Difference between revisions of "Public relations" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Communication]]
 
[[Category:Communication]]
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[[Image:Kvinde-emancipation.gif|thumb|right|260px|In the 1890s, when gender role reversals could be caricaturized, the idea of an aggressive woman who also smoked was considered laughable. In 1929, Edward Bernays proved otherwise when he convinced women to smoke in public during an Easter parade in Manhattan as a show of defiance against male domination. The demonstrators were not aware that a tobacco company was behind the publicity stunt, a form of '''public relations'''.]]
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'''Public relations''' ('''PR''') is the art of managing [[communication]] between an organization and its key publics to build, manage, and sustain a positive image. Public relations involves evaluation of public [[attitude]]s and [[public opinion]]s; formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding communication with its publics; coordination of communications programs; developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process; and fostering a positive relationship between an organization and its public constituents. Public relations often involves news management—optimizing good news and forestalling bad news. Equally, good public relations managers conduct "damage control" when a disaster occurs, gathering the facts and assessing the situation to prepare appropriate information to be offered to the [[mass media]]. While public relations may be criticized as [[propaganda]] on occasion, the role of managing communication between the organization and the public is a necessary one in society. As [[technology|technologies]] have developed, it has become both more difficult to hide information and equally easier to distort it. The quality of PR material produced, and how much it reflects the truth of the situation, depend on the character and motivations of all involved.
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{{toc}}
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==History==
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Precursors to '''public relations''' are found in publicists who specialized in promoting [[circus]]es, [[theater|theatrical]] performances, and other public spectacles. In the [[United States]], where public relations has its origins, many early public relations practices were developed in support of the expansive power of the [[railroad]]s. In fact, the first documented use of the term "public relations" appeared in the ''1897 Year Book of Railway Literature''.
  
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Later, public relations practitioners were&mdash;and are still often&mdash;recruited from the ranks of [[journalism]]. Some journalists, concerned with [[ethics]], have criticized former colleagues for using their inside understanding of news media to help clients receive favorable [[mass media]] coverage.<ref>Clarke Caywood, ''The Handbook of Strategic Public Relations & Integrated Communications'' (New York: McGraw Hill, 1997, ISBN 0786311312).</ref>
  
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'''Public relations''' ('''PR''') is the art of managing communication between an organization and its key publics to build, manage and sustain a positive image. Public relations involves evaluation of public attitudes and opinions; formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding communication with its publics; coordination of communications programs; developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process; and fostering a positive relationship between an organization and its public constituents.
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The [[World War I|First World War]] also helped stimulate the development of public relations as a profession. Many of the first public relations professionals&mdash;including [[Edward L. Bernays]] and [[Carl Byoir]]&mdash;got their start with the Committee on Public Information (also known as the “Creel Commission”), which organized publicity on behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I. Some historians regard [[Ivy Lee]] as the first real practitioner of public relations, but Bernays is generally regarded today as the profession's founder. In describing the origin of the term “public relations,” Bernays commented, "When I came back to the United States, I decided that if you could use [[propaganda]] for [[war]], you could certainly use it for peace. And propaganda got to be a bad word because of the Germans using it. So what I did was to try to find some other words, so we found the words Council on Public Relations."
  
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==History==
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Lee, who has been credited with developing the modern "news release" (or "press release"), espoused a philosophy consistent with what has sometimes been called the "two-way street" approach to public relations, in which public relations consists of helping clients listen as well as communicate messages to their publics. In the words of the Public Relations Society of America, "Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other."
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Precursors to public relations are found in publicists who specialized in promoting circuses, theatrical performances, and other public spectacles. In the United States, where public relations has its origins, many early PR practices were developed in support of the expansive power of the railroads. In fact, many scholars believe that the first appearance of the term "public relations" appeared in the ''1897 Year Book of Railway Literature''.  
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Bernays was the profession's first theorist. A nephew of [[Sigmund Freud]], Bernays drew many of his ideas from Freud's theories about the irrational, [[unconscious]] motives that shape human behavior. One of Bernays' early clients was the [[tobacco]] industry. In 1929, he orchestrated a legendary publicity stunt aimed at persuading women to take up [[cigarette]] smoking, which was then considered unfeminine and inappropriate for women with any social standing. Bernays arranged for [[New York City]] débutantes to march in that year's Easter Day Parade, defiantly smoking cigarettes as a statement of rebellion against the norms of a male-dominated society.
  
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Later, PR practitioners were—and are still often—recruited from the ranks of journalism. Some journalists, concerned with ethics, criticize former colleagues for using their inside understanding of news media to help clients receive favorable media coverage.<ref>Clarke Caywood, ''The Handbook of Strategic Public Relations & Integrated Communications'', McGraw Hill, New York, 1997, p. 23</ref>
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Bernays authored several books, including ''Crystallizing Public Opinion'' (1923), ''Propaganda'' (1928), and ''The Engineering of Consent'' (1947), regarding public relations as an "applied social science" that uses insights from [[psychology]], [[sociology]], and other disciplines to scientifically manage and manipulate the thinking and behavior of an irrational and "herdlike" public:
  
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The [[World War I|First World War]] also helped stimulate the development of public relations as a profession. Many of the first PR professionals, including [[Ivy Lee]], [[Edward L. Bernays]], and [[Carl Byoir]], got their start with the [[Committee on Public Information]] (also known as the Creel Commission), which organized publicity on behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I.  
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<blockquote>The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.<ref>Edward Bernays, ''Propaganda'' (1928; Brooklyn, NY: Ig Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0970312598).</ref></blockquote>
  
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In 1950 PRSA enacts the first "Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations," a forerunner to the current Code of Ethics, last revised in 2000 to include six core values and six code provisions. The six core values are "Advocacy, Honesty, Expertise, Independence, Loyalty, and Fairness." The six code provisions are "Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information, Safeguarding Confidences, Conflicts of Interest, and Enhancing the Profession."
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In 1950, PRSA enacted the first "Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations," a forerunner to the current Code of Ethics, revised in 2000 to include six core values and six code provisions.<ref>[http://www.prsa.org/aboutUs/ethics/preamble_en.html Public Relations Society of America Member Code of Ethics 2000,] Public Relations Society of America. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> These six core values are "Advocacy, Honesty, Expertise, Independence, Loyalty, and Fairness." The six code provisions are "Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information, Safeguarding Confidences, Conflicts of Interest, and Enhancing the Profession."
  
 
==The industry today==
 
==The industry today==
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According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], there were approximately 122,000 public relations specialists in the [[United States]] in 1998, while there were approximately 485,000 advertising, marketing, and public relations managers working in all industries.<ref>U.S. Department of Labor. 2006. [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos086.htm Public Relations Specialists] Occupational Outlook Handbook. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>  
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According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were approximately 122,000 public relations specialists in the [[United States]] in 1998, while there were approximately 485,000 [[advertising]], [[marketing]], and public relations managers working in all industries.<ref>[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos086.htm Public Relations Specialists,] U.S. Department of Labor, 2006. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>  
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The practice is also growing across the world. As other countries are entering into the [[globalization|globalized]] free market economy, they find they would like to promote their best face to the public. Countries in the former [[Soviet Union]] are finding the opportunity for the first time since the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]]. Over one hundred public relations firms have emerged in the formerly Soviet [[Ukraine]].<ref>Ihor Eros, “PR firms cashing in on reputation and image building,” ''Kyiv Post''.</ref> Similar numbers are developing all over [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[South America]].
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Modern public relations uses a variety of techniques including opinion polling and focus groups to evaluate [[public opinion]], combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for distributing information on behalf of their clients, including [[satellite]] feeds, the [[Internet]], broadcast faxes, and database-driven phone banks to recruit supporters for a client's cause.
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Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as corporate servants, the reality is that almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs at least one public relations professional. Large organizations may even have dedicated communications departments. Government agencies, trade associations, and other non-profit organizations commonly carry out public relations activities.
  
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Modern public relations uses a variety of techniques including opinion polling and focus groups to evaluate public opinion, combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for distributing information on behalf of their clients, including satellite feeds, the Internet, broadcast faxes, and database-driven phone banks to recruit supporters for a client's cause.
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==Public Relations Process==
  
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Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as corporate servants, the reality is that almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs at least one PR manager. Large organizations may even have dedicated communications departments. Government agencies, trade associations, and other non-profit organizations commonly carry out PR activities.
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An effective public relations plan for an organization is designed to communicate to an audience (whether internal or external publics) in such a way that the message coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit mutual interests. The process of developing such a plan consists of a number of steps.  
  
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Public relations should be seen as a management function in any organization. An effective communication, or public relations, plan for an organization is developed to communicate to an audience (whether internal or external publics) in such a way the message coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit mutual interests whenever possible.
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One common model has four steps.<ref>Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, & Glen M. Broom, ''Effective Public Relations'' (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 0130082007).</ref> The first step is "defining public relations problems," usually in terms of a "situational analysis," or what public relations professionals call a "SWOT analysis" (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). This should answer the question, "What's happening now?" The next step in the public relations process is "planning and programming," where the main focus is "strategy." This step should answer the question "what should we do and say, and why?" The third step in the public relations process is "taking action and communicating," also known as "implementation"; This step should answer the question, "How and when do we do and say it?" The final step is "evaluating the program," making a final "assessment," which should answer the question "how did we do?" This is where public relations professionals make a final analysis of the success of their campaign or communication.
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Another model defines the process of public relations through four steps: "Fact-finding and data gathering; Planning and programming; Action and communication; Evaluation."<ref>Allen H. Center and Patrick Jackson, ''Public Relations Practices'' (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, ISBN 0136138039).</ref>
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A different process model uses the acronym "ROSIE" to define a five-step process of research, objectives, strategies, implementation and evaluation.<ref>Sheila C. Crifasi, "Everything's Coming Up Rosie," ''Public Relations Tactics'' 7(9) (2000).</ref>
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People who are professionals in public relations use different methods for analyzing the results of their work such as focus groups, surveys, and one-on-one [[interview]]s. These same methods are used in defining what medium of [[communication]] will be used in the process of strategy and what tools will be used in relaying the message, such as press releases, brochures, websites, media packs, video news releases, news conferences, and in-house publications.
  
 
==Methods, tools and tactics==
 
==Methods, tools and tactics==
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Public relations and [[publicity]] are not synonyms. Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public awareness in a product, service, candidate, etc. It is just one technique of public relations as listed here.
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Public relations and publicity are not synonyms. Publicity is the spreading of information simply to gain public awareness of a product, service, candidate, and so forth. Publicity and public relations may use similar techniques, such as [[Public relations#Press conferences|press conferences]] and [[Public relations#Press releases|press releases]].  
  
 
===Audience targeting===
 
===Audience targeting===
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A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and to tailor every message to appeal to that audience. It can be a general, nationwide or worldwide audience, but it is more often a segment of a population. Marketers often refer to economy-driven "[[demographics]]," such as "white males 18-49," but in public relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone wants to reach. For example, recent political audiences include "[[soccer mom]]s" and "[[NASCAR dad]]s."
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A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and to tailor every message to appeal to that audience. The audience can be local, nationwide, or worldwide, but it is more often a segment of a population. [[Marketing|Marketers]] often refer to economy-driven "[[demographics]]," such as "white males 18-49," but in public relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone wants to reach. For example, political audiences may include "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads."  
  
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In addition to audiences, there are usually [[stakeholder]]s, literally people who have a "stake" in a given issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, a charity commissions a PR agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease. The charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money.
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In addition to audiences, there are usually stakeholders, literally people who have a "stake" in a given issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, a [[charitable organization]] may commission a public relations agency to create an [[advertising]] campaign to raise money to find a cure for a [[disease]]. The charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money.
  
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Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a PR effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but still complementary messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes &ndash; especially in politics &ndash; a spokesperson or client says something to one audience that angers another audience or group of stakeholders.
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Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but still complementary messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes&mdash;especially in [[politics]]&mdash;a spokesperson or client says something to one audience that angers another audience or group of stakeholders.
  
 
===Press conferences===
 
===Press conferences===
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A press conference consists of someone speaking to the media at a predetermined time and place. Press conferences usually take place in a public or quasi-public place. Press conferences provide an opportunity for speakers to control information and who gets it; depending on the circumstances, speakers may hand-pick the journalists they invite to the conference instead of making themselves available to any journalist who wishes to attend.
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A press conference consists of a presentation to the news media at a predetermined time and place, usually public or quasi-public place. Press conferences provide an opportunity for speakers to control information and who has access to it; depending on the circumstances, speakers may hand-pick the journalists they invite to the conference instead of making themselves available to any journalist who wishes to attend. For example, the communist government in [[China]] has used regular press conferences to share the party's latest policy decisions or to afford reporters access to officials.<ref>[http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t293308.htm “Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Jiang Yu's Regular Press Conference on 30 January, 2007,”] Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
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It is also assumed that the speaker will answer journalists' questions at a press conference, although they are not obliged to. However, someone who holds several press conferences on a topic (especially a scandal) will be asked questions by the press, regardless of whether they indicate they will entertain them, and the more conferences the person holds, the more aggressive the questioning may become. Therefore, it is in a speaker's interest to answer journalists' questions at a press conference to avoid appearing as if they have something to hide.
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It is also assumed that the speaker will answer journalists' questions at a press conference, although they are not obliged to. However, someone who holds several press conferences on a topic (especially a [[scandal]]) will be asked questions by the press, regardless of whether they indicate they will entertain them, and the more conferences the person holds, the more aggressive the questioning may become. Therefore, it is in a speaker's interest to answer journalists' questions at a press conference to avoid appearing as if they have something to hide.
  
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But questions from reporters &ndash; especially hostile reporters &ndash; detracts from the control a speaker has over the information they give out. For even more control, but less interactivity, a person may choose to issue a press release.
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However, questions from reporters&mdash;especially hostile reporters&mdash;detracts from the control a speaker has over the information they give out. For more control, but less interactivity, a person may choose to issue a press release.
  
 
===Press releases===
 
===Press releases===
 
{{sidebar|'''Press release format'''
 
{{sidebar|'''Press release format'''
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The typical press release announces that the statement is "FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE" across the top (some may instead be [[embargo]]ed until a certain date), and lists the issuing organization's media contacts directly below. The media contacts are the people that the release's issuer wants to make available to the media; for example, a press release about new scientific study will typically list the study's lead scientist as its media contact. The bottom of each release is usually marked with '''###''' or '''-30-''' to signify the end of the text.  
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The typical press release announces that the statement is "FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE" across the top (or it may have a date for release) and lists the issuing organization's media contacts directly below. The media contacts are the people that the issuer wants to make available to the media; for example, a press release about new scientific study will typically list the study's lead scientist as its media contact. The bottom of each release is usually marked with '''###''' or '''-30-''' to signify the end of the text.  
 
}}
 
}}
  
 
{{sidebar|'''Five "W"s and an "H"'''
 
{{sidebar|'''Five "W"s and an "H"'''
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There are 6 vital facts to convey in the first paragraph of a release to ensure that it doesn't end up in the bin.
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There are 6 vital facts to convey in the first paragraph of a release:
 
*Who
 
*Who
 
*What
 
*What
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}}
 
}}
  
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A [[press release]] is a written statement distributed to the media. It is a fundamental tool of public relations. Press releases are usually communicated by a [[newswire]] service to various news media and journalists may use them as they see fit. Very often the information in a press release finds its way verbatim, or minimally altered, to print and broadcast reports. If a media outlet reports that "John Doe said in a statement today that...", the "statement" usually originated in a press release, or a direct quote from an interview with a John Doe.
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A press release is a written statement distributed to the media. It is a fundamental tool of public relations. Press releases are usually communicated by a newswire service to various news media and journalists may use them as they see fit. Very often the information in a press release finds its way minimally altered or verbatim to print and broadcast reports.  
  
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The text of a release is usually (but not always) written in the style of a news story, with an eye-catching headline and text written standard journalistic [[inverted pyramid]] style. This style of news writing makes it easier for reporters to quickly grasp the message. Journalists are free to use the information verbatim, or alter it as they see fit. PR practitioners research and write releases that encourage as much "lifting" as possible.
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The text of a release is usually (but not always) written in the style of a news story, with an eye-catching headline and text written standard [[journalism|journalistic]] "inverted pyramid" style. This style of news writing makes it easier for reporters to quickly grasp the message. Journalists are free to use the information verbatim, or alter it as they see fit. Public relations practitioners research and write releases that encourage journalists to lift the information as directly as possible.
  
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Many journalists believe it is unethical to copy from a press release—they believe it is a lapse of good judgement (for instance, a direct quote, as in: ''Senator Smith said, "This is the most fiscally irresponsible bill that the Congress has passed since the Buy Everyone A Mercedes Act."'' In this case, a journalist may copy the quote verbatim into the story, although ethical reporters prefer to try soliciting an individual quote from the speaker before filing their story). Public relations professionals believe that press releases and other collateral material aid a journalist's job, and it is the job of the journalist to decide whether or not reprinting material verbatim tells the real story.
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Since press releases reflect their issuer's preferred interpretation or positive packaging of a story, journalists are often skeptical of their contents. Newsrooms receive so many press releases that, unless it is a story that the media are already paying attention to, a press release alone often is not enough to catch a journalist's attention.  
  
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Since press releases reflect their issuer's preferred interpretation or positive packaging of a story, journalists are often skeptical of their contents. The level of skepticism depends on what the story is and who's telling it. Newsrooms receive so many press releases that, unless it is a story that the media are already paying attention to, a press release alone often isn't enough to catch a journalist's attention.  
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With the advent of electronic media and new [[technology]], press releases now have equivalents in these media&mdash;video news releases and audio news releases.  
  
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With the advent of modern [[electronic media]] and new technology, press releases now have equivalents in these media_[[video news release]]s and [[audio news release]]s.  However, many television stations are hesitant to use VNR's that appear canned and are not newsworthy.
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The advent of the [[Internet]] has ushered in another kind of press release known as an "optimized press release." Unlike conventional press releases of yore, written for journalists' eyes only, in hopes the editor or reporter would find the content compelling enough to turn it into print or electronic news coverage, the optimized press release is posted on an online news portal. Here the writer carefully selects keywords or keyword phrases relevant to the press release contents. If written skillfully, the press release can rank highly in searches for the chosen keyword phrases by anyone searching the news portal.
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The advent of the Internet has ushered in a new kind of press release known as an ''optimized press release.'' Unlike conventional press releases of yore, written for journalists' eyes only, in hopes the editor or reporter would find the content compelling enough to turn it into print or electronic news coverage, the optimized press release is posted on an online news portal. Here the writer carefully selects keywords or keyword phrases relevant to the press release contents. If written skillfully, the press release can rank highly in searches on Google News, Yahoo or MSN News (or the many other minor news portals) for the chosen keyword phrases.
 
  
 
===Lobby groups===
 
===Lobby groups===
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[[Lobby group]]s are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion. These groups purport to represent a particular interest. When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base it is known as a [[front group]].
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[[Lobbying|Lobby]] groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion. These groups purport to represent a particular interest. A lobby group that hides its true purpose and support base is known as a "front group." Lobbying can take the form of private conversations with people in power, or large scale public demonstrations on behalf of a client. Lobbyists also direct people wanting to donate money to campaigns to politicians they believe would best serve those donors. These same lobbyists will also often set up meetings between influential citizens with politicians. Lobbyists are often accused of having a corrupting influence over legislators. As a result of this suspected influence, many states and countries require lobbyists to register with a central commission. Some groups that spend a lot of money on lobbying are representatives of the finance, energy, labor, transportation, and legal sectors.<ref> Lobbying Spending Database, OpenSecrets.org. </ref>
  
 
===Astroturfing===
 
===Astroturfing===
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Creating an artificial "grassroots" movement is known as [[astroturfing]]. A typical example would be the writing of letters to multiple newspaper editors under different names to express an opinion on an issue, creating the impression of widespread public feeling but being controlled by one central entity.
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Another public relations practice is that of "astroturfing." This is the creation of artificial "grassroots" movements in order to sway public opinion over an issue. A typical example would be the writing of letters to multiple [[newspaper]] editors under different names to express an opinion on an issue, creating the impression of widespread public feeling but being controlled by one central entity. Another example would be if people are hired to put on a protest under the auspices of being genuinely concerned citizens.
  
 
===Spin===
 
===Spin===
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In public relations, '''spin''' is a, sometimes [[pejorative]], term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in one's own favor of an event or situation. While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation of the facts, "[[spin (public relations)|spin]]" often, though not always, implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or highly manipulative tactics. Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents, when they produce a counter argument or position.
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In public relations, "spin" is a sometimes pejorative term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in one's own favor of an event or situation. While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation of the facts, "spin" often&mdash;though not always&mdash;implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or highly manipulative tactics. Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents, when they produce a counter argument or position.  
  
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The term is borrowed from ball sports such as [[cricket]], where a [[spin bowling|spin bowler]] may impart spin on the ball during a delivery so that it will curve through the air or bounce in an advantageous manner.  
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The term is borrowed from ball sports such as [[cricket]], where a spin bowler may impart spin on the ball during a delivery so that it will curve through the air or bounce in an advantageous manner.  
  
 
The techniques of "spin" include:
 
The techniques of "spin" include:
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* Selectively presenting facts and quotes that support one's position ([[cherry picking]])
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* Selectively presenting facts and quotes that support one's position ("cherry picking")
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* [[Non-denial denial]]
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* Non-denial denial
 
* Phrasing in a way that assumes unproven truths
 
* Phrasing in a way that assumes unproven truths
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* [[Euphemism]]s to disguise or promote one's agenda
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* Euphemisms to disguise or promote one's agenda
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Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "'''spin doctors'''", though probably not to their faces unless it is said facetiously. It is the PR equivalent of calling a writer a "[[hack writer|hack]]". Perhaps the most well-known person in the UK often described as a "spin doctor" is [[Alastair Campbell]], who was involved with [[Tony Blair]]'s public relations between 1994 and 2003, and also played a controversial role as press relations officer to the [[British and Irish Lions]] [[rugby union|rugby]] side during their [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|2005 tour of New Zealand]].
 
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State-run [[Mass media|media]] in many countries also engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable to the government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may also use [[propaganda]] to [[Indoctrination|indoctrinate]] or actively influence citizens' opinions.
 
  
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Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors." Alastair Campbell, who was involved with [[Great Britain|British]] Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]]'s public relations between 1994 and 2003, and also played a controversial role as press relations officer to the British and Irish Lions [[rugby]] team during their 2005 tour of [[New Zealand]], has often been referred to as a "spin doctor."
  
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State-run media in many countries also engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable to the government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may also use [[propaganda]] to indoctrinate or actively influence citizens' opinions. The [[Russia]]n state-owned [[natural gas]] firm Gazprom has relied on favorable coverage in newspapers loyal to the government to give it an image boost.<ref>Victor Yasmann, [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/02/01743CD3-2F57-49D6-91D0-15D2E62CC15F.html “Russia: Rebranding The Nation,”] Radio Free Europe. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
 
===Other===
 
===Other===
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* Publicity events or [[publicity stunt]]s
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* Publicity events or publicity stunts
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* The [[talk show]] circuit. A PR spokesperson (or his/her client) "does the circuit" by being interviewed on television and radio talk shows with audiences that the client wishes to reach.
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* Talk shows &ndash; a public relations spokesperson (or his/her client) "does the circuit" by being interviewed on [[television]] and [[radio]] talk shows with audiences that the client wishes to reach
 
* Books and other writings
 
* Books and other writings
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* After a PR practitioner has been working in the field for a while, he or she accumulates a list of contacts in the media and elsewhere in the public affairs sphere. This "[[Rolodex]]" becomes a prized asset, and job announcements sometimes even ask for candidates with an existing Rolodex, especially those in the [[media relations]] area of PR.
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* Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather than through the [[mass media]]) for example through newsletters both in print and over the [[internet]]
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* Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather than through the mass media) with, e.g., newsletters – in print and e-letters.
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* Collateral literature, traditionally in print and now predominantly as websites
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* Collateral literature, traditionally in print and now predominantly as web sites.
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* Speeches to constituent groups and professional organizations; receptions; seminars, and other events; personal appearances
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* Speeches to constituent groups and professional organizations; receptions; seminars, and other events; personal appearances.
 
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* The slang term for a PR practitioner or publicist is a "flack."
 
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==Politics and civil society==
 
==Politics and civil society==
 
===Defining the opponent===
 
===Defining the opponent===
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A tactic used in political campaigns is known as "defining one's opponent". Opponents can be candidates, organizations and other groups of people.
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A tactic used in [[politics|political]] campaigns is known as "defining one's opponent." Opponents can be candidates, organizations, or other groups of people.
  
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In the 2004 US presidential campaign, [[George W. Bush]] defined [[John Kerry]] as a "flip-flopper," among other characterizations, which were widely reported and repeated by the media, particularly the conservative media.<ref>Harris, John. 2004. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43093-2004Sep22.html spite Bush Flip-Flops, Kerry Gets Label] The Washington ''Post''. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref> Similarly, [[George H.W. Bush]] characterized [[Michael Dukakis]] as weak on crime (the [[Willie Horton]] ad) and as hopelessly liberal ("a card-carrying member of the [[ACLU]]").<ref>Saunders, Debra. 2002. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/12/12/ED194565.DTL Willie Horton's legacy] San Francisco ''Chronicle''. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref> In 1996, President [[Bill Clinton]] seized upon opponent [[Bob Dole]]'s promise to take America back to a simpler time, promising in contrast to "build a bridge to the 21st century." This painted Dole as a person who was somehow opposed to progress.<ref>[http://www-cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/news/9608/30/clinton.speech/ Clinton Proposes Bridge To 21st Century] CNN. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
In the 2004 [[United States|U.S.]] presidential campaign, [[George W. Bush]] defined opponent John Kerry as a "flip-flopper," among other characterizations, which were widely reported and repeated by the media, particularly the conservative media.<ref>John Harris, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43093-2004Sep22.html "Despite Bush Flip-Flops, Kerry Gets Label,"] ''The Washington Post'' (September 23, 2004). Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref> Similarly, [[George H. W. Bush]] characterized Michael Dukakis as weak on [[crime]] and as hopelessly liberal ("a card-carrying member of the [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]]").<ref>Debra Saunders, [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/12/12/ED194565.DTL&hw=Willie+Horton&sn=002&sc=869 "Willie Horton's legacy,"] ''San Francisco Chronicle'' (December 12, 2002). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> In 1996, President [[Bill Clinton]] seized upon opponent Bob Dole's promise to take America back to a simpler time, promising in contrast to "build a bridge to the twenty-first century," thus painting Dole as a person who was somehow opposed to progress.<ref>[http://www-cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/news/9608/30/clinton.speech/ "Clinton Proposes Bridge To 21st Century,"] CNN AllPolitics (August 30, 1996). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
−
In the debate over [[abortion]], pro-abortion rights groups defined their opponents by defining themselves instead: "pro-choice." Anti-abortion rights groups responded in kind, branding themselves "pro-life." Extrapolating their respective rhetoric, pro-choice groups refer to their opponents as "anti-choice," and pro-life groups refer to ''their'' opponents as "anti-life."<ref>Marcotte, Amanda, et. al. 2006. [http://alternet.org/rights/35545/ Exposing Anti-Choice Abortion Clinics] AlterNet. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.neuralgourmet.com/2006/06/15/the_anti_life_movement The Anti-Life Movement] Neural Gourmet. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
In the debate over [[abortion]], pro-abortion rights groups defined their opponents by defining themselves instead as "pro-choice." Anti-abortion rights groups responded in kind, branding themselves "pro-life." Extrapolating their respective [[rhetoric]], pro-choice groups refer to their opponents as "anti-choice," and pro-life groups refer to their opponents as "anti-life."<ref>Amanda Marcotte, et. al., [http://alternet.org/rights/35545/ “Exposing Anti-Choice Abortion Clinics,”] AlterNet (May 1, 2006). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.neuralgourmet.com/2006/06/15/the_anti_life_movement “The Anti-Life Movement,”] Neural Gourmet (June 15, 2006). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
−
More recently, opponents of [[same-sex marriage]] in the U.S. have declared that their opponents are not the gay couples suing for the right to marry in various state courts, but rather the judges who rule in their favor. They are now calling them "[[Judicial activism|activist judges]]," implying that they impose their personal beliefs instead of objectively interpreting the law. This sidesteps the thorny issue of making millions of gay people an "enemy," and instead focuses attention on the much smaller judiciary, who all Americans can ostensibly agree should be prevented from being "activists" on the bench.<ref>Lithwick, Dahlia. 2004. [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/186690_lithwick18.html Activist judges? What's in a name?] Seattle PI. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
Opponents of [[homosexuality|same-sex]] [[marriage]] in the U.S. have declared that their opponents are not the couples suing for the right to marry in various state courts, but rather the judges who rule in their favor. They are now calling them "activist judges," implying that they impose their personal [[belief]]s instead of objectively interpreting the [[law]]. This sidesteps the thorny issue of making millions of homosexual people an "enemy," and instead focuses attention on the much smaller judiciary, who all Americans can ostensibly agree should be prevented from being "activists" on the bench.<ref>Dahlia Lithwick, [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/186690_lithwick18.html “Activist judges? What's in a name?”] ''Seattle Post-Iintelligencer'' (August 18, 2004). Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
 +
 
 +
In [[Spain]], José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero was able to win the election for prime minister in 2004 after characterizing his opponents in the People's Party as weak on security following the bombing of [[Madrid]]'s Athocha Station, killing 191 people.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8562022 "Belated Realism,"] ''The Economist'' (January 18, 2007). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
 
===Managing language===
 
===Managing language===
−
If a politician or organization can use an apt phrase in relation to an issue, such as in interviews or news releases, the news media will often repeat it verbatim, thus furthering the message. (This may be considered an example of a [[meme]].)
+
If a politician or organization can use an apt phrase in relation to an issue, such as in interviews or news releases, the news media will often repeat it verbatim, thus furthering the message. The "[[New Deal]]" became a description of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s anti-[[Great Depression|Depression]] economic plans, and "states' rights/state sovereignty" became near-code words for anti-civil rights legislation.
−
 
 
−
"[[New Deal]]" became a description of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s anti-[[Great Depression|Depression]] economic plans, and "states' rights/state sovereignty" became near-code words for anti-[[civil rights]] legislation.
 
−
 
 
−
Other examples include: "death tax" for estate tax, "racial preferences" for affirmative action, "faith-based" instead of religious, "climate change" for global warming, and "partial-birth abortion" for pro-choice.
 
  
 
==Entertainment and celebrity==
 
==Entertainment and celebrity==
 
===Playing up weaknesses===
 
===Playing up weaknesses===
−
Celebrities tend to be fans of the dictum "any publicity is good publicity". If a celebrity says or does something embarrassing, he or she will often turn it into a strength and make it part of his or her "image." This tactic is used just as much with favorable situations as much as with unfavorable ones.
+
Celebrities tend to be fans of the dictum "any publicity is good publicity." If a celebrity says or does something embarrassing, he or she will often turn it into a strength and make it part of his or her "image." This tactic is used just as much with favorable situations as much as with unfavorable ones.
  
−
A current (2004) example involves the entertainer [[Jessica Simpson]], who gained nationwide prominence when she wondered aloud on a [[reality show]] if "Chicken of the Sea"-brand tuna fish was actually chicken or tuna, garnering her a reputation for being slow-witted. But by the summer of 2004, she was being paid to endorse a brand of breath mints called "Liquid Ice." In the product's television commercial, Simpson replicates her earlier confusion by debating whether the mint is really liquid or ice. So although she was previously ridiculed, she (and her advisers) turned her nationwide embarrassment into a lucrative endorsement deal.<ref>Rogers, Steve. 2003. [http://www.realitytvworld.com/news/jessica-simpson-gets-an-education-on-chicken-of-sea-1886.php Jessica Simpson gets an education on Chicken Of The Sea] Reality TV World. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
Entertainer Jessica Simpson gained nationwide prominence when she wondered aloud on a reality [[television]] show if "Chicken of the Sea" was actually [[chicken]] or [[tuna]], garnering her a reputation for being slow-witted. However, within months she was being paid to endorse a brand of breath mints called "Liquid Ice." In the product's television commercial, Simpson replicated her earlier confusion by debating whether the mint is really liquid or ice, turning her nationwide embarrassment into a lucrative endorsement deal.<ref>Steve Rogers, [http://www.realitytvworld.com/news/jessica-simpson-gets-an-education-on-chicken-of-sea-1886.php "Jessica Simpson gets an education on Chicken of the Sea,"] Reality TV World (October 21, 2003). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>  
  
 
===Branching out===
 
===Branching out===
−
As [[Oscar Wilde]] is supposed to have said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not to be talked about. Many celebrities seem to take this truism to heart, because when their popularity (and income) wane, they take on new projects that attract media attention. Considering that a celebrity's celebrity is a [[brand]] unto itself, many celebrities are under constant pressure to "reinvent" themselves, as a prophylactic against obscurity.
+
As [[Oscar Wilde]] is supposed to have said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not to be talked about. Many celebrities seem to take this truism to heart, because when their popularity (and income) wane, they take on new projects that attract media attention.  
  
−
A current trend among American celebrities is the transformation of musicians, comedians, and almost every other sort of performer into children's book authors. [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Jay Leno]], [[Billy Crystal]], [[Ricky Gervais]] and several other celebrities have recently written children's books, accompanied by much media coverage.
+
A number of American celebrities have transformed themselves into children's book authors, accompanied by much media coverage. A more traditional way of branching out is the celebrity restaurant. This is especially common among professional athletes, whose time in the spotlight is often limited by the physical demands of their jobs. Thus, [[basketball]] player [[Michael Jordan]] opened a restaurant in [[Chicago]].
  
−
A more traditional way of branching out is the celebrity restaurant. This is especially common among professional athletes, whose time in the spotlight is often limited by the physical demands of their jobs. [[Basketball]] player [[Michael Jordan]] opened a restaurant in [[Chicago]], and singer [[Britney Spears]] opened an ill-fated eatery in [[New York]] which closed a few months later.
+
Younger female celebrities are often drawn into the [[fashion]] world. Hotel heiress [[Paris Hilton]] recently announced that she was starting her own line of [[jewelry]]. Fading star [[Elizabeth Taylor]] launched a [[perfume]] called "White Diamonds," bringing renewed interest from the media.
  
−
Male celebrities like [[Tim Robbins]], [[Sean Penn]] and [[Charlton Heston]] seem to gravitate toward [[politics]], although some female celebrities, such as [[Susan Sarandon]] and [[Barbra Streisand]], also become strong political voices.
+
Other celebrities have gravitated toward [[politics]], including film stars [[Charlton Heston]] and notably [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], who succeeded in being elected governor of [[California]].
  
−
Younger female celebrities on the other hand are often drawn into the [[fashion]] world. Hotel heiress [[Paris Hilton]] recently announced that she was starting her own line of jewelry, and [[Jennifer Lopez]] has started a line of clothing. And fading star [[Elizabeth Taylor]] launched a [[fragrance]] called "White Diamonds" several years ago, bringing renewed interest from the media.  Britney Spears also kept herself in the public eye when she had her secretive marriage to Kevin Federline and bore his child.  Although neither topic has to do with her career, audiences seemed to be just as intrigued to know about her personal life.
+
==Ethical and social issues==
  
−
Some celebrities have also entered the world of self promotion by establishing other business ventures.  St. Louis rapper Nelly's Vokal for men and Applebottoms for Women and Ludacris's "Disturbing the Peace" record company are both examples of celebrities taking public relations into their own hands.
+
One of the most controversial practices in public relations is the use of "front groups"&mdash;organizations that purport to serve a public cause while actually serving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or concealed. The creation of front groups is an example of what public relations practitioners sometimes term the "third party technique"&mdash;the art of "putting your words in someone else's mouth."
  
−
==Ethical and social issues==
+
The Center for Media & Democracy, a non-profit organization that monitors public relations activities it considers to be deceptive, has published numerous examples of this technique in practice, contending that public relations involves a "multi-billion dollar propaganda-for-hire industry" that works to "concoct and spin the news, organize phony 'grassroots' front groups, spy on citizens, and conspire with lobbyists and politicians to thwart democracy."<ref>[http://www.prwatch.org/cmd/prwatch.html ''PR Watch'',] Center for Media and Democracy. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
−
Many of the techniques used by PR firms are drawn from the institutions and practices of democracy itself.  Persuasion, advocacy, and education are instruments through which individuals and organizations are entitled to express themselves in a free society, and many public relations practitioners are engaged in practices that are widely considered as beneficial, such as publicizing scientific research, promoting charities, raising awareness of public health concerns and other issues in [[civil society]].
 
  
−
One of the most controversial practices in public relations is the use of [[front groups]]—organizations that purport to serve a public cause while actually serving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or concealed. The creation of front groups is an example of what PR practitioners sometimes term the [[third party technique]]—the art of "putting your words in someone else's mouth."  [[PR Watch]], a non-profit organization that monitors PR activities it considers to be deceptive, has published numerous examples of this technique in practice.  Critics of the public relations industry, such as PR Watch, have contended that Public Relations involves a "multi-billion dollar propaganda-for-hire industry" that "concoct[s] and spin[s] the news, organize[s] phoney 'grassroots' front groups, sp[ies] on citizens, and conspire[s] with lobbyists and politicians to thwart democracy." <ref>[http://www.prwatch.org/cmd/prwatch.html PR Watch] PR Watch. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
Instances of the use of front groups as a public relations technique have been documented in many industries. [[Coal]] [[mining]] corporations created environmental groups that contended that increased [[carbon dioxide]] emissions and [[global warming]] will contribute to plant growth and thus be beneficial, trade groups for bars have created and funded citizens' groups to attack anti-[[alcohol]] groups, and [[tobacco]] companies have created and funded citizens' groups to advocate for [[tort]] reform and to attack personal injury [[lawyer]]s.<ref>[http://archive.democrats.com/preview.cfm?term=corporate+front+groups Corporate front groups,] Democrats.com. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
−
Instances of the use of front groups as a PR technique have been documented in many industries. Coal mining corporations have created environmental groups that contend that increased CO2 emissions and [[global warming]] will contribute to plant growth and will be beneficial, trade groups for bars have created and funded citizens' groups to attack anti-alcohol groups, and tobacco companies have created and funded citizens' groups to advocate for [[tort reform]] and to attack personal injury lawyers. <ref>[http://archive.democrats.com/preview.cfm?term=corporate+front+groups Corporate front groups] Democrats.com. Retrieved January 4, 2007.</ref>
+
Nevertheless, many of the techniques used by public relations firms are drawn from the institutions and practices of [[democracy]] itself. [[Persuasion]], advocacy, and [[education]] are instruments through which individuals and organizations are entitled to express themselves in a free society, and many public relations practitioners are engaged in practices that are widely considered as beneficial, such as publicizing scientific research, promoting [[charitable organization|charities]], raising awareness of [[public health]] concerns, and other such issues in civil society.
−
 
 
−
Current issues in ethical and social arenas have been brought to the attention of people from all strata of the population when it was found that more than one journalist with a platform had received money from a Public Relations firm for espousing a certain point of view.
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 153: Line 158:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*{{cite book | first = Edward | last = Bernays | year = 1945 | title = Public Relations | publisher = Bellman Publishing Company | location = Boston, MA}}
+
 
−
*{{cite book | first = Harold | last = Burson | year = 2004 | title = E pluribus unum: The Making of Burson-Marsteller | publisher = Burson-Marsteller | location = New York}}
+
*Bernays, Edward. 1945. ''Public Relations''. Boston, MA: Bellman Publishing Company.
−
*Center, Allen H. and Jackson, Patrick, "Public Relations Practices," 5th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, N.J., 1995, pp. 14-15
+
*Burson, Harold. 2004. ''E pluribus unum: The Making of Burson-Marsteller''. New York: Burson-Marsteller.
−
*Crifasi, Sheila C., "Everything's Coming Up Rosie," from ''Public Relations Tactics,'' September, 2000, Vol. 7, Issue 9, Public Relations Society of America, New York, 2000.
+
*Center, Allen H. & Patrick Jackson. [1995] 2002. ''Public Relations Practices'', 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0136138039
−
*{{cite book | first = Scott | last = Cutlip | year = 1994 | title = The Unseen Power: Public Relations, A History | publisher = Erlbaum Associates | location = Hillsdale, N.J. | id = ISBN 0-8058-1464-7}}
+
*Crifasi, Sheila C. 2000. "Everything's Coming Up Rosie." ''Public Relations Tactics'' 7(9).
−
*Scott M. Cutlip/ Allen H. Center/ Glen M. Broom, "Effective Public Relations," 7th Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc. A Simon and Schuster Company, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632, 1994, Figure 10-1
+
*Cutlip, Scott. 1994. ''The Unseen Power: Public Relations: A History''. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805814647
−
*{{cite book | first = Stuart | last = Ewen | year = 1996 | title = PR!: A Social History of Spin | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-465-06168-0}}
+
*Cutlip, Scott, Allen H. Center and Glen M. Broom. 2005. ''Effective Public Relations''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0130082007
−
*{{cite book | first = James E. | last = Grunig | coauthors = and Todd Hunt | year = 1984 | title = Managing Public Relations | publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Winston | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-03-058337-3}}
+
*Ewen, Stuart. 1996. ''PR!: A Social History of Spin''. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465061680
−
*Kelly, Kathleen S., "Effective Fund Raising Management," Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, N.J., 1998
+
*Grunig, James E. & Todd Hunt. 1984. ''Managing Public Relations''. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0030583373
−
*International Association of Business Communicators (IABC)
+
*Kelly, Kathleen S. 1998. ''Effective Fund Raising Management''. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805820108
−
*{{cite book | first = Jim | last = Macnamara | year = 2005 | title = Jim Macnamara's Public Relations Handbook | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = Information Australia | location = Melbourne}}
+
*Macnamara, Jim. 2005. ''Jim Macnamara's Public Relations Handbook'', 5th ed. Melbourne: Information Australia.
−
*{{cite book | first = Joyce | last = Nelson | year = 1989 | title = Sultans of Sleaze: Public Relations and the Media | publisher = Between The Lines | location = Toronto | id = ISBN 0-921284-22-5}}
+
*Nelson, Joyce. 1989. ''Sultans of Sleaze: Public Relations and the Media''. Toronto: Between the Lines. ISBN 0921284225
−
*{{cite book | first = David | last = Phillips | year = 2001 | title = Online Public Relations | publisher = Kogan Page | location = London | id = ISBN 0-7494-3510-0 |}}
+
*Phillips, David. 2001. ''Online Public Relations''. London: Kogan Page. ISBN 0749435100
−
*{{cite book | first = John C. | last = Stauber | co-authors = and Sheldon Rampton | year = 1995 | title = Toxic Sludge is Good for You: Lies, Damn Lies, and the Public Relations Industry | publisher = Common Courage Press | location = Monroe, ME | id = ISBN 1-56751-061-2}}
+
*Stauber, John C. 1995. ''Toxic Sludge is Good for You: Lies, Damn Lies, and the Public Relations Industry''. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press. ISBN 1567510612
−
*{{cite book | first = Larry | last = Tye | year = 1998 | title = The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays & the Birth of Public Relations | publisher = Crown Publishers | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-517-70435-8}}
+
*Tye, Larry. 1998. ''The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations''. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0517704358
−
*{{cite book | first = Lubomir | last = [[Stoykov]] | coauthors = and Valeria Pacheva | year = 2005 | title = Public Relations and Business Communication | publisher = Ot Igla Do Konetz | location = Sofia | id = ISBN 954-9799-09-3}}
+
*Stoykov, Lubomir & Valeria Pacheva. 2005. ''Public Relations and Business Communication''. Sofia: Ot Igla Do Konetz. ISBN 9549799093
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.prmuseum.com/ The Museum of Public Relations] offers a look at some of the industry's historical figures
+
All links retrieved December 2, 2022.
−
*[http://www.publicityinsider.com/freepub.asp Free Publicity], a guide to publicity for all levels
 
−
*[http://www.prsa.org/_Resources/Profession/index.asp?ident=prof1 About Public Relations], by the Public Relations Society of America
 
−
*[http://www.icrsurvey.com/docs/MR%20for%20PR.doc Using market research for Public Relations], white paper from [[ICR/International Communications Research|ICR]]
 
−
*[http://www.acpc.uts.edu.au/ The Australian Centre for Public Communication], promotes ethical practice in public relations and facilitates debate among practitioners in the field through industry liaison, research and seminars. Australia's leading postgraduate education program in communication management at UTS is linked to the Centre through the teaching staff, students, members and research projects.
 
−
*[http://http://www.bicspr.org/ Bangladesh Institute of Communication and public relations (BICSPR)([[Shobuz]])], Being the very first non-government organization of Bangladesh in this field, this institute has a strong desire to provide quality media education but also training, publication, research work etc. Recently the institute has commenced Diploma in Journalism as the first private institute of the country under National University
 
−
*[http://www.cprs.ca/ The Canadian Public Relations Society, Inc.], The CPRS works to advance the professional stature of public relations and regulates its practice for the benefit and protection of the public interest.
 
−
*[http://www.cipr.co.uk/ Chartered Institute of Public Relations], the UK’s leading public relations industry professional body and the largest public relations institute in Europe
 
−
*[http://www.prfirms.org/ Council of Public Relations Firms] U.S. trade association for public relations firms
 
−
*[http://www.globalpr.org/ The Global Alliance], an international peak organisation with a mission to enhance the public relations profession and its practitioners throughout the world.
 
−
*The [http://www.instituteforpr.org Institute for Public Relations] is focused on the science beneath the art of public relations
 
−
*[http://www.iabc.com/ International Association of Business Communicators], an international association of 14,000 communicators, with many members from the PR profession.
 
−
*[http://www.pria.com.au/ Public Relations Institute of Australia], Institute for the public relations profession in Australia.
 
−
*[http://www.prsa.org/ Public Relations Society of America], a professional association of public relations practitioners
 
−
*[http://www.prweek.com/ PR Week], the leading PR trade weekly
 
−
*[http://www.odwyerpr.com/ O'Dwyer's PR Daily], another trade publication, occasionally featuring critical essays and investigative journalism about the industry
 
−
*[http://www.montagecomms.com/press_releases.html/ Press release Blog for PR in the South West of England ] featuring live examples of press releases and PR photography, that have achieved results nationally and regionally.
 
−
*[http://www.sovetnik.ru/ Sovetnik ] The best site about public relation in Russia.
 
−
* Christian Science Monitor: [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1212/p11s01-coop.htm The spin room - oily engine of the political meat grinder]
 
−
* Outfoxed: [http://www.outfoxed.org/ OUTFOXED: Rupert Murdoch's War on Journalism]
 
−
* [http://www.prwatch.org/spin Spin of the Day] - Center for Media and Democracy
 
−
* [http://www.spinwatch.org Spinwatch] monitors spin and propaganda
 
−
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org SourceWatch.org] Provides background on PR agencies and practitioners. Focuses mostly on conservative and right-wing PR
 
−
*[http://www.prwatch.org/ PR Watch], critiques deceptive PR campaigns
 
−
*[http://www.spinwatch.org Spinwatch] Monitors public relations and propaganda
 
−
*[http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/?lid=1570 CorporateWatch], a critical overview of the public relations and lobbying industry
 
−
*[http://www.factcheck.org/miscreports70.html Annenberg Political Fact Check] A nonpartisan, nonprofit consumer advocate which monitors the factual accuracy of statements by political players
 
  
 +
*[http://www.cprs.ca/ The Canadian Public Relations Society, Inc.]
 +
*[http://www.cipr.co.uk/ Chartered Institute of Public Relations]
 +
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/1212/p11s01-coop.htm “The spin room - oily engine of the political meat grinder,”] by Jerry Lanson, ''Christian Science Monitor'' (December 12, 2003)
 +
*[http://www.prfirms.org/ Council of Public Relations Firms]
 +
*[http://www.publicityinsider.com/freepub.asp Free Publicity] &ndash; The Newsletter for PR Hungry Businesses
 +
*[http://www.instituteforpr.org Institute for Public Relations]
 +
*[http://www.iabc.com/ International Association of Business Communicators]
 +
*[http://www.prmuseum.com/ The Museum of Public Relations]
 +
*[http://www.odwyerpr.com/ O'Dwyer's PR Daily]
 +
*[http://www.prwatch.org/ PR Watch]
 +
*[http://www.prweek.com/ PR Week]
 +
*[http://www.pria.com.au/ Public Relations Institute of Australia]
 +
*[http://www.prsa.org/ Public Relations Society of America]
 +
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org SourceWatch.org]
 +
*[http://www.spinwatch.org Spinwatch]
 +
*[http://www.factcheck.org/ Annenberg Political Fact Check] &ndash; A nonpartisan, nonprofit consumer advocate that monitors the factual accuracy of statements by political players in the United States
  
 
{{Credit1|Public_relations|94154739|}}
 
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Latest revision as of 18:08, 14 April 2023


In the 1890s, when gender role reversals could be caricaturized, the idea of an aggressive woman who also smoked was considered laughable. In 1929, Edward Bernays proved otherwise when he convinced women to smoke in public during an Easter parade in Manhattan as a show of defiance against male domination. The demonstrators were not aware that a tobacco company was behind the publicity stunt, a form of public relations.

Public relations (PR) is the art of managing communication between an organization and its key publics to build, manage, and sustain a positive image. Public relations involves evaluation of public attitudes and public opinions; formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding communication with its publics; coordination of communications programs; developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process; and fostering a positive relationship between an organization and its public constituents. Public relations often involves news management—optimizing good news and forestalling bad news. Equally, good public relations managers conduct "damage control" when a disaster occurs, gathering the facts and assessing the situation to prepare appropriate information to be offered to the mass media. While public relations may be criticized as propaganda on occasion, the role of managing communication between the organization and the public is a necessary one in society. As technologies have developed, it has become both more difficult to hide information and equally easier to distort it. The quality of PR material produced, and how much it reflects the truth of the situation, depend on the character and motivations of all involved.

History

Precursors to public relations are found in publicists who specialized in promoting circuses, theatrical performances, and other public spectacles. In the United States, where public relations has its origins, many early public relations practices were developed in support of the expansive power of the railroads. In fact, the first documented use of the term "public relations" appeared in the 1897 Year Book of Railway Literature.

Later, public relations practitioners were—and are still often—recruited from the ranks of journalism. Some journalists, concerned with ethics, have criticized former colleagues for using their inside understanding of news media to help clients receive favorable mass media coverage.[1]

The First World War also helped stimulate the development of public relations as a profession. Many of the first public relations professionals—including Edward L. Bernays and Carl Byoir—got their start with the Committee on Public Information (also known as the “Creel Commission”), which organized publicity on behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I. Some historians regard Ivy Lee as the first real practitioner of public relations, but Bernays is generally regarded today as the profession's founder. In describing the origin of the term “public relations,” Bernays commented, "When I came back to the United States, I decided that if you could use propaganda for war, you could certainly use it for peace. And propaganda got to be a bad word because of the Germans using it. So what I did was to try to find some other words, so we found the words Council on Public Relations."

Lee, who has been credited with developing the modern "news release" (or "press release"), espoused a philosophy consistent with what has sometimes been called the "two-way street" approach to public relations, in which public relations consists of helping clients listen as well as communicate messages to their publics. In the words of the Public Relations Society of America, "Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other."

Bernays was the profession's first theorist. A nephew of Sigmund Freud, Bernays drew many of his ideas from Freud's theories about the irrational, unconscious motives that shape human behavior. One of Bernays' early clients was the tobacco industry. In 1929, he orchestrated a legendary publicity stunt aimed at persuading women to take up cigarette smoking, which was then considered unfeminine and inappropriate for women with any social standing. Bernays arranged for New York City débutantes to march in that year's Easter Day Parade, defiantly smoking cigarettes as a statement of rebellion against the norms of a male-dominated society.

Bernays authored several books, including Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923), Propaganda (1928), and The Engineering of Consent (1947), regarding public relations as an "applied social science" that uses insights from psychology, sociology, and other disciplines to scientifically manage and manipulate the thinking and behavior of an irrational and "herdlike" public:

The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.[2]

In 1950, PRSA enacted the first "Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations," a forerunner to the current Code of Ethics, revised in 2000 to include six core values and six code provisions.[3] These six core values are "Advocacy, Honesty, Expertise, Independence, Loyalty, and Fairness." The six code provisions are "Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information, Safeguarding Confidences, Conflicts of Interest, and Enhancing the Profession."

The industry today

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were approximately 122,000 public relations specialists in the United States in 1998, while there were approximately 485,000 advertising, marketing, and public relations managers working in all industries.[4]

The practice is also growing across the world. As other countries are entering into the globalized free market economy, they find they would like to promote their best face to the public. Countries in the former Soviet Union are finding the opportunity for the first time since the fall of the Berlin Wall. Over one hundred public relations firms have emerged in the formerly Soviet Ukraine.[5] Similar numbers are developing all over Europe, Africa, and South America.

Modern public relations uses a variety of techniques including opinion polling and focus groups to evaluate public opinion, combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for distributing information on behalf of their clients, including satellite feeds, the Internet, broadcast faxes, and database-driven phone banks to recruit supporters for a client's cause.

Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as corporate servants, the reality is that almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs at least one public relations professional. Large organizations may even have dedicated communications departments. Government agencies, trade associations, and other non-profit organizations commonly carry out public relations activities.

Public Relations Process

An effective public relations plan for an organization is designed to communicate to an audience (whether internal or external publics) in such a way that the message coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit mutual interests. The process of developing such a plan consists of a number of steps.

One common model has four steps.[6] The first step is "defining public relations problems," usually in terms of a "situational analysis," or what public relations professionals call a "SWOT analysis" (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). This should answer the question, "What's happening now?" The next step in the public relations process is "planning and programming," where the main focus is "strategy." This step should answer the question "what should we do and say, and why?" The third step in the public relations process is "taking action and communicating," also known as "implementation"; This step should answer the question, "How and when do we do and say it?" The final step is "evaluating the program," making a final "assessment," which should answer the question "how did we do?" This is where public relations professionals make a final analysis of the success of their campaign or communication.

Another model defines the process of public relations through four steps: "Fact-finding and data gathering; Planning and programming; Action and communication; Evaluation."[7] A different process model uses the acronym "ROSIE" to define a five-step process of research, objectives, strategies, implementation and evaluation.[8]

People who are professionals in public relations use different methods for analyzing the results of their work such as focus groups, surveys, and one-on-one interviews. These same methods are used in defining what medium of communication will be used in the process of strategy and what tools will be used in relaying the message, such as press releases, brochures, websites, media packs, video news releases, news conferences, and in-house publications.

Methods, tools and tactics

Public relations and publicity are not synonyms. Publicity is the spreading of information simply to gain public awareness of a product, service, candidate, and so forth. Publicity and public relations may use similar techniques, such as press conferences and press releases.

Audience targeting

A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and to tailor every message to appeal to that audience. The audience can be local, nationwide, or worldwide, but it is more often a segment of a population. Marketers often refer to economy-driven "demographics," such as "white males 18-49," but in public relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone wants to reach. For example, political audiences may include "soccer moms" and "NASCAR dads."

In addition to audiences, there are usually stakeholders, literally people who have a "stake" in a given issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, a charitable organization may commission a public relations agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease. The charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money.

Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but still complementary messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes—especially in politics—a spokesperson or client says something to one audience that angers another audience or group of stakeholders.

Press conferences

A press conference consists of a presentation to the news media at a predetermined time and place, usually public or quasi-public place. Press conferences provide an opportunity for speakers to control information and who has access to it; depending on the circumstances, speakers may hand-pick the journalists they invite to the conference instead of making themselves available to any journalist who wishes to attend. For example, the communist government in China has used regular press conferences to share the party's latest policy decisions or to afford reporters access to officials.[9]

It is also assumed that the speaker will answer journalists' questions at a press conference, although they are not obliged to. However, someone who holds several press conferences on a topic (especially a scandal) will be asked questions by the press, regardless of whether they indicate they will entertain them, and the more conferences the person holds, the more aggressive the questioning may become. Therefore, it is in a speaker's interest to answer journalists' questions at a press conference to avoid appearing as if they have something to hide.

However, questions from reporters—especially hostile reporters—detracts from the control a speaker has over the information they give out. For more control, but less interactivity, a person may choose to issue a press release.

Press releases

A press release is a written statement distributed to the media. It is a fundamental tool of public relations. Press releases are usually communicated by a newswire service to various news media and journalists may use them as they see fit. Very often the information in a press release finds its way minimally altered or verbatim to print and broadcast reports.

The text of a release is usually (but not always) written in the style of a news story, with an eye-catching headline and text written standard journalistic "inverted pyramid" style. This style of news writing makes it easier for reporters to quickly grasp the message. Journalists are free to use the information verbatim, or alter it as they see fit. Public relations practitioners research and write releases that encourage journalists to lift the information as directly as possible.

Since press releases reflect their issuer's preferred interpretation or positive packaging of a story, journalists are often skeptical of their contents. Newsrooms receive so many press releases that, unless it is a story that the media are already paying attention to, a press release alone often is not enough to catch a journalist's attention.

With the advent of electronic media and new technology, press releases now have equivalents in these media—video news releases and audio news releases.

The advent of the Internet has ushered in another kind of press release known as an "optimized press release." Unlike conventional press releases of yore, written for journalists' eyes only, in hopes the editor or reporter would find the content compelling enough to turn it into print or electronic news coverage, the optimized press release is posted on an online news portal. Here the writer carefully selects keywords or keyword phrases relevant to the press release contents. If written skillfully, the press release can rank highly in searches for the chosen keyword phrases by anyone searching the news portal.

Lobby groups

Lobby groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion. These groups purport to represent a particular interest. A lobby group that hides its true purpose and support base is known as a "front group." Lobbying can take the form of private conversations with people in power, or large scale public demonstrations on behalf of a client. Lobbyists also direct people wanting to donate money to campaigns to politicians they believe would best serve those donors. These same lobbyists will also often set up meetings between influential citizens with politicians. Lobbyists are often accused of having a corrupting influence over legislators. As a result of this suspected influence, many states and countries require lobbyists to register with a central commission. Some groups that spend a lot of money on lobbying are representatives of the finance, energy, labor, transportation, and legal sectors.[10]

Astroturfing

Another public relations practice is that of "astroturfing." This is the creation of artificial "grassroots" movements in order to sway public opinion over an issue. A typical example would be the writing of letters to multiple newspaper editors under different names to express an opinion on an issue, creating the impression of widespread public feeling but being controlled by one central entity. Another example would be if people are hired to put on a protest under the auspices of being genuinely concerned citizens.

Spin

In public relations, "spin" is a sometimes pejorative term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in one's own favor of an event or situation. While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation of the facts, "spin" often—though not always—implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or highly manipulative tactics. Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents, when they produce a counter argument or position.

The term is borrowed from ball sports such as cricket, where a spin bowler may impart spin on the ball during a delivery so that it will curve through the air or bounce in an advantageous manner.

The techniques of "spin" include:

  • Selectively presenting facts and quotes that support one's position ("cherry picking")
  • Non-denial denial
  • Phrasing in a way that assumes unproven truths
  • Euphemisms to disguise or promote one's agenda

Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors." Alastair Campbell, who was involved with British Prime Minister Tony Blair's public relations between 1994 and 2003, and also played a controversial role as press relations officer to the British and Irish Lions rugby team during their 2005 tour of New Zealand, has often been referred to as a "spin doctor."

State-run media in many countries also engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable to the government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may also use propaganda to indoctrinate or actively influence citizens' opinions. The Russian state-owned natural gas firm Gazprom has relied on favorable coverage in newspapers loyal to the government to give it an image boost.[11]

Other

  • Publicity events or publicity stunts
  • Talk shows – a public relations spokesperson (or his/her client) "does the circuit" by being interviewed on television and radio talk shows with audiences that the client wishes to reach
  • Books and other writings
  • Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather than through the mass media) for example through newsletters both in print and over the internet
  • Collateral literature, traditionally in print and now predominantly as websites
  • Speeches to constituent groups and professional organizations; receptions; seminars, and other events; personal appearances

Politics and civil society

Defining the opponent

A tactic used in political campaigns is known as "defining one's opponent." Opponents can be candidates, organizations, or other groups of people.

In the 2004 U.S. presidential campaign, George W. Bush defined opponent John Kerry as a "flip-flopper," among other characterizations, which were widely reported and repeated by the media, particularly the conservative media.[12] Similarly, George H. W. Bush characterized Michael Dukakis as weak on crime and as hopelessly liberal ("a card-carrying member of the ACLU").[13] In 1996, President Bill Clinton seized upon opponent Bob Dole's promise to take America back to a simpler time, promising in contrast to "build a bridge to the twenty-first century," thus painting Dole as a person who was somehow opposed to progress.[14]

In the debate over abortion, pro-abortion rights groups defined their opponents by defining themselves instead as "pro-choice." Anti-abortion rights groups responded in kind, branding themselves "pro-life." Extrapolating their respective rhetoric, pro-choice groups refer to their opponents as "anti-choice," and pro-life groups refer to their opponents as "anti-life."[15][16]

Opponents of same-sex marriage in the U.S. have declared that their opponents are not the couples suing for the right to marry in various state courts, but rather the judges who rule in their favor. They are now calling them "activist judges," implying that they impose their personal beliefs instead of objectively interpreting the law. This sidesteps the thorny issue of making millions of homosexual people an "enemy," and instead focuses attention on the much smaller judiciary, who all Americans can ostensibly agree should be prevented from being "activists" on the bench.[17]

In Spain, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero was able to win the election for prime minister in 2004 after characterizing his opponents in the People's Party as weak on security following the bombing of Madrid's Athocha Station, killing 191 people.[18]

Managing language

If a politician or organization can use an apt phrase in relation to an issue, such as in interviews or news releases, the news media will often repeat it verbatim, thus furthering the message. The "New Deal" became a description of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's anti-Depression economic plans, and "states' rights/state sovereignty" became near-code words for anti-civil rights legislation.

Entertainment and celebrity

Playing up weaknesses

Celebrities tend to be fans of the dictum "any publicity is good publicity." If a celebrity says or does something embarrassing, he or she will often turn it into a strength and make it part of his or her "image." This tactic is used just as much with favorable situations as much as with unfavorable ones.

Entertainer Jessica Simpson gained nationwide prominence when she wondered aloud on a reality television show if "Chicken of the Sea" was actually chicken or tuna, garnering her a reputation for being slow-witted. However, within months she was being paid to endorse a brand of breath mints called "Liquid Ice." In the product's television commercial, Simpson replicated her earlier confusion by debating whether the mint is really liquid or ice, turning her nationwide embarrassment into a lucrative endorsement deal.[19]

Branching out

As Oscar Wilde is supposed to have said, the only thing worse than being talked about is not to be talked about. Many celebrities seem to take this truism to heart, because when their popularity (and income) wane, they take on new projects that attract media attention.

A number of American celebrities have transformed themselves into children's book authors, accompanied by much media coverage. A more traditional way of branching out is the celebrity restaurant. This is especially common among professional athletes, whose time in the spotlight is often limited by the physical demands of their jobs. Thus, basketball player Michael Jordan opened a restaurant in Chicago.

Younger female celebrities are often drawn into the fashion world. Hotel heiress Paris Hilton recently announced that she was starting her own line of jewelry. Fading star Elizabeth Taylor launched a perfume called "White Diamonds," bringing renewed interest from the media.

Other celebrities have gravitated toward politics, including film stars Charlton Heston and notably Arnold Schwarzenegger, who succeeded in being elected governor of California.

Ethical and social issues

One of the most controversial practices in public relations is the use of "front groups"—organizations that purport to serve a public cause while actually serving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or concealed. The creation of front groups is an example of what public relations practitioners sometimes term the "third party technique"—the art of "putting your words in someone else's mouth."

The Center for Media & Democracy, a non-profit organization that monitors public relations activities it considers to be deceptive, has published numerous examples of this technique in practice, contending that public relations involves a "multi-billion dollar propaganda-for-hire industry" that works to "concoct and spin the news, organize phony 'grassroots' front groups, spy on citizens, and conspire with lobbyists and politicians to thwart democracy."[20]

Instances of the use of front groups as a public relations technique have been documented in many industries. Coal mining corporations created environmental groups that contended that increased carbon dioxide emissions and global warming will contribute to plant growth and thus be beneficial, trade groups for bars have created and funded citizens' groups to attack anti-alcohol groups, and tobacco companies have created and funded citizens' groups to advocate for tort reform and to attack personal injury lawyers.[21]

Nevertheless, many of the techniques used by public relations firms are drawn from the institutions and practices of democracy itself. Persuasion, advocacy, and education are instruments through which individuals and organizations are entitled to express themselves in a free society, and many public relations practitioners are engaged in practices that are widely considered as beneficial, such as publicizing scientific research, promoting charities, raising awareness of public health concerns, and other such issues in civil society.

Notes

  1. ↑ Clarke Caywood, The Handbook of Strategic Public Relations & Integrated Communications (New York: McGraw Hill, 1997, ISBN 0786311312).
  2. ↑ Edward Bernays, Propaganda (1928; Brooklyn, NY: Ig Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0970312598).
  3. ↑ Public Relations Society of America Member Code of Ethics 2000, Public Relations Society of America. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  4. ↑ Public Relations Specialists, U.S. Department of Labor, 2006. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  5. ↑ Ihor Eros, “PR firms cashing in on reputation and image building,” Kyiv Post.
  6. ↑ Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, & Glen M. Broom, Effective Public Relations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 0130082007).
  7. ↑ Allen H. Center and Patrick Jackson, Public Relations Practices (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002, ISBN 0136138039).
  8. ↑ Sheila C. Crifasi, "Everything's Coming Up Rosie," Public Relations Tactics 7(9) (2000).
  9. ↑ “Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Jiang Yu's Regular Press Conference on 30 January, 2007,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  10. ↑ Lobbying Spending Database, OpenSecrets.org.
  11. ↑ Victor Yasmann, “Russia: Rebranding The Nation,” Radio Free Europe. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  12. ↑ John Harris, "Despite Bush Flip-Flops, Kerry Gets Label," The Washington Post (September 23, 2004). Retrieved January 4, 2007.
  13. ↑ Debra Saunders, "Willie Horton's legacy," San Francisco Chronicle (December 12, 2002). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  14. ↑ "Clinton Proposes Bridge To 21st Century," CNN AllPolitics (August 30, 1996). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  15. ↑ Amanda Marcotte, et. al., “Exposing Anti-Choice Abortion Clinics,” AlterNet (May 1, 2006). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  16. ↑ “The Anti-Life Movement,” Neural Gourmet (June 15, 2006). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  17. ↑ Dahlia Lithwick, “Activist judges? What's in a name?” Seattle Post-Iintelligencer (August 18, 2004). Retrieved January 4, 2007.
  18. ↑ "Belated Realism," The Economist (January 18, 2007). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  19. ↑ Steve Rogers, "Jessica Simpson gets an education on Chicken of the Sea," Reality TV World (October 21, 2003). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  20. ↑ PR Watch, Center for Media and Democracy. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  21. ↑ Corporate front groups, Democrats.com. Retrieved September 10, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bernays, Edward. 1945. Public Relations. Boston, MA: Bellman Publishing Company.
  • Burson, Harold. 2004. E pluribus unum: The Making of Burson-Marsteller. New York: Burson-Marsteller.
  • Center, Allen H. & Patrick Jackson. [1995] 2002. Public Relations Practices, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0136138039
  • Crifasi, Sheila C. 2000. "Everything's Coming Up Rosie." Public Relations Tactics 7(9).
  • Cutlip, Scott. 1994. The Unseen Power: Public Relations: A History. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805814647
  • Cutlip, Scott, Allen H. Center and Glen M. Broom. 2005. Effective Public Relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0130082007
  • Ewen, Stuart. 1996. PR!: A Social History of Spin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465061680
  • Grunig, James E. & Todd Hunt. 1984. Managing Public Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0030583373
  • Kelly, Kathleen S. 1998. Effective Fund Raising Management. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0805820108
  • Macnamara, Jim. 2005. Jim Macnamara's Public Relations Handbook, 5th ed. Melbourne: Information Australia.
  • Nelson, Joyce. 1989. Sultans of Sleaze: Public Relations and the Media. Toronto: Between the Lines. ISBN 0921284225
  • Phillips, David. 2001. Online Public Relations. London: Kogan Page. ISBN 0749435100
  • Stauber, John C. 1995. Toxic Sludge is Good for You: Lies, Damn Lies, and the Public Relations Industry. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press. ISBN 1567510612
  • Tye, Larry. 1998. The Father of Spin: Edward L. Bernays and the Birth of Public Relations. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0517704358
  • Stoykov, Lubomir & Valeria Pacheva. 2005. Public Relations and Business Communication. Sofia: Ot Igla Do Konetz. ISBN 9549799093

External links

All links retrieved December 2, 2022.

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