India'' May 16 2001. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>
 
  
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Ayurvedic wisdom originated in the main Vedas as a part of way of life - a spiritual connection with spirit and nature. This is most evident reading Atharva Veda. Ayurveda was used to remove obstacles on one’s path to [[Self-Realization]]. At some point the medical aspects began to take priority over the spiritual forms of healing (ie, focusing on lifestyle, [[dharma]] and [[moksha]]. Today, these spiritual aspects of Ayurveda have taken a back seat to the medical focus. As Ayurveda becomes more commercially viable career, the spiritual aspects may continue to lose ground. Yet there are a growing number of practitioners who practice mainly these spiritual therapies and find better results than limiting their approach to the medical, physical realm.
+
==Notes==
 +
{{reflist|2}}
  
−
==Criticisms==
+
==References==
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===Scientific studies and standards===
+
{{Alternative medical systems}}
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Critics object to the lack of rigorous scientific studies and [[clinical trials]] of many ayurvedic products. The [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] states that "most clinical trials of Ayurvedic approaches have been small, had problems with research designs, lacked appropriate control groups, or had other issues that affected how meaningful the results were."<ref name="Hindu">[http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2307/stories/20060421004011200.htm Ayurveda under the scanner] - ''The Hindu''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>
+
* Chopra, A.S. (2003) in "Ayurveda", ''Medicine Across Cultures,'' edited by Selin, Helaine & Shapiro, H. 75-83. Kluwer Academic Publishers. United States of America: ISBN 1-4020-1166-0.
−
 
+
* Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). [http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf ''History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence'']. [[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (Government of India)]].  
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In India, scientific research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the [[Government of India|Central Government]], the [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.<ref name="ccras">{{cite web | title=Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha | url= http://www.ccras.nic.in/}} All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> A large number of non-governmental organisations are also conducting research work on different aspects of Ayurveda[http://www.niam.com/corp-web/current.htm]. However, "even staunch advocates of Ayurveda like [[cardiologist]] Dr. M.S. Valiathan...admit that 'clinical studies that would satisfy the liberal criteria of WHO [[World Health Organisation]] have been alarmingly few from India, in spite of patients crowding in Ayurvedic hospitals"'.<ref name="Hindu"/>
+
* Finger, Stanley (2001). ''Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function''. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195146948.
−
 
+
* Kurup, P.N.V. (2003) in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System", ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' edited by Mishra, L.C. 1-14. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
−
===Safety concerns===
+
* Kutumbian, P. (2005). ''Ancient Indian Medicine''. Orient Longman. ISBN 8125015213.
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There is evidence that using some ayurvedic medicine, especially those involving [[herbs]], [[metals]], [[minerals]], or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including [[toxicity]].<ref>[http://nccam.nih.gov/health/ayurveda/#concerns Are there concerns about Ayurvedic medicine?] - ''National Center for Complementary and Alternatie Medicine''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref><ref name="AYUSH-de"> [http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm#de Development and its Status of Ayurveda] All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref><ref name="Indianexp">[http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/full_story.php?content_id=71247&pn=1 The Ayurveda Wars] - ''Indian Express''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>
+
* Lock, Stephen etc. (2001). ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine''. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192629506.
−
 
+
* Mitra, K.S. & Rangesh, P.R. (2003) in "Irritable Colon (Grahni)", ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' edited by Mishra, L.C. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
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A research study published in the [[Journal of the American Medical Association]]<ref name="danger">[http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/292/23/2868 Heavy Metal Content of Ayurvedic Herbal Medicine Products] - ''JAMA''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> found significant levels of toxic [[heavy metals]] such as [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]] in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale in America. The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20% of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards"<ref name="danger">[http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/292/23/2868 Journal of the American Medical Association] All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Similar studies have been performed in India, and have confirmed these results. Cases of metal toxicity from use of ayurvedic medicines are well known.<ref name="tara">[http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/full_story.php?content_id=71247&pn=1 The Ayurveda Wars] - ''Indian express''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> Some practitioners claimed that "heavy metals are integral to some formulations and have been used for centuries. There is no point of doing trials as they have been used safely and have mention in our ancient texts."<ref name="tara"/>
+
* Sharma, H. M. & Bodeker, Gerard C. in ''Alternative Medicine (1997) (medical system)''. Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.
−
 
+
* Underwood, E. Ashworth & Rhodes, P. (2008) in ''medicine, history of''. Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.
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There is a technique of detoxification applied to heavy metals and toxic herbs called [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]], which is similar to the Chinese [[pao zhi]] although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques.<ref>Alan Keith Tillotson. AHG, PhD, D.Ay ''The One Earth Herbal Sourcebook: Everything You Need to Know About Chinese, Western, and Ayurvedic Herbal Treatments'' 2001. New York, NY : Twin Streams : Kensington Pub. Corp., 2001. ISBN 1575666170 ISBN 9781575666174</ref> An intriguing study of the effectiveness of the Ayurvedic samskaras was printed in the Journal of Postgrad Medicine<ref>[http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/safety-regulation/  Safety & Regulation—Who's Watching the Herbal Store?,"] - ''Tillotson Institute of Natural Health''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>:
+
* Wujastyk, D. (2003). ''The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings''. Penguin Classics: ISBN 0140448241
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<blockquote>
 
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Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance. However, the science of Ayurveda looks upon aconite as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed i.e. it undergoes 'samskaras' before being utilised in the Ayurvedic formulations. This study was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether 'processed' aconite is less toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of 2.6 mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite). Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete detoxification.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=pubmed "Can we dispense with Ayurvedic samskaras?"  Thorat S. and Dahanukar S. J Postgrad Med. 1991 Jul;37(3):157-9.] - ''NCBI''. All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref>
 
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</blockquote>
 
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The described detoxification is a simple chemical processing which involves four successive rounds of boiling the crude root in cow's urine (twice) and cow's milk (twice).  Such processing is reasonably expected to chemically modify both toxic and proposed therapeutic components of the root.   It will also lead to extraction of these compounds from the root into the boiling solvents, thereby decreasing their concentration in the final product.
 
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It should also be noted that, while these washes appear to ameliorate the toxicity of the crude root, there is no evidence that the processed root has any therapeutic value. A search of the Citation Index, via Web of Science (isiknowledge.com), returned no mention of any therapeutic value for aconite. However, the literature is replete with instances of aconite poisoning, though no mention of specific processing is made in these poisoning cases.
 
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==="Miracle Cures"===
 
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Some critics also question the safety of those Ayurvedic drugs that are said to provide "Miracle Cures." <ref name="miracle">[http://health.hosuronline.com/tamilmedicine/ miraculous cures] - hosuronline.com  All links Retrieved October 11, 2007.</ref> The critics argue that simply following age-old Ayurvedic formulas is no guarantee of safety and the fundamental processes and concepts on which these ancient processes are based must be exposed to serious scientific scrutiny.
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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* [[List of pseudosciences and pseudoscientific concepts]]
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* [[Traditional medicine]]
 
* [[List of herbs and minerals in Ayurveda]]
 
* [[List of herbs and minerals in Ayurveda]]
 
* [[Rasayanas]]
 
* [[Rasayanas]]
 
* [[Chyawanprash]]
 
* [[Chyawanprash]]
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*[[Research and innovations in Ayurveda]]
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* [[Research and innovations in Ayurveda]]
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* [[Charaka Samhita]]
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* [[Charaka]]
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* [[Panchgavya]] - treatment using products of cows
 
 
* [[Sri Lankan Ayurvedic tradition]]
 
* [[Sri Lankan Ayurvedic tradition]]
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*[[Astrogenetics]]
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* [[Traditional medicine]]
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* [[Yoga (alternative medicine)]]
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* [[Panchakarma]]
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* [[Gujarat Ayurved University]]
  
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Revision as of 04:17, 11 November 2008

Ayurveda—intertwined with mythology and religion—traces the origin of traditional Indian medicine to the legendary Dhanvantari, who received his knowledge from Brahma—the Hindu God of creation.
Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including cardamom and cinnamon, both of which are believed to stimulate digestive enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules in the Human body.[1]
Several philosophers In India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of Buddhism and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher Nagarjuna—known chiefly for his doctrine of the Madhyamika (middle path)—who wrote medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection, among others.[2]
Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina pectoris and in treating heart failure and coronary artery disease. Terminalia may also be useful in treating hypercholesterolemia[3]
File:Seven chakras.jpg
The seven chakras (Devanāgarī: चक्र) and the Mahābhūta (Devanāgarī: महाभुत्) in Tantric tradition. Yoga and Tantra have influenced traditional Ayurvedic medicine.
Azadirachta indica—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of IL-2 and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting lymphocyte and T-cell count in three weeks.[4]
Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta.[5] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[5] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[5]
File:Pepper091.jpg
Black pepper and long pepper are combined with ginger to form the traditional trikatu mixture in Ayurveda. This mixture increases appetite, promotes the secretion of digestive juices, and cures certain gastric disorders—particularly Achlorhydria and Hypochlorhydria.[6]
The mantra ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ written on rocks. Chanting mantras has been a feature of Ayurveda since the Atharvaveda—a largely religious text—was compiled.[7]
Oils—such as sesame and sunflower oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of linoleate in triglyceride form. Oils rich in linoleic acid may have antineoplastic properties.[8]
File:Curcumin structure (keto).svg
Chemical structure of curcumin used in Ayurvedic medicine. Shown here in its keto form.

Ayurveda (Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद, the 'science of life') is a system of traditional medicine native to India,[9] and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine.[10] In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda comprises the words āyus, meaning 'life' and veda, meaning 'science'.[9] Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in South Asia.[11] The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the Vedic period in India.[10] The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.[10] Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.[12]

Ayurveda has become an alternative form of medicine in the western world, where patents for its medicine have been passed, and the intellectual property rights contested by Western and Indian institutions.[13] Ayurveda is considered to be a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) within the United States of America, where several of its methods—such as herbs, massage, and Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine—are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.[14]

Overview

Ayurveda believes in 'five great elements' (Devanāgarī: पन्छतत्व‌; earth, water, fire, air and space) forming the universe, including the human body.[9] Blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, chyle, and semen are the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.[15] Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, phlegm, and bile, each representing divine forces.[15] The doctrine of these three Dosas (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—vata (wind/spirit/air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm)—is important.[16] Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of Dosas.[16] In Ayurveda, the human body has 20 Guna (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning quality).[17] Surgery and surgical instruments are employed.[17] It is believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality.[17] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage.[18]

The concept of Panchakarma (Devanāgarī: पन्छ्कर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body.[19] Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (Devanāgarī: अश्ताग्), are given below:[20]

  • Surgery (Shalya-chkitsa).
  • Treatment of diseases above the clavicle (Salakyam).
  • Internal medicine (Kaya-chikitsa).
  • Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya): Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences.[21] Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry.[10]
  • Paediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam).
  • Toxicology (Agadatantram).
  • Prevention and building immunity (rasayanam).
  • Aphrodisiacs (Vajikaranam).

Practices

Buddhism may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as Madhyamika (Devanāgarī: मद्यमिका).[22] Balance is emphasized and suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.[22] To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.[22] Ayurveda emphasizes on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.[22]

Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations.[9] Chopra (2003)—on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics—writes:[23]

Template:Quotation2

For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed.[24] The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient.[24] The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.[24] Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.[15] The study of the vital pressure points or marma is of special importance.[17]

Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'[24]

Hygiene—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief.[15] Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.[15] Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.[15]

Ayurveda stresses on vegetable drugs.[15] Fats are used both for consumption and for external use.[15] Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon.[15] Some animal products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones etc.[15] Minerals—including sulfur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate, gold—are also consumed as prescribed.[15]

Alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing operation in some cases.[15] The advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic.[20] Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.[15] Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed application to infected areas.[25]

The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity.[26] Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, and convulsions as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations.[26] Sweating is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the Doshas causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take steam bathing and other steam related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released.[26]

History

Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas—the Atharvaveda in particular—and is connected to religion and mythology.[27] The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the 1st millennium B.C.E.[12] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)— on the work of the surgeon Sushruta—write:[12]

Template:Quotation2

Underwood & Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified 'fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumours, and skin diseases (including leprosy).'[15] Treatment of complex ailments—including Angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones—also ensued during this period.[28][12] Plastic surgery, cataract surgery, puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known.[15] The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.[15]

Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka.[15] The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century CE.[29] The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in Central Asia.[30] Vagbhata—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—[31] also compiled his works on traditional medicine.[15] Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.[10] Tradition holds that the text Agnivesh tantra—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage Bharadwaja—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.[32]

The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337 - 422 C.E.) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire (320 - 550 C.E.) and—in process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Caraka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.[33] Madhava (700 C.E.), Sarngadhara (1300 C.E.), and Bhavamisra (1500 C.E.) compiled works on Indian medicine.[30] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 C.E.).[34] These Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries.[35] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[35]

British physicians traveled to India to see Rhinoplasty being performed by native methods.[36] Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794.[36] Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods.[36] Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the western world by 1815.[37] Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western World.[37]

Current status

Within South Asia

In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.[38] In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.[18] Indian Government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.[39] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India.[40] The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.[40]

Many successful clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.[38] Mukherjee & Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.[41] In Sri Lanka the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained modern medicine professionals.[42] The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies.[38]

Outside India

Ayurveda practitioners require a license in another stream of health care in the United States of America.[18] Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility.[43] Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat Ayurved University:[43]

Template:Quotation2

Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world as medical scholars researched and outlined its various postulates.[44] In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM expends some of its $123 million budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.[45] Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals.[46] The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the United Kingdom.[47]

Patents

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing.[48] The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy.[49] The Government of India had become involved in promoting traditional medicine by 1997.[50] Sharma & Bodeker report on the various government activities in relation with Ayurveda:[50]

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Scientific evidence

As a traditional medicine, many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and clinical trials.[51] In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the Central Government, the Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.[52] A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid arthritis concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits.[53] A review of Ayurveda and cardiovascular disease concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate, some herbs are promising, and yoga is also a promising complementary treatment.[54]

Despite these misgivings, some ayurvedic products, mainly herbs used for phytotherapy, have been tested with promising results. Turmeric and its derivative curcumin appears to have beneficial properties.[55] Tinspora cordifolia has been tested.[56] Among the medhya rasayanas (intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of sage have been tested; one improved word recall in young adults,[57] and another improved symptoms in Alzheimer's patients.[58] In some cases Ayurvedic medicine may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of snake venom have various therapeutic properties.[59] Many plants used as rasayana (rejuvenation) medications are potent antioxidants.[60] Neem appears to have beneficial pharmacological properties as well.[61]

Mitra & Rangesh (2003) hold that cardamom and cinnamon are believed to stimulate digestive enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules in the Human body.[1] Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina pectoris and in treating heart failure and coronary artery disease.[3] Terminalia arjun may also be useful in treating hypercholesterolemia.[3] Azadirachta indica is believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and is used often as an anti-infective.[4] It has been found to enhance the production of IL-2 and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting lymphocyte and T-cell count in three weeks.[4] Both black pepper and long pepper find application in Ayurvedic medicine in conjunction with ginger to form trikatu—a the traditional mixture.[6] Trikatu has been suggested to increase appetite, promote the secretion of digestive juices, and cure certain gastric disorders—particularly Achlorhydria and Hypochlorhydria.[6]

Safety Concerns

A study by Saper etc. published in 2004 in the Journal of the American Medical Association studied the chemistry of Ayurveda compounds and found significant levels of toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale around Boston and extrapolated the data to America.[62] The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20% of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards"[62] There is a technique of detoxification applied to heavy metals and toxic herbs called samskaras, which is similar to the Chinese pao zhi although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques.[63] There is evidence that using some Ayurveda medicine, especially those involving herbs, metals, minerals, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including toxicity.[64][51]

Following the study conducted by Saper etc. the Government of India ruled that Ayurvedic products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product.[65] The harmful effects of the samples is attributed in part to the adulterated raw material and lack of workers trained in traditional medicine.[66] In a letter to the Indian Academy of Sciences, Patwardhan Bhushan—director of the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Pune—cites Saper etc. and states that contamination and carelessness during the modern manufacturing processes, quicker than the safer traditional methods of preparation, is to blame for the heavy level of toxicity in traditional medicine.[67] Bhushan further writes: "Presence of spurious substances in market samples is not new. However, it does not reflect adversely on the importance of modern medicine. For instance, cyanidetainted Tylenol5. Therefore, conclusion of Saper et al. that ‘users of Ayurvedic medicine may be at risk for heavy metal toxicity’ is certainly not justified. It only relates to certain samples of Ayurvedic medicines from certain companies in certain locations."[67] The flawed output has resulted in decline of Ayurveda in India as well as abroad.[66]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Mitra & Rangesh, page 363
  2. ↑ Clifford, Terry (2003). Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry. 42. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120817842.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Miller A.L. (1998). Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. Altern Med Rev 3 (6): 422–31.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Mungantiwar, A.A. & Phadke, A.S. (2003) in "Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda", Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by Mishra, L.C. 72. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Finger, page 66
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Mitra & Rangesh, page 319
  7. ↑ Kasulis, Thomas P.; Aimes, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (1993). Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice. State University of New York Press. 104. ISBN 079141079X.
  8. ↑ Sahu, S. & Mishra, L.C. (2003) in "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors", Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by Mishra, L.C. 300. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Chopra, page 75
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (Government of India).
  11. ↑ In Sharma & Bodeker 2008 and Chopra 2003
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007)
  13. ↑ In Kurup 2003, Mitra 2003, and Sharma & Bodeker
  14. ↑ A Closer Look at Ayurvedic Medicine. NIH: Focus on Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Volume XII, Number 4: Fall 2005/Winter 2006. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 Underwood & Rhodes (2008)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Chopra, page 77
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Chopra, page 76
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 MSN Encarta (2008). Ayurveda
  19. ↑ Sharma, A.K. (2003) in "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine", Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by Mishra, L.C. 43. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Chopra, page 80
  21. ↑ Wujastyk, page XXI
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Wujastyk, page XVIII
  23. ↑ Chopra, page 78
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Chopra, page 79
  25. ↑ Wujastyk, page XX
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Wujastyk, pages XIX-XX
  27. ↑ Indian medicine has a long history. Its earliest concepts are set out in the sacred writings called the Vedas, especially in the metrical passages of the Atharvaveda, which may possibly date as far back as the 2nd millennium B.C.E. According to a later writer, the system of medicine called Āyurveda was received by a certain Dhanvantari from Brahma, and Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king who died of snakebite. — Underwood & Rhodes (2008)
  28. ↑ Lock etc., page 836
  29. ↑ Kutumbian, pages XXXII-XXXIII
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Wujastyk, page XXVI
  31. ↑ Wujastyk, page 224
  32. ↑ Vināyaka Jayānanda Ṭhākara. (1989). Methodology of Research in Ayurveda, p. 7. Gujarat Ayurved University.
  33. ↑ Wujastyk, pages XV-XVI
  34. ↑ Lock etc., page 607
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Lock etc., page 607
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Lock etc., page 651
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Lock etc., page 652
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Wujastyk, page XXII
  39. ↑ Wujastyk, page XVI
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Kurup, page 7
  41. ↑ Mukherjee P.K., Wahile A. in Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2006 Jan 3;103(1):25-35..
  42. ↑ Health and welfare (from Sri Lanka). Encyclopedia Britannica (2008).
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Kurup 2003 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Kurup6" defined multiple times with different content
  44. ↑ Ninivaggi, Frank John (2007). Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West. Praeger Press: ISBN 0313348375.
  45. ↑ National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (United States).
  46. ↑ Gerson, S. & Green, L.H. in Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn., Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol. A-66:13 May 2002
  47. ↑ Dr Dominik Wujastyk, University College London. Accessed on September, 2008
  48. ↑ US Patent No. 5,401,504
  49. ↑ Johnston, Barbara & Webb, Ginger (1997). Turmeric Patent Overturned in Legal Victory. HerbalGram Fall 1997 (41): 11.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Sharma & Bodeker in Encyclopedia Britannica 2008
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Ellin, Abby. "Skin Deep: Ancient, but how safe?", New York Times, 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2008-09-19.
  52. ↑ Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (Government of India).
  53. ↑ Park J., Ernst E. (April 2005). Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 34 (5): 705–13.
  54. ↑ Mamtani R., Mamtani R. (2005). Ayurveda and yoga in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiol Rev 13 (3): 155–62.
  55. ↑ Aggarwal B.B., Sundaram C., Malani N., Ichikawa H. (2007). Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 595: 1–75.
  56. ↑ Panchabhai T.S., Kulkarni U.P., Rege N.N. (April 2008). Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review. Phytother Res 22 (4): 425–41.
  57. ↑ Tildesley N.T., Kennedy D.O., Perry E.K., et al (June 2003). Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 75 (3): 669–74.
  58. ↑ Akhondzadeh S., Noroozian M., Mohammadi M., Ohadinia S., Jamshidi A.H., Khani M. (February 2003). Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther 28 (1): 53–9.
  59. ↑ Koh D.C., Armugam A., Jeyaseelan K. (December 2006). Snake venom components and their applications in biomedicine. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 63 (24): 3030–41.
  60. ↑ Govindarajan R., Vijayakumar M., Pushpangadan P. (June 2005). Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda. J Ethnopharmacol 99 (2): 165–78.
  61. ↑ Subapriya R., Nagini S. (March 2005). Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents 5 (2): 149–6.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Saper R.B., Kales S.N., Paquin J., et al (December 2004). Heavy metal content of Ayurveda herbal medicine products. JAMA 292 (23): 2868–73.
  63. ↑ Alan Keith Tillotson (2001) in The One Earth Herbal Sourcebook: Everything You Need to Know About Chinese, Western, and Ayurvedic Herbal Treatments

    Crude aconite is an extremely lethal substance. However, the science of Ayurveda looks upon aconite as a therapeutic entity. Crude aconite is always processed i.e. it undergoes 'samskaras' before being utilised in the Ayurvedic formulations. This study was undertaken in mice, to ascertain whether 'processed' aconite is less toxic as compared to the crude or unprocessed one. It was seen that crude aconite was significantly toxic to mice (100% mortality at a dose of 2.6 mg/mouse) whereas the fully processed aconite was absolutely non-toxic (no mortality at a dose even 8 times as high as that of crude aconite). Further, all the steps in the processing were essential for complete detoxification. - Thorat S, Dahanukar S (July 1991). Can we dispense with Ayurvedic samskaras?. J Postgrad Med 37 (3): 157–9.
  64. ↑ Ayurvedic Medicine: An Introduction (2005). National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
  65. ↑ Valiathan, M. S. in Ayurveda: Putting the house in order, Current Science, Vol. 90, No. 1, 5-6, 10 January 2006. Indian Academy of Sciences.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Dubey, N. K.; Kumar, R., and Tripathi, P. in Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity, Current Science, Vol. 86, No. 1, 37-41, 10 January 2004. Indian Academy of Sciences.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Bhushan etc. in Heavy metals and Ayurveda, Current Science, Vol. 88, No. 10, 25 May 2005. Indian Academy of Sciences.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Alternative medical systems
NCCAM classifications [1]

1. Alternative Medical Systems

2. Mind-Body Intervention

3. Biologically Based Therapy

4. Manipulative and body-based methods

5. Energy Therapy

See also
Alternative medicine
  • Chopra, A.S. (2003) in "Ayurveda", Medicine Across Cultures, edited by Selin, Helaine & Shapiro, H. 75-83. Kluwer Academic Publishers. United States of America: ISBN 1-4020-1166-0.
  • Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence. National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
  • Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195146948.
  • Kurup, P.N.V. (2003) in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System", Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by Mishra, L.C. 1-14. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
  • Kutumbian, P. (2005). Ancient Indian Medicine. Orient Longman. ISBN 8125015213.
  • Lock, Stephen etc. (2001). The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192629506.
  • Mitra, K.S. & Rangesh, P.R. (2003) in "Irritable Colon (Grahni)", Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by Mishra, L.C. CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
  • Sharma, H. M. & Bodeker, Gerard C. in Alternative Medicine (1997) (medical system). Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.
  • Underwood, E. Ashworth & Rhodes, P. (2008) in medicine, history of. Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.
  • Wujastyk, D. (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. Penguin Classics: ISBN 0140448241

See also

  • List of pseudosciences and pseudoscientific concepts
  • Traditional medicine
  • List of herbs and minerals in Ayurveda
  • Rasayanas
  • Chyawanprash
  • Research and innovations in Ayurveda
  • Charaka
  • Sri Lankan Ayurvedic tradition
  • Traditional medicine
  • Yoga (alternative medicine)
  • Panchakarma
  • Gujarat Ayurved University

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