Difference between revisions of "Western Sahara" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Infobox Country or territory
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{{Infobox Country
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|native_name                 = <big>الصحراء الغربية</big><br />''{{Unicode|Al-Ṣaḥrā' al-Ġarbiyyah}}''<br />''Sáhara Occidental''
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|native_name           = الصحراء الغربية <small>{{ar icon}}</small><br />Sahara Occidental <small>{{es icon}}</small>
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|conventional_long_name     = Western Sahara
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|conventional_long_name = Western Sahara
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|common_name                 = Western Sahara
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|common_name           = Western Sahara
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|image_flag                 =  
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|image_flag             =
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|image_coat                 =  
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|image_coat             =
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|symbol_type                 =  
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|symbol_type           =
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|image_map                   = LocationWesternSahara.svg
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|image_map             = LocationWesternSahara.svg
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|national_motto             =  
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|national_motto         =
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|national_anthem             =  
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|national_anthem       =
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|official_languages          = N/A
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|official_languages     = see respective claimants
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|regional_languages          = Arabic
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|languages_type         = Spoken languages
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|capital                    = N/A
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|languages              = [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Hassaniya Arabic]] are locally spoken<br/><br/>[[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]] are widely used
 +
|demonym                = Western Saharan <!-- Sahrawi is the denonym of SADR citizens —>
 
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
 
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
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|largest_city                = El Aaiún (Laâyoune)
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|largest_city           = [[El Aaiún]] (Laâyoune)
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|government_type             =  
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| capital               =[[El Aaiún]] (Laâyoune)<ref name="bbccp">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm | title=Regions and Territories: Western Sahara | publisher = BBC News | date=9 December 2011 | accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref name="bbcqa">{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11712267 | title=Q&A: Western Sahara Clashes | publisher = BBC News  | date=8 November 2010 | accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jensen|first=Erik|title=Western Sahara: Anatomy Of A Stalemate|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vYLuOGyDBjsC&lpg=PA48&dq=western%20sahara%20capital&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=%22capital%20of%20western%20sahara%22&f=false|series=International Peace Academy Occasional Paper Series|year=2005|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=1588263053|page=48}} Retrieved January 17, 2012.</ref>
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|leader_title1               =  
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| largest_city            = capital
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|leader_name1               =  
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|government_type         =
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|leader_title2               =  
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|leader_title1           =
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|leader_name2               =  
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|leader_name1             =
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|sovereignty_type           = Disputed sovereignty<sup>1</sup>
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|leader_title2           =
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|established_event1         = Relinquished by Spain
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|leader_name2             =
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|established_date1           = November 14 1975
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|sovereignty_type         = Disputed sovereignty<sup>1</sup>
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|area_rank                   = 77th
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|established_event1       = Relinquished by [[Spain]]
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|area_magnitude             = 1 E11
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|established_date1       = 14 November 1975
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|area                        = 266,000<!-- from cia.gov —>
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|area_rank               = 76th
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|areami²                    = 102,703
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|area_magnitude           = 1 E11
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|percent_water               = negligible
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|area_km2                = 266,000
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|population_estimate         = 341,000
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|area_sq_mi              = 103,000
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|population_estimate_rank    = 177th
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|percent_water           = negligible
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|population_estimate_year   = July 2005
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|population_estimate     = 513,000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1| version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs
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|population_census           =  
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Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate=12 March 2009}} Retrieved January 17, 2012.</ref>
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|population_census_year     =  
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|population_estimate_year = 2009
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|population_density          = 1.3
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|population_estimate_rank = 168th
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|population_densitymi²      = 3.4
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|population_census       =
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|population_density_rank     = 228th
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|population_census_year   =
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|GDP_PPP                     =  
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|population_density_km2  = 1.9
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|GDP_PPP_rank               =  
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|population_density_sq_mi = 5
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|GDP_PPP_year               =  
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|population_density_rank = 237th
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita         =  
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|GDP_PPP                 =
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank     =  
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|GDP_PPP_rank             =
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|GDP_nominal                 =  
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|GDP_PPP_year             =
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|GDP_nominal_rank           =  
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita       =
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|GDP_nominal_year           =  
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita     =  
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|GDP_nominal             =
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =  
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|GDP_nominal_rank         =
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|HDI                         =  
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|GDP_nominal_year         =
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|HDI_rank                   =  
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita   =
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|HDI_year                   =  
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
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|HDI_category               =  
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|HDI                     =
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|currency                   = Moroccan dirham
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|HDI_rank                 =
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|currency_code              = MAD
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|HDI_year                 =
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|country_code                = MA<sup>1bis</sup>
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|HDI_category             =
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|time_zone                   = UTC
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|currency                 = [[Moroccan Dirham]] (in the Morocco-controlled zone) [[Algerian Dinar]] with the [[Sahrawi Peseta]] being commemorative and not circulating (in the SADR-controlled zone)<ref>{{cite web|last=Ahmed R. Benchemsi and Mehdi Sekkouri Alaoui|title=Au cœur du polisario|url=http://www.telquel-online.com/329/couverture_329.shtml| work = [[Telquel]] |accessdate=January 17, 2012}} "Tout cela se paie en dinars algériens"</ref>
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|utc_offset                 = +0
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|currency_code          = MAD
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|time_zone_DST               = GMT
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|time_zone               =
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|utc_offset_DST             =  
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|utc_offset             = +0
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|cctld                       = [[.ma]] (<font size=1>[[.eh]] is reserved but not used{{Fact|date=August 2007}}</font>)
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|time_zone_DST           =
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|calling_code               = 212<sup>2</sup>
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|utc_offset_DST         =
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|footnotes               = <sup>1</sup> Mostly administrated by Morocco as its Southern Provinces. The Polisario Front claims to control the area behind the border wall as the Free Zone on behalf of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.<br/><sup>2</sup> Code for Morocco; no code specific to Western Sahara has been issued by the ITU.
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|cctld                   = None; [[.eh]] reserved, not officially assigned
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|calling_code           = [[+212]] <small>(Tied with Morocco)</small>
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|footnotes               = <sup>1</sup> Mostly under administration of Morocco as its [[Southern Provinces]]. The Polisario Front controls border areas behind the [[Moroccan Wall|border wall]] as the [[Free Zone (region)|Free Zone]], on behalf of the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]].
 
}}
 
}}
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'''Western Sahara''',located in northwestern [[Africa]], is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of [[desert]] flatlands. The largest city is El Aaiún (Laâyoune), which is home to over half of the population.
 
  
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The Kingdom of [[Morocco]] and the Polisario Front independence movement (and government of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, or SADR) dispute control of the territory. Since a [[United Nations]]-sponsored cease-fire agreement in 1991, most of the territory has been controlled by Morocco, with the remainder under the control of Polisario/SADR. Internationally, the major powers such as the United States have taken a generally ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims, and have pressed both parties to agree on a peaceful resolution. Both Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, largely from minor states. Polisario has won formal recognition for SADR from roughly forty-five states and was extended membership in the [[African Union]], while Morocco  has won formal recognition for its position from twenty-five states, as well as the membership of the Arab League. In both instances, recognitions have over the past two decades been extended and withdrawn according to changing international trends.
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'''Western Sahara''', located in northwestern [[Africa]], is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of [[desert]] flatlands.  
  
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Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories since the 1960s when it was a Spanish colony.
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[[Morocco]] and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia al-Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) independence movement dispute control of the territory, with Morocco having de facto control over most of the territory. Morocco bases its claims on historical proclamations by tribal chiefs of allegiance to Moroccan sultans. The Polisario Front was formed with [[Algeria]]n, [[Libya]]n, and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] bloc backing as an independence movement when [[Spain]] still controlled the area as a colony. Today, [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] ambitions, hopes of exploiting natural resources, and concerns about the spread of [[terrorism]] in the region play a role in the failure to achieve an acceptable political settlement.
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{{toc}}
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There is some concern that an independent Western Sahara, with its long, isolated borders, would not be able to adequately control its territory and might be subject to manipulation by Islamists or other [[radicals]], including Al Qaeda, which is already active in the region. The result could be, some say, an unstable, violence-prone state reminiscent of [[Somalia]]. The degree to which Algeria, long the Polisario's patron, would influence such a state is also of concern, especially to Morocco.
  
 
==Geography==
 
==Geography==
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Western Sahara is bordered by [[Morocco]] to the north, [[Algeria]] in the northeast, [[Mauritania]] to the east and south, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] on the west. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, but is rich in [[phosphate]]s in Bou Craa. The largest city is El Aaiún (Laayoune), which is home to two-thirds of the population.
 +
[[Image:El Aaiún 13.22342W 27.14668N.png|thumb|left|NASA photo of El Aaiún.]]
 +
Saguia el Hamra is the northern third and includes Laayoune. Río de Oro is the southern two-thirds (south of Cape Bojador), with the city of Dakhla. The peninsula in the extreme southwest, with the city of Lagouira, is called Ras Nouadhibou, Cap Blanc, or Cabo Blanco. The eastern side is part of Mauritania.
  
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[[Image:El Aaiún 13.22342W 27.14668N.png|thumb|NASA photo of El Aaiún.]]
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The climate is hot, dry [[desert]]; [[rain]] is rare; cold offshore air currents produce [[fog]] and heavy dew. Hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco winds can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60 percent of the time, often severely restricting visibility.
  
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Western Sahara is bordered by [[Morocco]] to the north, [[Algeria]] in the northeast, [[Mauritania]] to the east and south, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] on the west. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, but is rich in [[phosphate]]s in Bou Craa.
+
The terrain is mostly low, flat desert with large areas of rocky or sandy surfaces rising to small mountains in the south and northeast. Along the coast, steep cliffs line the shore, and shipwrecks are visible. The lowest point is Sebjet Tah (-55 m) and the highest point (unnamed) is 463 m. Natural resources are [[phosphate]]s and [[iron]] ore. [[Water]] and arable land are scarce.
  
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Saguia el Hamra is the northern third with the city Laayoune. Río de Oro is the southern two-thirds (south of Cape Bojador), with the city Dakhla. The peninsula in the extreme southwest, with the city of Lagouira, is called Ras Nouadhibou, Cap Blanc, or Cabo Blanco. The eastern side is part of Mauritania.
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Plant and animal life is restricted to those species adapted to desert conditions, such as fennec [[fox]]es, jerboas and other [[rodent]]s, and [[hyena]]s. [[Reptile]]s include [[lizard]]s and [[snake]]s.
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The climate is hot, dry desert; rain is rare; cold offshore air currents produce fog and heavy dew. Hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco winds can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60 percent of the time, often severely restricting visibility.
 
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The terrain is mostly low, flat desert with large areas of rocky or sandy surfaces rising to small mountains in the south and northeast. The lowest point is Sebjet Tah (-55 m) and the highest point (unnamed) is 463 m. Natural resources are phosphates and iron ore. Water and arable land are scarce.
 
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Western Sahara in historical times were agriculturalists called Bafour. The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by [[Berber]]-language speaking populations that eventually merged in turn with migrating [[Arab]] tribes, although the Arabic-speaking majority in the Western Sahara clearly by the historical record descend from Berber tribes that adopted Arabic over time. There may have been some [[Phoenicia]]n contacts in antiquity, but such contacts left few if any long-term traces.  
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[[Image:Westernsaharamap.png|thumb|350px|right]]
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The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Western Sahara in historical times were [[agriculture|agriculturalist]]s called Bafour. The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by [[Berber]]-language speaking populations that eventually merged in turn with migrating [[Arab]] tribes, although the Arabic-speaking majority in the Western Sahara clearly by the historical record descend from Berber tribes that adopted Arabic over time. There may have been some [[Phoenicia]]n contacts in antiquity, but such contacts left few if any long-term traces.  
  
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The arrival of [[Islam]] in the eighth century played a major role in the development of relationships between the Saharan regions that later became the modern territories of [[Morocco]], Western Sahara, [[Mauritania]], and [[Algeria]], and neighboring regions. Trade developed further and the region became a passage for caravans, especially between Marrakesh and Timbuktu in [[Mali]]. In the Middle Ages, the Almohad and Almoravid movements and dynasties both originated from the Saharan regions and were able to control the area.
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The arrival of [[Islam]] in the eighth century played a major role in the development of relationships between the Saharan regions that later became the modern territories of [[Morocco]], Western Sahara, [[Mauritania]], and [[Algeria]], and neighboring regions. Trade developed further and the region became a passage for caravans, especially between [[Marrakesh]] and [[Timbuktu]] in [[Mali]]. In the Middle Ages, the [[Almohad]] and [[Almoravid]] movements and dynasties both originated from the Saharan regions and were able to control the area.
  
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Towards the late Middle Ages, the Beni Hassan Arab Bedouin tribes invaded the Maghreb, reaching the northern border area of the Sahara in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and [[North Africa]], the indigenous Berber tribes adopted Hassaniya Arabic and a mixed Arab-Berber nomadic culture.  
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Toward the late Middle Ages, the Beni Hassan Arab Bedouin tribes invaded the [[Maghreb]], reaching the northern border area of the Sahara in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and [[North Africa]], the indigenous Berber tribes adopted Hassaniya Arabic and a mixed Arab-Berber [[nomad]]ic culture.  
  
 
===Spanish Province===
 
===Spanish Province===
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During the first decade of the twentieth century, after an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa, [[Spain]] seized control of the Western Sahara and declared it to be a Spanish protectorate in a series of wars against the local tribes reminiscent of similar European colonial adventures of the period, in the Maghreb, [[sub-Saharan Africa]], and elsewhere.  
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After an agreement among the [[Europe]]an [[colonialism|colonial]] powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in [[Africa]], [[Spain]] seized control of the Western Sahara and declared it to be a Spanish protectorate. It conducted a series of wars against the local tribes reminiscent of European colonial adventures of the period elsewhere.  
  
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Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonizations after World War II, which saw Europeans lose control of North African and sub-Saharan Africa possessions and protectorates. Spanish decolonization began rather late, as internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up toward the end of [[Francisco Franco]]'s rule, and in combination with the global trend toward complete decolonization. Spain began rapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. After initially being violently opposed to decolonization, Spain began to give in and by 1974-1975 issued promises of a referendum on independence. The nascent Polisario Front, a [[nationalism|nationalist]] organization that had begun fighting the Spanish in 1973, had been demanding such a move.
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Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonizations after [[World War II]], which saw [[Europe]]ans lose control of [[North Africa]]n and sub-Saharan Africa possessions and protectorates. Spanish decolonization began rather late, as internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up toward the end of [[Francisco Franco]]'s rule, and in combination with the global trend toward complete decolonization. Spain began rapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. After initially being violently opposed to decolonization, Spain began to give in and by 1974-1975 issued promises of a referendum on independence. The nascent Polisario Front, a [[nationalism|nationalist]] organization that had begun fighting the Spanish in 1973, had been demanding such a move.
  
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At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania, which had historical claims of sovereignty over the territory based on competing traditional claims, argued that the territory was artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. The third neighbor of Spanish Sahara, [[Algeria]], viewed these demands with suspicion, influenced by its long-running rivalry with Morocco. After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the [[United Nations]], the government of Houari Boumédiènne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence.
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At the same time, [[Morocco]] and [[Mauritania]], which had historical claims of sovereignty over the territory, argued that the territory was artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. [[Algeria]] viewed these demands with suspicion, influenced by its long-running rivalry with Morocco. After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the [[United Nations]], the government of Houari Boumédiènne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence.
  
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The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a verdict from the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which declared that the Western Sahara possessed the right of self-determination. On November 6, 1975, 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II to cross into Western Sahara, known as the Green March.
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The [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) declared in 1975 that the Western Sahara possessed the right of self-determination. On November 6, 1975, the crossing of 350,000 Moroccan civilians into Western Sahara, became known as the ''Green March.''
  
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===Demands for Independence===
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The Spanish government secretly signed on November 14, 1975, mere days before Franco's death, a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to abandon the territory. Although the accords foresaw a tripartite administration, Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territory, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces and Mauritania taking control the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya.
  
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In the waning days of General [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s rule in November 1975, the Spanish government secretly signed on November  14, 1975, mere days before Franco's death, a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to abandon the territory. Although the accords foresaw a tripartite administration, Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territory, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces, and Mauritania taking control the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months, repatriating even Spanish corpses from its cemeteries. The Moroccan and Mauritanian moves, however, met staunch opposition from the Polisario, which had by now gained backing from [[Algeria]]. In 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal due to pressures from Polisario, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory, and gradually contained the guerrillas through setting up an extensive sand berm in the desert to exclude guerrilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO, under the terms of the UN's Settlement Plan.
+
Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months. The Moroccan and Mauritanian moves, however, met staunch opposition from the Polisario, which had gained backing from [[Algeria]]. In 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal due to pressures from Polisario, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory and gradually contained the guerrillas through setting up an extensive sand berm in the desert to exclude [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO, under the terms of the UN's Settlement Plan.
  
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===The Referendum Stalls===
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===The Referendum stalls===
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The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population the option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum, but likewise has hitherto not had success. As of 2007, however, negotiations over terms has not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in the referendum, and, since about 2000, Morocco's renewed refusal to accept independence as an option on the referendum ballot combined with Polisario's insistence that independence be a clear option in the referendum.  
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The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population the option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. As of 2007, negotiations over terms had not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in the referendum, and, since about 2000, Morocco's refusal to accept independence as an option on the ballot while the Polisario insists on its inclusion.  
  
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Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. The Polisario has insisted on allowing to vote only the persons found on the 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below), while Morocco has insisted the census was flawed by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes with recent historical presence in the Spanish Sahara.
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Both sides blame each other for the lack of action. The Polisario has insisted that only the persons found on the 1974 Spanish census lists be allowed to vote, while Morocco asserts the census was flawed and seeks to include members of [[Sahrawi]] tribes with recent historical presence in the Spanish Sahara (that is, after the Green March).  
  
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Efforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps, Mauritania and other places of exile. Polisario accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused and, as rejected voter candidates began a mass-appeals procedure, insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. This again brought the process to a halt.
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By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other solutions. Morocco has offered autonomy as an option.
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According to a NATO delegation, MINURSO election observers stated in 1999, as the deadlock continued, that "if the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the RASD side" [http://www.nato-pa.int/archivedpub/trip/as79gsm993-morocco.asp]. By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other, third-way solutions. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose.
 
  
 
===Baker Plan===
 
===Baker Plan===
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As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker (who also had John Bolton in his delegation) visited all sides and produced the document known as the "Baker Plan". This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), which would be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers, but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three-ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy", further undermining the independence camp. Also, Morocco was allowed to keep its army in the area and to retain the control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2002, the Moroccan king stated that the referendum idea was "out of date" since it "can not be implemented"; Polisario retorted that that was only because of the king's refusal to allow it to take place.
+
As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, [[James Baker]] visited all sides and produced the document known as the "Baker Plan." This envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), to be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy" option, which might have the effect of undermining the independence camp.  
−
 
+
−
In 2003, a new version of the plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on the Moroccan devolution. It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This appeared to abandon  Polisario's previous position of only negotiating based on the standards of voter identification from 1991 (i.e., the Spanish census). After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003.
+
In 2003, a new version of the plan was proposed, spelling out the powers of the WSA to make it less reliant on Moroccan devolution. It also provided further details on the referendum process to make it harder to stall or subvert. Commonly known as Baker II, this draft was accepted by Polisario as a "basis of negotiations," to the surprise of many. After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the [[UN Security Council]]'s unanimous endorsement of the plan.
  
 
===Western Sahara today===
 
===Western Sahara today===
−
Today the Baker II document appears politically redundant, with Baker having resigned his post at the UN in 2004. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan, but he met with rejection. The new king, Mohammed VI of Morocco, opposes any referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one: "We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara, not a grain of its sand" [http://www.timesnews.co.ke/04apr06/insight/ins4.html].
+
Today the Baker II document appears politically redundant, since Baker resigned his post in 2004 following several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan. The new king, Mohammed VI, opposes any referendum on independence and has said Morocco will never agree to one. Instead, he proposes a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco, through an appointed advisory body.
−
 
 
−
Instead, he proposes, through an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco. His father, Hassan II of Morocco, initially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982, and in signed contracts with Polisario and the United Nations in 1991 and 1997; Morocco is thus bound to hold the referendum, but it appears unlikely that any major power will attempt to force its hand.
 
−
 
 
−
The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting may be a possibility. In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity on both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications.
 
  
−
Morocco has repeatedly tried to get Algeria into bilateral negotiations, receiving vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the United States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front.
+
Morocco has repeatedly tried to get [[Algeria]] into bilateral negotiations that would define the exact limits of Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of Polisario.
  
−
Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence and/or a referendum broke out in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara in May 2005, and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa). They were met by police. Several international human rights organizations have expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources, including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations the name "Independence Intifada", while sources supporting the Moroccan claims have attempted to minimize the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage has been sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media coverage within the territory.
+
Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence and/or a referendum broke out in May 2005. They were met by police force. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists were jailed.  
  
−
Demonstrations and protests are still occurring, after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory, but still explicitly refused any referendum on independence. As of January 2007, the plan has not been made public, even if the Moroccan government claims that it is more or less completed. [http://www.map.ma/eng/sections/politics/king_informs_governm/view] [http://www.afrol.com/articles/18964].
+
Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still refused any referendum on independence. The Polisario Front has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of the cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without a green light from Algeria, which houses the Sahrawis' [[refugee]] camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement.
  
−
The Polisario Front has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of the cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green light from Algeria, which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement.
+
In April 2007 the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), govern the territory with some degree of autonomy. The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. On April 10, U.S. Under Secretary of State Nicholas Burns called the initiative Morocco presented "a serious and credible proposal to provide real autonomy for the Western Sahara."
  
−
In April 2007 the government of Morocco has suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccoan proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.[http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/299/28/PDF/N0729928.pdf?OpenElement Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara (13 April 2007)](ped). UN Security Council. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. )
+
The stalemate led the UN to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. The parties held their first direct negotiations in seven years in [[New York]] in June and August 2007. Both sides agreed to more talks but didn't budge on their separate demands. A statement released by the UN mediator, Peter van Walsum, said that the discussions had included confidence-building measures but did not specify them. A UN statement said, "The parties acknowledge that the current status quo is unacceptable and they have committed to continue these negotiations in good faith." But a date and venue for a third session of talks have yet to be determined, the statement said.
−
 
 
−
The online Western Sahara independence movement is heralded by [http://www.onehumportwo.blogspot.com/ One Hump or Two?], a humorous blog that chronicles the Western Sahara conflict. It is the only pro-Western Sahara blog that is accessible from Morocco.
 
  
 
==Politics==
 
==Politics==
 
[[Image:Laayoune-miltary checkpoint.jpg|thumb|Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune.]]
 
[[Image:Laayoune-miltary checkpoint.jpg|thumb|Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune.]]
−
The legal status of the territory and the question of its sovereignty remains unresolved; the territory is contested between [[Morocco]] and Polisario Front. It is considered a non self-governed territory by the [[United Nations]].
+
The legal status of the territory and the question of its sovereignty remains unresolved; it is considered a non-self-governed territory by the [[United Nations]].
  
−
The government of Morocco is a formally constitutional monarchy under Mohammed VI with a bicameral parliament. The last elections to the lower house were deemed reasonably free and fair by international observers.  Certain powers such as the capacity to appoint the government and to dissolve parliament remain in the hands of the monarch. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants - or settlers - from loyalist Sahrawi and other communities in Morocco proper.<ref name="Thobhani">{{cite book |last= Thobhani |first= Akbarali | title= Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration: Social, Economic, and Political Transformation | publisher= Edwin Mellen Press |language= English |id=0773471731}}</ref>
+
The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants -or settlers-from loyalist Sahrawi and other communities in Morocco proper.
  
−
The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, as the Free Zone. This area is more or less unpopulated and the Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops.
+
The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan sand wall. This area is more or less unpopulated and the Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops.
  
 
===Human rights===
 
===Human rights===
−
The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human rights abuses, most notably the displacement of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country, the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian government from Algeria, and numerous casualties of war and repression.
 
  
−
During the war years (1975-1991), both sides accused each other of targeting civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario terrorism has generally little to no support abroad, with the USA, EU and UN all refusing to include the group on their lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism, and insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians should be considered state terrorism on the part of Morocco. Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations.
+
Both Morocco and the Polisario accuse each other of violating the [[human rights]] of the populations under their control, in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations.
  
−
* Morocco has been repeatedly criticized by international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International [http://web.amnesty.org/report2003/Mar-summary-eng] [http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/morocco_and_western_sahara/index.do] [http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/mar-summary-eng], [[Human Rights Watch]] [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/12/10/morocc12183.htm] [http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Wsahara.htm] and the [[World Organization Against Torture]] [http://www.omct.org/base.cfm?page=article&num=6130&consol=close&kwrd=OMCT&cfid=4407045&cftoken=75311945] [http://www.omct.org/base.cfm?page=article&num=5983&consol=close&kwrd=OMCT&cfid=4407045&cftoken=75311945&SWITCHLNG=ES] [http://www.omct.org/base.cfm?page=article&num=6233&consol=close&kwrd=OMCT&cfid=4407045&cftoken=75311945&SWITCHLNG=FR], [[Freedom House]] [http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=7106], [[Reporters Without Borders]] [http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=14119], the International Committee of the Red Cross and the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [http://www.arso.org/OHCHRrep2006en.pdf] for its actions in Western Sahara.  
+
Morocco has been repeatedly criticized by international human rights organizations such as [[Amnesty International]]. Polisario has received criticism on its treatment of Moroccan prisoners-of-war, and on its general behavior in the Tindouf refugee camps. A number of former Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organization of abuse of human rights and sequestration of the population in Tindouf.
  
−
* Polisario has received criticism from the French organization [http://www.france-libertes.fr France Libertes] on its treatment of Moroccan prisoners-of-war, and on its general behavior in the Tindouf refugee camps in reports by the Belgian organization [http://www.esisc.org ESISC], or European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center. A number of former Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organization of abuse of human rights and sequestration of the population in Tindouf.
+
According to the pro-Morocco Moroccan American Center for Policy, Algeria is the primary financial, political, and military supporter of the Polisario Front. Though [[Libya]] and countries of the former [[Soviet]] bloc historically backed Polisario, their support has decreased since the end of the [[Cold War]].  
  
−
===Administrative division===
+
Sahrawi refugees in the Tindouf camps depend on humanitarian aid donated by several UN organizations as well as international non-governmental organizations. It is widely believed that much of this humanitarian aid never reaches those it is intended to assist because it is sold on the [[black market]] in neighboring countries by Polisario. While many in the international community have called for a [[census]] and an audit system to ensure the transparent management of the [[humanitarian aid]], to date Polisario has not allowed either a census or independent oversight of its management of humanitarian assistance.
  
−
The Western Sahara was partitioned between [[Morocco]] and [[Mauritania]] in April 1976, with Morocco acquiring the northern two-thirds of the territory. When Mauritania, under pressure from Polisario guerrillas, abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979, Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortly thereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory. The official Moroccan government name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces", which indicates Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra.
+
[[Cuba]] also supports the Polisario Front and has been accused of kidnapping Sahrawi youth from the refugee camps and sending them to [[Fidel Castro|Castro]]’s [[Island of Youth]], where they are inundated with anti-Western, Marxist-Leninist teachings. The Polisario Front’s objective for the deportation of Sahrawi children is said to be 1) to separate families and 2) to keep pressure on family members who remain in the camps to go along with Polisario leadership so as not to endanger their children’s welfare.
  
−
Not under control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the border wall and the actual border with Algeria. The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf of the SADR. The area is patrolled by Polisario forces, and access is restricted, even among Sahrawis, due to the harsh climate of the Sahara, the military conflict and the abundance of land mines.<ref> 
+
===Administrative division===
−
*Land Mine Report, Western Sahara, http://www.icbl.org/lm/2006/western_sahara.html
+
[[Image:Tifariti 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Tifariti, in the Free Zone, east of the Moroccan Berm.]]
−
Landmine Action UK undertook preliminary survey work by visiting the Polisario-controlled area of Western Sahara in October 2005 and February-March 2006. A field assessment in the vicinity of Bir Lahlou, Tifariti and the berms revealed that the densest concentrations of mines are in front of the berms. Mines were laid in zigzags up to one meter apart, and in some parts of the berms, there are three rows of mines.[15] There are also berms in the Moroccan-controlled zone, around Dakhla and stretching from Boujdour, including Smara on the Moroccan border.[16]
+
The Western Sahara was partitioned between [[Morocco]] and [[Mauritania]] in April 1976, with Morocco acquiring the northern two-thirds of the territory. When Mauritania, under pressure from Polisario guerrillas, abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979, Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortly thereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory. The official Moroccan government name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces," which indicates Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra.
−
 
 
−
However, mine-laying was not restricted to the vicinity of the berms; occupied settlements throughout the Polisario-controlled areas, such as Bir Lahlou and Tifariti, are ringed by mines laid by Moroccan forces.
 
−
*Landmine Action UK, (http://www.landmineaction.org/resources.asp?item=research )“Explosive Ordnance Disposal and technical survey in Polisario-controlled areas of Western Sahara,” Project proposal, February 2006, p. 2 - 4, quoted in Land Mine Report, Western Sahara, http://www.icbl.org/lm/2006/western_sahara.html , footnote 15 and 17  </ref> Still, the area is traveled and inhabited by many Sahrawi nomads from the Tindouf refugee camps of Algeria and the Sahrawi communities in Mauritania. Both Moroccan and United Nations MINURSO forces are also present in the area. The UN forces oversee the cease-fire between Polisario and Morocco agreed upon in the 1991 Settlement Plan.<ref> http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/minurso/mandate.html MINURSO homepage - mandate Accessed May 21, 2006 </ref>.
 
−
 
 
−
The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, SPLA) in the area are divided into seven "military regions", each controlled by a top commander reporting to the President of the Polisario proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic<ref>
 
−
* http://www.arso.org/bhatia2001.htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control: Summary Report of Field Mission to the Sahrawi Refugee Camps (near Tindouf, Algeria) by Michael Bhatia, 2001
 
−
* http://www.newint.org/issue297/wall.html "Up Against the Wall", Chris Brazier, New Internationalist Magazine (297), December 1998 {{Verify credibility|New Internationalist Magazine|date=July 2007}}
 
−
* http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/book-2056  (retrieved on 20 November 2006) Michael Palin, "Sahara with Michael Palin"  ISBN 0-297-84303-6, 2002 </ref>. The total size of the Polisario's guerrilla army present in this area is unknown, but it is believed to number a few thousand men, despite many combantants being demobilized due to the cease-fire<ref> http://www.arso.org/bhatia2001.htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control: Summary Report of Field Mission to the Sahrawi Refugee Camps (near Tindouf, Algeria) by Michael Bhatia, 2001 {{Verify credibility|www.arso.org|date=July 2007}}</ref>. These forces are dug into permanent positions, such as gun emplacements, defensive trenches and underground military bases, as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory.<ref>
 
−
* http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4132213,00.html  "Saharan rebels stranded in camps, casualties of the stalemate between Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario rebels; 100,000 refugees subsist on aid." by Rory Carroll in Tifarity, Guardian, Wednesday February 7, 2001
 
−
* http://www.newint.org/issue297/wall.html New Internationalist, Chris Brazier, "Up Against the Wall", New Internationalist Magazine (297), December 1998 {{Verify credibility|New Internationalist Magazine |date=July 2007}}
 
−
* http://www.tobysavage.co.uk/Article%20texts/4x4%20mag%20WS%20article.html (dead link)
 
−
* http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/book-2056 Michael Palin, "Sahara with Michael Palin"  ISBN 0-297-84303-6, 2002 (retrieved on 20 November 2006)</ref>
 
−
[[Image:Tifariti 2005.jpg|thumb|right|Tifariti]], 2005
 
−
Major Sahrawi political events, such as Polisario congresses and sessions of the Sahrawi National Council (the SADR parliament in exile) are held in the Free Zone (especially in Tifariti and Bir Lehlou), since it is considered politically and symbolically important to conduct political affairs on Sahrawi territory. A concentration of forces for the commemoration of the Saharawi Republic’s 30th anniversary <ref> http://www.spsrasd.info/sps-e270206.html Commemoration of the Saharawi Republic’s 30th anniversary in liberated territories of Western Sahara Sahara Press Service, February 27, 2006 {{Verify credibility|www.spsrasd.info|date=July 2007}}</ref> were however subject to condemnation by the United Nations<ref name="UN_S2006249">{{UN document |docid=S-2006-249 |type=Document |body=Security Council |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-08-10 |date=19 April 2006}}</ref>, as it was considered an example of a cease-fire violation to bring such a large force concentration into the area. Both parties have been accused of such violations by the UN, but to date there has been no serious hostile action from either side since 1991.
 
  
−
Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activists from Spain, Italy and other mainly European countries. These actions are closely monitored by the UN.<ref> http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S/2006/249 Secretary General's report to Security Council on Western Sahara , 19 April 2006 (pdf file)
+
Not under control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the sand wall and the actual border with Algeria. The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf of the SADR. The area is patrolled by Polisario forces, and access is restricted, even among Sahrawis, due to the harsh climate, the military conflict, and the abundance of [[land mines]].
  
−
During the joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control of the area, the Mauritanian-controlled part, roughly corresponding to Saquia el-Hamra, was known as Tiris al-Gharbiyya.
+
The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, or SPLA) in the area are divided into seven "military regions," each controlled by a top commander reporting to the president of the Polisario-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
−
[[Image:Westernsaharamap.png|thumb|400px|right]]
 
  
 
==Economy==
 
==Economy==
−
{{main|Economy of Western Sahara}}
+
Aside from its rich [[phosphate]] deposits and [[fishing]] waters, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]] fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the ambiguous status of Western Sahara.
−
Aside from its rich [[phosphate]] deposits and [[fishing]] waters, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]] fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the non-decolonized status of Western Sahara.
 
  
−
Western Sahara's economy is centered around [[nomad]]ic [[herding]], fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government. The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara, with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employer.
+
Western Sahara's economy is centered around [[nomad]]ic [[herding]], fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government. The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara, with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employer. Incomes in Western Sahara are substantially below the Moroccan level.
  
−
===Exploitation debate===
+
Morocco and the EU signed a four-year agreement in July 2006 allowing European vessels to fish off the coast of Morocco, including the disputed waters off the coast of Western Sahara.
−
After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighboring Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both [[Morocco]] and the Polisario have made deals with oil and gas exploration companies. U.S. and French companies (notably Total and Kerr-McGee) began prospecting on behalf of Morocco.
 
−
{{MapLibrary|Western_Sahara_sat.png|Western Sahara}}
 
−
In 2002, Hans Corell, Under-Secretary General of the [[United Nations]] and head of its Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on the matter.<ref name="UN_S2002161">{{UN document |docid=S-2002-161 |type=Document |body=Security Council |year=2002 |accessdate=2007-08-10 |date=[[12 February]] [[2002]]}}</ref> This opinion stated that while ''exploration'' of the area was permitted, ''exploitation'' was not, on the basis that Morocco is not a recognized administrative power of the territory, and thus lacks the capacity to issue such licenses. After pressures from corporate ethics-groups, Total S.A. pulled out.
 
  
−
In May 2006 the remaining company Kerr-McGee also left following sales of numerous share holders like the National Norwegian Oil Fund, due to continued pressure from NGOs and corporate groups.
+
After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighboring [[Mauritania]], speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and Polisario have made deals with oil and gas exploration companies. In 2002, the head of the UN's Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on the matter stating that while "exploration" of the area was permitted, "exploitation" was not.
−
 
 
−
Despite the UN report and the development regarding the exploration of oil, the European Union wants to exploit [[fishing]] resources in waters outside Western Sahara and has signed a fishing treaty with Morocco.
 
  
 
==Demographics==
 
==Demographics==
−
The indigenous population of Western Sahara is known as Sahrawis. These are Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed Arab-Berber heritage, effectively continuations of the tribal groupings of Hassaniya speaking [[Moors|Moor]]ish tribes extending south into [[Mauritania]] and north into [[Morocco]] as well as east into [[Algeria]]. The Sahrawis are traditionally [[nomad]]ic [[bedouin]]s, and can be found in all surrounding countries. War and conflict has led to major displacements of the population.
+
The indigenous population of Western Sahara is known as Sahrawis. These are Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed Arab-Berber heritage, effectively continuations of the tribal groupings of Hassaniya-speaking [[Moors|Moor]]ish tribes extending south into [[Mauritania]] and north into [[Morocco]] as well as east into [[Algeria]]. The Sahrawis are traditionally [[nomad]]ic [[bedouin]]s, and can be found in all surrounding countries.  
  
−
As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000) live in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Morocco has engaged in "Moroccanization" of the area, bringing in large numbers of settlers in anticipation of a UN-administered referendum on independence. While many of them are from Sahrawi tribal groups extending up into southern Morocco, some are also non-Sahrawi Moroccans from other regions. The settler population is today thought to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy.
+
As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000) live in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Morocco brought in large numbers of settlers in anticipation of a UN-administered referendum on independence. While many of them are from Sahrawi tribal groups living in southern Morocco, others are non-Sahrawi Moroccans from other regions. The settler population is today thought to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy.
  
 
The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren and have no resident population, but they are traveled by small numbers of Sahrawis herding [[camel]]s, going back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the territory by both the Polisario and the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life.
 
The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren and have no resident population, but they are traveled by small numbers of Sahrawis herding [[camel]]s, going back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the territory by both the Polisario and the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life.
  
 
===The Spanish census and MINURSO===
 
===The Spanish census and MINURSO===
−
A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people, even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized. Despite these possible inaccuracies, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on using the Spanish census as the basis for voter registration when striking a cease-fire argeement in the late 1980s, contingent on the holding of a referendum on independence or integration into Morocco.
+
A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people, even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized.  
  
−
In December of 1999 the United Nations' MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 Settlement plan and the 1997 Houston accords. By "eligible voter" the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove his/her descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, with smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis 'indigenous' to the Western Sahara during the Spanish colonial period, not the total number of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e, members of Sahrawi tribal groupings), who also extend into Mauritania, Morocco and Algeria. The number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum on self-determination.
+
In 1999 the United Nations' MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 settlement plan. By "eligible voter" the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove his/her descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, with smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis "indigenous" to the Western Sahara during the Spanish colonial period, not the total number of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e, members of Sahrawi tribal groupings), who also extend into Mauritania, Morocco, and Algeria.
  
−
The Polisario has its home base in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, and declares the number of Sahrawi population in the camps to be approximately 155,000. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is exaggerated for political reasons and for attracting more foreign aid. The UN uses a number of 90,000 "most vulnerable" refugees as basis for its food aid program.
+
The Polisario declares the number of Sahrawis living in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria to be approximately 155,000. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is exaggerated for political reasons and to attract more [[foreign aid]]. The UN uses a number of 90,000 "most vulnerable" refugees as the basis for its food aid program.
  
−
==Culture==
+
===Status of refugees===
−
{{main|Culture of Western Sahara}}
 
−
The major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a [[nomad]]ic or [[Bedouin]] tribal or ethnic group speaking Ḥassānīya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in much of [[Mauritania]]. They are of mixed Arab-Berber descent, but claim descent from the Beni Hassan, a [[Yemeni]] tribe supposed to have migrated across the desert in the eleventh century.
 
  
−
Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya speaking [[Moors]] of Mauritania, the Sahrawi people differ from their neighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries) and partly as a consequence of their exposure to [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colonialism|colonial]] domination. Surrounding territories were generally under French colonial rule.
+
Sahrawi refugees began arriving in [[Algeria]] in 1976 after [[Spain]] withdrew from the Western Sahara and fighting broke out over its control. Most of the Sahrawi refugees have been living for more than 30 years in the [[desert]] regions of Tindouf. Some of the Sahrawis stayed in the Western Sahara, however, and families remain separated.
  
−
Like other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are [[Muslim]]s of the Sunni sect and the Maliki law school. Local religious custom 'urf is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber and [[Africa]]n practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi [[Islam]] has traditionally functioned without [[mosque]]s in the normal sense of the word, in an adaptation to nomadic life.
+
In September 2007, the UN refugee agency said it feared that a lack of funding could bring a halt to confidence-building measures connecting Sahrawi refugees in Algeria and their relatives in the Western Sahara. In January 2007, [[UNHCR]] had appealed for nearly US $3.5 million to continue the family visits and telephone services initiated in 2004. "But with only a little over half of the appeal funded so far, the whole operation risks being stopped next month [October 2007]," the UNHCR said.
  
−
The originally [[clan]]- and [[tribe]]-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the population was forced into [[exile]] and settled in the [[refugee]] camps of Tindouf, Algeria. Families were broken up by the fight. For developments among this population, see Sahrawi and Tindouf Province.
+
A total of 154 visits have taken place involving 4,255 people – mainly women. An additional 14,726 people are waiting to take part in the program. Almost 80,000 calls have been placed in four refugee camps in Algeria with telephone centers.
  
−
The Moroccan government considerably invested in the social and economic development of the Moroccan controlled Western Sahara with special emphasis on education, modernization and infrastructure. El-Aaiun in particular has been the target of heavy government investment, and has grown rapidly. Several thousand Sahrawis study in Moroccan universities. Literacy rates are appreciated at some 50% of the population.
+
==Culture==
−
 
+
The major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a [[nomad]]ic or [[bedouin]] tribal or ethnic group speaking a Hassaniya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in much of [[Mauritania]]. They are of mixed [[Arab]]-[[Berber]] descent but claim descent from the [[Beni Hassan]], a [[Yemeni]] tribe that is supposed to have migrated across the desert in the eleventh century.
−
To date, there have been few thorough studies of the culture due in part to the political situation. Some language and culture studies, mainly by French researchers, have been performed on Sahrawi communities in northern Mauritania.
 
  
 +
Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya-speaking [[Moors]] of Mauritania, the Sahrawi people differ from their neighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries) and partly as a consequence of their exposure to [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colonialism|colonial]] domination. The surrounding territories were generally under [[France|French]] colonial rule.
  
 +
Like other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are [[Muslim]]s of the Sunni sect and the Maliki law school. Local religious custom is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber and [[Africa]]n practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi [[Islam]] has traditionally functioned without [[mosque]]s in the normal sense of the word, in an adaptation to nomadic life.
  
−
==Notes and references==
+
The originally [[clan]]- and [[tribe]]-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the population settled in the [[refugee]] camps of Tindouf, [[Algeria]]. Families were broken up by the flight.
−
'''Cited references'''
 
−
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
 
−
'''General references'''
 
−
*Tony Hodges (1983), ''Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War'', Lawrence Hill Books (ISBN 0-88208-152-7)
 
−
*Anthony G. Pazzanita and Tony Hodges (1994), ''Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara'', Scarecrow Press (ISBN 0-8108-2661-5)
 
−
*Toby Shelley (2004), ''Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?'', Zed Books (ISBN 1-84277-341-0)
 
−
*Erik Jensen (2005), ''Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate'', International Peace Studies (ISBN 1-58826-305-3)
 
−
</div>
 
  
−
==External links==
+
The Moroccan government has invested in the social and economic development of the region of Western Sahara it controls, with special emphasis on education, modernization, and infrastructure. Laayoune (El-Aaiun) in particular has been the target of heavy government investment and has grown rapidly. Several thousand Sahrawis study in Moroccan universities. Literacy rates are about 50 percent of the population.
−
{{sisterlinks|Western Sahara}}
 
  
−
===Overviews===
+
==Notes==
−
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Western Sahara'']
+
<references/>
−
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wi.html CIA World Factbook - ''Western Sahara'']
 
−
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Western_Sahara Open Directory Project - ''Western Sahara''] directory category
 
−
 
 
−
===News===
 
−
*[http://allafrica.com/westernsahara/ allAfrica.com - ''Western Sahara'' news headline links]
 
−
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sahara-update The Yahoo! Sahara Update group]
 
−
 
 
−
===Special topics===
 
−
*[http://www.icbl.org/lm/2003/western_sahara.html Western Sahara, Landmine Monitor Report 2003]
 
−
*{{PDF|[http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/mediterranean_quarterly/v015/15.3mundy.pdf Jacob Mundy - "Seized of the Matter". The UN and the Western Sahara Dispute.]}} On the [[Baker Plan]] debate
 
−
*[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/wsahara.htm Western Sahara Project: archaeology and past environmental change in Western Sahara]
 
−
 
 
−
===Maps===
 
−
* http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/dpko/minurso.pdf  Minurso Deployment as of October 2006, Map No. 3691 Rev. 53 United Nations, October 2006 (Colour), Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Cartographic Section
 
  
 +
==Sources and Further Reading==
 +
* Hodges, Tony. 1983. ''Western Sahara: the roots of a desert war.'' Westport, CT: L. Hill. ISBN 9780882081519
 +
* Jensen, Erik. 2005. ''Western Sahara: anatomy of a stalemate.'' International Peace Academy occasional paper series. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1588263053
 +
* Mayhew, Bradley, and Jan Dodd. 2003. ''Morocco.'' Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1740593618 and ISBN  9781740593618
 +
* Pazzanita, Anthony G., and Tony Hodges. 1994. ''Historical dictionary of Western Sahara.'' African historical dictionaries, no. 55. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810826615
 +
* Radu, Michael. September, 2007. [http://fpri.org/enotes/200709.radu.sandboxwesternsahara.html Struggle in the Sandbox: Western Sahara and the "International Community"]. ''Foreign Policy Research Institute''. Retrieved September 26, 2007.
 +
* Shelley, Toby. 2004. ''End game in the Western Sahara: what future for Africa's last colony?'' London: Zed. ISBN 1842773410
  
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved May 4, 2023.
  
−
===Other===
+
* ''British Broadcasting Corporation''. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm  Regions and territories: Western Sahara].  
−
*[http://www.arso.org/ Association de soutien à un référendum libre et régulier au Sahara Occidental, a multilingual resource]
 
−
*[http://www.mincom.gov.ma/english/reg_cit/regions/sahara/sahara.html Moroccan Governmental site]
 
−
*[http://www.wsahara.net/ Western Sahara Online (pro-'''Polisario''')]
 
−
*[http://www.westernsaharaonline.net/ Western Sahara Online (pro-Morocco)]
 
−
*{{PDF|[http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/suttonlink/334ws.pdf Western Sahara - A Forgotten Country!]|99.8&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 102253 bytes —>}}
 
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{{clear}}
 
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*[http://onehumportwo.blogspot.com/ One Hump or Two?]
 
  
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{{Countries and territories of North Africa}}
 
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<!--{{Dependent and other territories of Africa}}—>
 
  
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{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking}}
 
  
 +
[[Category:Geography]]
 +
[[Category:Africa]]
 +
[[Category:Territories]]
  
 
{{credit|151019824}}
 
{{credit|151019824}}

Latest revision as of 17:20, 4 May 2023

الصحراء الغربية (Arabic)
Sahara Occidental (Spanish)
Western Sahara
Location of Western Sahara
Capital
(and largest city) 		El Aaiún (Laâyoune)[1][2][3]
Official languages see respective claimants
Spoken languages Berber and Hassaniya Arabic are locally spoken

Spanish and French are widely used
Demonym Western Saharan
Disputed sovereignty1
 -  Relinquished by Spain 14 November 1975 
Area
 -  Total 266,000 km² (76th)
103,000 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) negligible
Population
 -  2009 estimate 513,000[4] (168th)
 -  Density 1.9/km² (237th)
5/sq mi
Currency Moroccan Dirham (in the Morocco-controlled zone) Algerian Dinar with the Sahrawi Peseta being commemorative and not circulating (in the SADR-controlled zone)[5] (MAD)
Time zone (UTC+0)
Internet TLD None; .eh reserved, not officially assigned
Calling code [[++212 (Tied with Morocco)]]
1 Mostly under administration of Morocco as its Southern Provinces. The Polisario Front controls border areas behind the border wall as the Free Zone, on behalf of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.

Western Sahara, located in northwestern Africa, is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of desert flatlands.

Morocco and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia al-Hamra and Rio de Oro (Polisario) independence movement dispute control of the territory, with Morocco having de facto control over most of the territory. Morocco bases its claims on historical proclamations by tribal chiefs of allegiance to Moroccan sultans. The Polisario Front was formed with Algerian, Libyan, and Soviet bloc backing as an independence movement when Spain still controlled the area as a colony. Today, geopolitical ambitions, hopes of exploiting natural resources, and concerns about the spread of terrorism in the region play a role in the failure to achieve an acceptable political settlement.

There is some concern that an independent Western Sahara, with its long, isolated borders, would not be able to adequately control its territory and might be subject to manipulation by Islamists or other radicals, including Al Qaeda, which is already active in the region. The result could be, some say, an unstable, violence-prone state reminiscent of Somalia. The degree to which Algeria, long the Polisario's patron, would influence such a state is also of concern, especially to Morocco.

Geography

Western Sahara is bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria in the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, but is rich in phosphates in Bou Craa. The largest city is El Aaiún (Laayoune), which is home to two-thirds of the population.

NASA photo of El Aaiún.

Saguia el Hamra is the northern third and includes Laayoune. Río de Oro is the southern two-thirds (south of Cape Bojador), with the city of Dakhla. The peninsula in the extreme southwest, with the city of Lagouira, is called Ras Nouadhibou, Cap Blanc, or Cabo Blanco. The eastern side is part of Mauritania.

The climate is hot, dry desert; rain is rare; cold offshore air currents produce fog and heavy dew. Hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco winds can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60 percent of the time, often severely restricting visibility.

The terrain is mostly low, flat desert with large areas of rocky or sandy surfaces rising to small mountains in the south and northeast. Along the coast, steep cliffs line the shore, and shipwrecks are visible. The lowest point is Sebjet Tah (-55 m) and the highest point (unnamed) is 463 m. Natural resources are phosphates and iron ore. Water and arable land are scarce.

Plant and animal life is restricted to those species adapted to desert conditions, such as fennec foxes, jerboas and other rodents, and hyenas. Reptiles include lizards and snakes.

History

Westernsaharamap.png

The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Western Sahara in historical times were agriculturalists called Bafour. The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by Berber-language speaking populations that eventually merged in turn with migrating Arab tribes, although the Arabic-speaking majority in the Western Sahara clearly by the historical record descend from Berber tribes that adopted Arabic over time. There may have been some Phoenician contacts in antiquity, but such contacts left few if any long-term traces.

The arrival of Islam in the eighth century played a major role in the development of relationships between the Saharan regions that later became the modern territories of Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Algeria, and neighboring regions. Trade developed further and the region became a passage for caravans, especially between Marrakesh and Timbuktu in Mali. In the Middle Ages, the Almohad and Almoravid movements and dynasties both originated from the Saharan regions and were able to control the area.

Toward the late Middle Ages, the Beni Hassan Arab Bedouin tribes invaded the Maghreb, reaching the northern border area of the Sahara in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa, the indigenous Berber tribes adopted Hassaniya Arabic and a mixed Arab-Berber nomadic culture.

Spanish Province

After an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa, Spain seized control of the Western Sahara and declared it to be a Spanish protectorate. It conducted a series of wars against the local tribes reminiscent of European colonial adventures of the period elsewhere.

Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonizations after World War II, which saw Europeans lose control of North African and sub-Saharan Africa possessions and protectorates. Spanish decolonization began rather late, as internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up toward the end of Francisco Franco's rule, and in combination with the global trend toward complete decolonization. Spain began rapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. After initially being violently opposed to decolonization, Spain began to give in and by 1974-1975 issued promises of a referendum on independence. The nascent Polisario Front, a nationalist organization that had begun fighting the Spanish in 1973, had been demanding such a move.

At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania, which had historical claims of sovereignty over the territory, argued that the territory was artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. Algeria viewed these demands with suspicion, influenced by its long-running rivalry with Morocco. After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the United Nations, the government of Houari Boumédiènne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) declared in 1975 that the Western Sahara possessed the right of self-determination. On November 6, 1975, the crossing of 350,000 Moroccan civilians into Western Sahara, became known as the Green March.

The Spanish government secretly signed on November 14, 1975, mere days before Franco's death, a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to abandon the territory. Although the accords foresaw a tripartite administration, Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territory, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces and Mauritania taking control the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya.

Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months. The Moroccan and Mauritanian moves, however, met staunch opposition from the Polisario, which had gained backing from Algeria. In 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal due to pressures from Polisario, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory and gradually contained the guerrillas through setting up an extensive sand berm in the desert to exclude guerrilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO, under the terms of the UN's Settlement Plan.

The Referendum stalls

The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population the option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. As of 2007, negotiations over terms had not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in the referendum, and, since about 2000, Morocco's refusal to accept independence as an option on the ballot while the Polisario insists on its inclusion.

Both sides blame each other for the lack of action. The Polisario has insisted that only the persons found on the 1974 Spanish census lists be allowed to vote, while Morocco asserts the census was flawed and seeks to include members of Sahrawi tribes with recent historical presence in the Spanish Sahara (that is, after the Green March).

By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other solutions. Morocco has offered autonomy as an option.

Baker Plan

As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker visited all sides and produced the document known as the "Baker Plan." This envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), to be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy" option, which might have the effect of undermining the independence camp.

In 2003, a new version of the plan was proposed, spelling out the powers of the WSA to make it less reliant on Moroccan devolution. It also provided further details on the referendum process to make it harder to stall or subvert. Commonly known as Baker II, this draft was accepted by Polisario as a "basis of negotiations," to the surprise of many. After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan.

Western Sahara today

Today the Baker II document appears politically redundant, since Baker resigned his post in 2004 following several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan. The new king, Mohammed VI, opposes any referendum on independence and has said Morocco will never agree to one. Instead, he proposes a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco, through an appointed advisory body.

Morocco has repeatedly tried to get Algeria into bilateral negotiations that would define the exact limits of Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of Polisario.

Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence and/or a referendum broke out in May 2005. They were met by police force. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists were jailed.

Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still refused any referendum on independence. The Polisario Front has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of the cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without a green light from Algeria, which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement.

In April 2007 the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), govern the territory with some degree of autonomy. The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. On April 10, U.S. Under Secretary of State Nicholas Burns called the initiative Morocco presented "a serious and credible proposal to provide real autonomy for the Western Sahara."

The stalemate led the UN to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. The parties held their first direct negotiations in seven years in New York in June and August 2007. Both sides agreed to more talks but didn't budge on their separate demands. A statement released by the UN mediator, Peter van Walsum, said that the discussions had included confidence-building measures but did not specify them. A UN statement said, "The parties acknowledge that the current status quo is unacceptable and they have committed to continue these negotiations in good faith." But a date and venue for a third session of talks have yet to be determined, the statement said.

Politics

Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune.

The legal status of the territory and the question of its sovereignty remains unresolved; it is considered a non-self-governed territory by the United Nations.

The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants -or settlers-from loyalist Sahrawi and other communities in Morocco proper.

The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan sand wall. This area is more or less unpopulated and the Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops.

Human rights

Both Morocco and the Polisario accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations.

Morocco has been repeatedly criticized by international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International. Polisario has received criticism on its treatment of Moroccan prisoners-of-war, and on its general behavior in the Tindouf refugee camps. A number of former Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organization of abuse of human rights and sequestration of the population in Tindouf.

According to the pro-Morocco Moroccan American Center for Policy, Algeria is the primary financial, political, and military supporter of the Polisario Front. Though Libya and countries of the former Soviet bloc historically backed Polisario, their support has decreased since the end of the Cold War.

Sahrawi refugees in the Tindouf camps depend on humanitarian aid donated by several UN organizations as well as international non-governmental organizations. It is widely believed that much of this humanitarian aid never reaches those it is intended to assist because it is sold on the black market in neighboring countries by Polisario. While many in the international community have called for a census and an audit system to ensure the transparent management of the humanitarian aid, to date Polisario has not allowed either a census or independent oversight of its management of humanitarian assistance.

Cuba also supports the Polisario Front and has been accused of kidnapping Sahrawi youth from the refugee camps and sending them to Castro’s Island of Youth, where they are inundated with anti-Western, Marxist-Leninist teachings. The Polisario Front’s objective for the deportation of Sahrawi children is said to be 1) to separate families and 2) to keep pressure on family members who remain in the camps to go along with Polisario leadership so as not to endanger their children’s welfare.

Administrative division

Tifariti, in the Free Zone, east of the Moroccan Berm.

The Western Sahara was partitioned between Morocco and Mauritania in April 1976, with Morocco acquiring the northern two-thirds of the territory. When Mauritania, under pressure from Polisario guerrillas, abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979, Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortly thereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory. The official Moroccan government name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces," which indicates Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra.

Not under control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the sand wall and the actual border with Algeria. The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf of the SADR. The area is patrolled by Polisario forces, and access is restricted, even among Sahrawis, due to the harsh climate, the military conflict, and the abundance of land mines.

The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, or SPLA) in the area are divided into seven "military regions," each controlled by a top commander reporting to the president of the Polisario-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.

Economy

Aside from its rich phosphate deposits and fishing waters, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore oil and natural gas fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the ambiguous status of Western Sahara.

Western Sahara's economy is centered around nomadic herding, fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government. The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara, with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employer. Incomes in Western Sahara are substantially below the Moroccan level.

Morocco and the EU signed a four-year agreement in July 2006 allowing European vessels to fish off the coast of Morocco, including the disputed waters off the coast of Western Sahara.

After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighboring Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and Polisario have made deals with oil and gas exploration companies. In 2002, the head of the UN's Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on the matter stating that while "exploration" of the area was permitted, "exploitation" was not.

Demographics

The indigenous population of Western Sahara is known as Sahrawis. These are Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed Arab-Berber heritage, effectively continuations of the tribal groupings of Hassaniya-speaking Moorish tribes extending south into Mauritania and north into Morocco as well as east into Algeria. The Sahrawis are traditionally nomadic bedouins, and can be found in all surrounding countries.

As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000) live in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Morocco brought in large numbers of settlers in anticipation of a UN-administered referendum on independence. While many of them are from Sahrawi tribal groups living in southern Morocco, others are non-Sahrawi Moroccans from other regions. The settler population is today thought to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy.

The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren and have no resident population, but they are traveled by small numbers of Sahrawis herding camels, going back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the territory by both the Polisario and the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life.

The Spanish census and MINURSO

A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people, even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized.

In 1999 the United Nations' MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 settlement plan. By "eligible voter" the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove his/her descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, with smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis "indigenous" to the Western Sahara during the Spanish colonial period, not the total number of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e, members of Sahrawi tribal groupings), who also extend into Mauritania, Morocco, and Algeria.

The Polisario declares the number of Sahrawis living in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria to be approximately 155,000. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is exaggerated for political reasons and to attract more foreign aid. The UN uses a number of 90,000 "most vulnerable" refugees as the basis for its food aid program.

Status of refugees

Sahrawi refugees began arriving in Algeria in 1976 after Spain withdrew from the Western Sahara and fighting broke out over its control. Most of the Sahrawi refugees have been living for more than 30 years in the desert regions of Tindouf. Some of the Sahrawis stayed in the Western Sahara, however, and families remain separated.

In September 2007, the UN refugee agency said it feared that a lack of funding could bring a halt to confidence-building measures connecting Sahrawi refugees in Algeria and their relatives in the Western Sahara. In January 2007, UNHCR had appealed for nearly US $3.5 million to continue the family visits and telephone services initiated in 2004. "But with only a little over half of the appeal funded so far, the whole operation risks being stopped next month [October 2007]," the UNHCR said.

A total of 154 visits have taken place involving 4,255 people – mainly women. An additional 14,726 people are waiting to take part in the program. Almost 80,000 calls have been placed in four refugee camps in Algeria with telephone centers.

Culture

The major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a nomadic or bedouin tribal or ethnic group speaking a Hassaniya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in much of Mauritania. They are of mixed Arab-Berber descent but claim descent from the Beni Hassan, a Yemeni tribe that is supposed to have migrated across the desert in the eleventh century.

Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya-speaking Moors of Mauritania, the Sahrawi people differ from their neighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries) and partly as a consequence of their exposure to Spanish colonial domination. The surrounding territories were generally under French colonial rule.

Like other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are Muslims of the Sunni sect and the Maliki law school. Local religious custom is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber and African practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi Islam has traditionally functioned without mosques in the normal sense of the word, in an adaptation to nomadic life.

The originally clan- and tribe-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the population settled in the refugee camps of Tindouf, Algeria. Families were broken up by the flight.

The Moroccan government has invested in the social and economic development of the region of Western Sahara it controls, with special emphasis on education, modernization, and infrastructure. Laayoune (El-Aaiun) in particular has been the target of heavy government investment and has grown rapidly. Several thousand Sahrawis study in Moroccan universities. Literacy rates are about 50 percent of the population.

Notes

  1. ↑ "Regions and Territories: Western Sahara", BBC News, 9 December 2011. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
  2. ↑ "Q&A: Western Sahara Clashes", BBC News, 8 November 2010. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
  3. ↑ Jensen, Erik (2005). Western Sahara: Anatomy Of A Stalemate, International Peace Academy Occasional Paper Series. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1588263053.  Retrieved January 17, 2012.
  4. ↑ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
  5. ↑ Ahmed R. Benchemsi and Mehdi Sekkouri Alaoui. Au cœur du polisario. Telquel. Retrieved January 17, 2012. "Tout cela se paie en dinars algériens"

Sources and Further Reading

  • Hodges, Tony. 1983. Western Sahara: the roots of a desert war. Westport, CT: L. Hill. ISBN 9780882081519
  • Jensen, Erik. 2005. Western Sahara: anatomy of a stalemate. International Peace Academy occasional paper series. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1588263053
  • Mayhew, Bradley, and Jan Dodd. 2003. Morocco. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1740593618 and ISBN 9781740593618
  • Pazzanita, Anthony G., and Tony Hodges. 1994. Historical dictionary of Western Sahara. African historical dictionaries, no. 55. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810826615
  • Radu, Michael. September, 2007. Struggle in the Sandbox: Western Sahara and the "International Community". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved September 26, 2007.
  • Shelley, Toby. 2004. End game in the Western Sahara: what future for Africa's last colony? London: Zed. ISBN 1842773410

External links

All links retrieved May 4, 2023.

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