Weber, Max

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{{epname|Weber, Max}}
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{{Infobox_Biography |
 
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  subject_name  = Maximilian Weber |
 
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  image_name    = Max Weber.jpg |
 
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  image_caption  = [[Germany|German]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[sociologist]] |
 
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  date_of_birth  = April 21, 1864 |
 
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  place_of_birth = [[Erfurt]], [[Germany]] |
 
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dead=dead|
 
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  date_of_death  = June 14, 1920 |
 
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  place_of_death = [[Munich]], [[Germany]]
 
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}}
 
  
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'''Maximilian Weber''' (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a [[Germany|German]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] who is considered one of the founders of the modern, [[antipositivism|antipositivistic]] study of sociology and [[public administration]]. His major works deal with [[Rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]] in [[sociology of religion]] and [[Political sociology|government]], but he also wrote much in the field of [[economics]]. His most recognized work is his essay ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', which began his work in the sociology of [[religion]]. Weber argued that religion was one of the primary reasons for the different ways the cultures of the [[Occident]] and the [[Orient]] have developed. In his other famous work, ''[[Politics as a Vocation]]'', Weber defined the [[state]] as an entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, a definition that became pivotal to the study of modern Western [[political science]]. His theory later became widely known as [[Weber's Thesis]].
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[[Image:Max Weber 1894.jpg|thumb|right|Max Weber]]
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'''Maximilian Weber''' (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a [[Germany|German]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] who is considered one of the founders of the modern "antipositivistic" study of sociology and [[public administration]]. His major works deal with the [[sociology of religion]] and [[government]], but he also wrote much in the field of [[economics]]. His most recognized work is his essay ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,'' which began his work in the sociology of religion. Weber argued that [[religion]] was one of the primary reasons for the different ways the [[culture]]s of the Occident and the Orient have developed. Weber stated that the modern world was devoid of gods, because we had chased them away, and he feared that loss of religious ideals and commitment had endangered human society, causing it to become a prison in which humankind would be trapped in a soulless existence.
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While the twentieth century in many ways proved him correct, stronger personal [[faith]] in [[God]] might have allowed Weber to realize that God would not abandon humankind.  
  
 
==Life and career==
 
==Life and career==
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Weber was born in [[Erfurt]], [[Germany]], the eldest of seven children of Max Weber Sr., a prominent [[politician]] and [[civil service|civil servant]], and his wife Helene Fallenstein. His younger brother [[Alfred Weber]] was also a sociologist and economist. Because of his father's engagement with public life, Weber grew up in a household immersed in [[politics]], and his father received a long list of prominent [[academia|scholars]] and public figures in his salon. At the same time, Weber proved to be intellectually precocious. [[Image:Max_weber_and_brothers_1879.jpg|thumb|left|Max Weber and his brothers Alfred and Karl in 1879.]]
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Maximilian Weber was born in Erfurt, [[Germany]], the eldest of seven children of Max Weber Sr., a prominent [[politics|politician]] and [[civil service|civil servant]], and his wife Helene Fallenstein. While both his parents came from [[Protestant]] families, it was his mother who held strong religious commitments and exemplified the [[John Calvin|Calvinistic]] sense of duty. His younger brother, Alfred, was also a [[sociology|sociologist]] and [[economics|economist]]. Max grew up in a household immersed in politics, and his father received a long list of prominent scholars and public figures in his salon. At the time, Max proved to be intellectually precocious. [[Image:Max_weber_and_brothers_1879.jpg|thumb|left|Max Weber and his brothers Alfred and Karl in 1879.]]
  
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In [[1882]] Weber enrolled in the [[University of Heidelberg]] as a [[law]] student. Weber joined his father's duelling fraternity and chose as his major study his father's field of law. Apart from his work in law, he attended lectures in [[economics]] and studied [[medieval history]]. In addition, Weber read a great deal in [[theology]]. Intermittently he served with the [[Reichswehr|German army]] in [[Strasbourg]]. In the fall of 1884 Weber returned to his parents' home to study at the [[University of Berlin]]. In [[1886]] Weber passed the examination for "[[Referendar]]", comparable to the [[bar association|bar]] examination in the [[United States|American]] [[legal system]]. Throughout the late 1880s, Weber continued his study of [[history]]. He earned his [[doctorate]] in law in [[1889]] by writing a [[doctoral dissertation]] on legal history entitled ''[[Zur Geschichte der Handelgesellschaften im Mittelatler|The History of Medieval Business Organisations]]''. Two years later, Weber completed his "[[Habilitation]]sschrift", ''[[Die Römische Agrargeschichte in ihrer Bedeutung für das Staats- und Privatrecht|The Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law]]''. Having thus become a "[[Privatdozent]]", Weber was now qualified to hold a German [[professor]]ship.
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In 1882, Weber enrolled in the [[University of Heidelberg]] as a [[law]] student. Weber chose as his major study his father's field of law. Apart from his work in law, he attended lectures in economics and studied [[Middle Ages|medieval history]]. In addition, Weber read a great deal in [[theology]]. In the fall of 1884, Weber returned to his parents' home to study at the [[University of Berlin]]. In 1886, he passed the examination for "Referendar," comparable to the [[bar association|bar]] examination in the [[United States|American]] [[legal system]]. He earned his doctorate in law in 1889, writing his dissertation on legal history entitled ''The History of Medieval Business Organisations.''  
  
 
[[Image:Max and marienne weber 1894.jpg|thumb|Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894.]]
 
[[Image:Max and marienne weber 1894.jpg|thumb|Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894.]]
  
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In [[1893]] he married his distant [[cousin]] [[Marianne Weber|Marianne Schnitger]], later a [[feminism|feminist]] and [[author]] in her own right, who after his death in [[1920]] was decisive in collecting and publishing Weber's works as books which previously had only appeared as articles in journals. In [[1894]] the couple moved to Freiburg, where Weber was appointed professor of economics at [[Albert-Ludwigs-Universität|Freiburg University]], before accepting the same position at the [[University of Heidelberg]] in [[1897]]. The same year his father Max Weber Sr. died two months after a severe quarrel with his son. Following this incident Weber was more and more prone to "nervousness" and insomnia making it increasingly difficult for him to lecture and fulfill his duties as a professor. After months in a sanatorium in the summer and fall of 1900, Max Weber and his wife Marianne travelled to Italy returning to Heidelberg in April [[1902]].
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Weber first became engaged to his cousin, Emmy Baumgarten, who was in ill health both physically and mentally. After six years, during which he suffered agonizing doubts and feelings of guilt, Weber finally broke the engagement. In 1893, he married his distant cousin, Marianne Schnitger, later a [[feminism|feminist]] and [[author]] in her own right, who after his death in 1920, was decisive in collecting and publishing Weber's works as books. In 1894, the couple moved to Freiburg, where Weber was appointed professor of economics at [[Freiburg, Albert Ludwig University of|Freiburg University]], before accepting the same position at the [[University of Heidelberg]] in 1897. That same year, his father died two months after having a severe quarrel with him. Following this incident, Weber was more and more prone to "nervousness" and insomnia. He spent several months in a sanatorium in the summer and fall of 1900.
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After his immense productivity in the early 1890s, he finally resigned as a professor in the fall of 1903. In 1904, Max Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers, notably his essay ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.'' It became his most famous work, and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of [[culture]]s and [[religion]]s on the development of [[economic system]]s.  
  
 
[[Image:Max weber in 1917.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Max Weber in 1917.]]
 
[[Image:Max weber in 1917.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Max Weber in 1917.]]
  
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After his immense productivity in the early 1890s he did not publish a single paper between early [[1898]] and the end of the year [[1902]] and finally resigned as a professor in the fall of [[1903]]. However, being freed of this burden he accepted a position as [[associate editor]] of the [[Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik|Archives for Social Science and Social Welfare]]. In [[1904]] Max Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers in this journal, notably his essay ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''. It became his most famous work, and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of [[culture]]s and [[religion]]s on the development of [[economic system]]s. This essay was the only one of his works that was published as a book during his lifetime.
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In 1915 and 1916, he was a member of commissions that tried to retain German supremacy in [[Belgium]] and [[Poland]] after the [[World War I|war]]. Weber was a German imperialist and wanted to enlarge the German empire to the east and the west.
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In 1912, Weber tried to organize a left-wing political party to combine social-democrats and liberals. This attempt was unsuccesful because many liberals feared social-democratic revolutionary ideals.
 
  
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During the [[World War I|First World War]], Weber served for a time as director of the army hospitals in [[Heidelberg]]. In 1915 and 1916 he was a member of commisions that tried to retain German supremacy in Belgium and Poland after the war. Weber was a German imperialist and wanted to enlarge the German empire to the east and the west. He became a member of the [[Workers' council|worker and soldier council]] of Heidelberg in 1918.
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In 1918, Weber became a consultant to the German Armistice Commission at the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and to the commission charged with drafting the [[Weimar Constitution]]. He argued in favor of inserting Article 48 into the Weimar Constitution. This article was later used by [[Adolf Hitler]] to declare [[martial law]] and seize [[dictatorship|dictatorial]] powers.  
  
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In [[1918]] Weber became a consultant to the [[German Armistice Commission]] at the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and to the commission charged with drafting the [[Weimar Constitution]]. He argued in favour of inserting [[Article 48]] into the Weimar Constitution. This article was later used by [[Adolf Hitler]] to declare [[martial law]] and seize [[dictatorship|dictatorial]] powers.  
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From 1918, Weber resumed [[teaching]], first at the [[University of Vienna]], then in 1919 at the [[University of Munich]]. In Munich, he headed the first German University institute of sociology. Many colleagues and students in Munich despised him for his speeches and left-wing attitude during the German revolution of 1918 and 1919. Right-wing students protested at his home.
  
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From 1918, Weber resumed teaching, first at the [[University of Vienna]], then in [[1919]] at the [[University of Munich]]. In [[Munich]], he headed the first German University institute of sociology, but he never held a personal sociology appointment in his life. Weber left politics due to right wing agitation in 1919 and 1920. Many colleagues and students in Munich despised him for his speeches and left wing attitude during the German revolution of 1918 and 1919. Right-wing students protested at his home.
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Max Weber died of [[pneumonia]] in Munich on June 14, 1920.
  
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Max Weber died of [[pneumonia]] in Munich on [[June 14]], [[1920]].
 
 
===Weber and German politics===
 
===Weber and German politics===
  
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Max Weber had a large influence on German policy towards the [[germanisation]] of Eastern Germany. He proposed closing the border to [[Poland|Polish]] workers from [[Russia]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] in his speech at the congress of the [[Evangelical Social Party]] in 1894. He feared that Germany would eventually lose these eastern territories.
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Weber thought that the only way that [[Germany|German]] [[culture]] would survive was by creating an empire. He influenced German policy towards eastern Germany. In 1894, he proposed closing the border to [[Poland|Polish]] workers from [[Russia]] and [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austria-Hungary]]. However, in 1895, impressed by the attitude of the Russian liberal party, which wanted to change Russian [[nationalism]] by accepting ethnic minorities as Russians, he reversed his position.  
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In 1905, Weber changed his mind. He was impressed by the attitude of the [[Liberalism in Russia|Russian liberal party]], which wanted to change Russian [[nationalism]] by accepting ethnic minorities as Russians. Weber wanted the Germans to absorb other [[ethnic group]]s, especially the Poles, who should have become a part of a huge [[German empire]]. Weber thought that the only way that [[German culture]] would survive was by creating an empire.
 
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Weber disliked the empty nationalist ideas of many German nationalists. He thought that [[power (sociology)|power]] alone was not an acceptable goal, that politicians should stand for certain ideas but that they need a strong will to power to win. This idea of the [[will to power]] is originally from [[Nietzsche]] who was very popular in the Germany of the 1890s.
 
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Weber wanted the end of the power of the nobility. He despised the red scare of the middle classes, because the middle classes let the nobility rule.
 
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In his opinion, the socialist parties were harmless, because they would turn into middle classes in due time. The nobility was only holding Germany up from becoming a major power in the world. In his opinion, which he expressed in the media and his politics, the middle classes should have united against the aristocracy.  
 
  
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Weber advocated [[democracy]] as a means for selecting strong leaders. Weber viewed democracy as a form of [[charismatic authority|charismatic leadership]] where the "[[demagogue]] imposes his will on the masses." For this reason, the European [[Left-wing politics|left]] is highly critical of Weber for, albeit unwittingly, "preparing the intellectual groundwork for the leadership position of Adolf Hitler."
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Weber advocated [[democracy]] as a means for selecting strong leaders. He viewed democracy as a form of [[charismatic authority|charisma]] where the "demagogue imposes his will on the masses." For this reason, the European left has been highly critical of Weber for, albeit unwittingly, preparing the intellectual groundwork for [[Adolf Hitler]]'s leadership.
  
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Like Nietzsche, Weber was strongly anti-socialism. He despised the anti-nationalist stance of the Marxist parties. Weber thought that the socialist society was impossible. He was surprised that the communists in Russia (who dissolved the old elite and bureaucracy) could survive for more then half a year.  
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Weber was strongly anti-socialist, despising the anti-nationalist stance of the [[Marxism|Marxist]] parties. He was surprised that the [[Communism|communists]] in Russia (who dissolved the old elite and [[bureaucracy]]) could survive for more than half a year.  
  
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Weber was very opposed to the conservatives that tried to hold back the democratic liberation of the working classes. Weber further dismayed the left when one of his students, [[Carl Schmitt]] (1888-1985), incorporated Weber's theories into a corpus of [[Nazi]] legal [[propaganda]]. Weber's personal and professional letters show considerable disgust for the [[anti-semitism]] of his day. It is doubtful that Weber would have supported the Nazis, had he lived long enough to see their doings.
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Weber was very opposed to the conservatives who tried to hold back the democratic liberation of the working classes. Weber's personal and professional letters show considerable disgust for the [[anti-Semitism]] of his day. It is doubtful that Weber would have supported the Nazis had he lived long enough to see their activities.
  
 
==Achievements==
 
==Achievements==
  
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Max Weber was – along with [[Karl Marx]], [[Vilfredo Pareto]] and [[Émile Durkheim]] – one of the founders of modern sociology. Whereas Pareto and Durkheim, following [[Auguste Comte|Comte]], worked in the [[sociological positivism|positivist]] tradition, Weber created and worked – like [[Werner Sombart]], in the [[antipositivism|antipositivist]], [[idealism|idealist]] and [[hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] tradition. Those works started the antipositivistic revolution in [[social science]]s, which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences, especially due to human [[social actions]]. Weber's early work was related to [[industrial sociology]], but he is most famous for his later work on the [[sociology of religion]] and [[sociology of government]].
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Max Weber was—along with [[Karl Marx]], [[Vilfredo Pareto]], and [[Émile Durkheim]]—one of the founders of modern [[sociology]]. Whereas Pareto and Durkheim, following [[Auguste Comte|Comte]], worked in the [[Positivism|positivist]] tradition, Weber created and worked, like [[Werner Sombart]], in the antipositivist, [[idealism|idealist]], and [[hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] tradition. Those works started the antipositivistic revolution in [[social science]]s, which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences, especially due to human social actions. Weber's early work was related to industrial sociology, but he is most famous for his later work on the [[sociology of religion]] and sociology of [[government]].
  
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Max Weber began his studies of [[Rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]] in ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', in which he shows how the aims of certain [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s, particularly [[Calvinism]], shifted towards the rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing that they had been blessed. The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious, and so the latter were eventually discarded. Weber continues his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on [[bureaucracy]] and on the classifications of [[authority]]. In these works he alludes to an inevitable move towards rationalization.
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Max Weber began his studies of rationalization in ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,'' in which he showed how the aims of certain [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s, particularly [[Calvinism]], shifted towards the rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing that they had been blessed. The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious, and so the latter were eventually discarded. Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on [[bureaucracy]] and on the classifications of [[authority]].
  
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== Theories ==
 
===Sociology of religion===
 
===Sociology of religion===
  
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Weber's work on the sociology of religion started with the essay ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'' and continued with the analysis of ''[[The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism]]'', ''[[The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Budhism]]'', and ''[[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]]''. His work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in 1920, which prevented him from following ''Ancient Judaism'' with studies of [[Psalm]]s, [[Book of Jacob]], [[Talmudic]] Jewry, early [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
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Weber's work on the sociology of religion started with the essay ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' and continued with the analysis of ''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism,'' ''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism,'' and ''Ancient Judaism.''  
  
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His three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities, the relation between [[social stratification]] and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilization.
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His three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities, the relation between [[social class|social stratification]] and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilization.
  
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His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the [[Occident]] and the [[Orient]]. In the analysis of his findings, Weber maintained that [[Puritan]] (and more widely, [[Christianity|Christian]]) religious ideas had had a major impact on the development of the [[economic system]] of [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], but noted that they were not the only factors in this development. Other notable factors mentioned by Weber included the [[rationalism]] of scientific pursuit, merging [[observation]] with [[mathematics]], science of [[scholarship]] and [[jurisprudence]], rational systematization of [[government]] [[administration]], and economic [[enterprise]]. In the end, the study of the sociology of religion, according to Weber, merely explored one [[phase]] of the [[emancipation]] from [[magic]], that "disenchantment of the world" that he regarded as an important distinguishing aspect of [[Western culture]].
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His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the [[culture]]s of the Occident and the Orient. In the analysis of his findings, Weber maintained that [[Puritan]] (and more widely, [[Protestant]]) religious ideas had had a major impact on the development of the economic system of [[Europe]] and the [[United States]], but noted that they were not the only factors in this development. "Disenchantment of the world" was identified by Weber as an important distinguishing aspect of [[Western culture]].
  
 
====''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''====
 
====''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''====
  
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Weber's essay ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' is his most famous work. It is argued that this work should not be viewed as a detailed study of [[Protestantism]], but rather as an introduction into Weber's later works, especially his studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economic behaviour.
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Weber's essay ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' is his most famous work. Here, Weber put forward the controversial thesis that the [[Protestant]] ethic influenced the development of [[capitalism]]. Religious devotion had usually been accompanied by rejection of worldly affairs, including economic pursuit. Why was that not the case with Protestantism? Weber addressed this paradox in his essay, finding his answer in the religious ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]].  
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In ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', Weber puts forward the thesis that the Puritan ethic and ideas influenced the development of [[capitalism]]. Religious devotion has usually been accompanied by rejection of mundane affairs, including economic pursuit. Why was that not the case with Protestantism? Weber addresses that [[paradox]] in his essay.
 
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He defines "the spirit of capitalism" as the ideas and [[habit]]s that favour the [[rationalism|rational]] pursuit of economic gain. Weber points out that such a spirit is not limited to [[Western culture]], when considered as the attitude of individuals, but that such individuals – heroic [[entrepreneurship|entrepreneurs]], as he calls them – could not by themselves establish a new economic order (capitalism). Among the tendencies identified by Weber were the greed for profit with minimum effort, the idea that work was a curse and a burden to be avoided, especially when it exceeded what was enough for modest life. "In order that a manner of life well adapted to the peculiarities of capitalism" wrote Weber "could come to dominate others, it had to originate somewhere, and not in isolated individuals alone, but as a way of life common to whole groups of man".
 
  
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After defining the spirit of capitalism, Weber argues that there are many reasons to look for its origins in the religious ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]].
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Weber argued that certain Protestant ideas, particularly [[John Calvin]]'s understanding of [[predestination]] that sinful people cannot know directly whether they are part of [[God]]'s elect to whom the [[grace]] of [[salvation]] is offered, favored rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities. Resultant insecurity on the part of Protestants, and their fear of eternal damnation, led them to seek signs indicating God's direction for their lives and affirmation of their correct behavior. Thus, hard work followed by financial success came to be the hallmark of God's grace. Coupled with traditional religious [[asceticism]], these ideas encouraged people to accumulate wealth. It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct—the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them, both directly and indirectly, encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain.
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Weber showed that certain types of Protestantism favoured rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities which had been given positive spiritual and moral meaning. It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct – the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them both directly and indirectly encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain.
 
  
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The phrase "[[work ethic]]" used in modern commentary is a derivative of the "[[Protestant ethic]]" discussed by Weber. It was adopted when the idea of the protestant ethic was generalized to apply to [[Japan|Japanese]], [[Judaism|Jews]] and other [[Christianity|non-Christians]].
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According to Weber, this "spirit of capitalism" not only involved hard work and [[entrepreneur]]ialism on the part of Protestants, but also a sense of stewardship over the resulting gains. For if [[money]] is not sought after for luxury or self-indulgence, but as moral affirmation, economizing and reinvesting in worthy enterprises become normal economic practices.
  
 
==== ''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism'' ====
 
==== ''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism'' ====
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''The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism'' was Weber's second major work on the [[sociology of religion]]. Weber focused on those aspects of [[China|Chinese]] society that were different from those of Western Europe and especially contrasted with Puritanism, and posed the question, why did capitalism not develop in China?
  
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''The Religion of China: [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]]'' was Weber's second major work on the sociology of religion. Weber focused on those aspects of [[China|Chinese]] society that were different from those of [[Western Europe]] and especially contrasted with [[Puritanism]], and posed a question why capitalism did not develop in China. In ''[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]'' ''[[Warring States Period]]'', he concentrated on the early period of Chinese history, during which the major Chinese schools of thoughts (Confucianism and Taoism) came to the fore.
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As in Europe, Chinese cities had been founded as [[fortification|fort]]s or leaders' residences, and were the centers of [[trade]] and crafts. However, they never received political [[autonomy]] and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to the strength of [[kinship]] ties, which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits. Also, the [[guild]]s competed against each other for the favor of the emperor, never uniting in order to fight for more rights. Therefore, the residents of Chinese cities never constituted a separate status class like the residents of European cities.
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As in Europe, Chinese cities had been founded as [[fort]]s or leaders' residences, and were the centres of [[trade]] and [[crafts]]. However, they never received political [[autonomy]] and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to the strength of [[kinship]] ties, which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits. Also, the [[guild]]s competed against each other for the favour of the [[Emperor]], never uniting in order to fight for more rights. Therefore, the residents of Chinese cities never constitute a separate [[status class]] like the residents of European cities.
 
  
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Early unification of the state and the establishment of central [[officialdom]] meant that the focus of the power struggle changed from the distribution of land to the distribution of [[office]]s, which with their [[fee]]s and [[tax]]es were the most prominent source of income for the holder, who often pocketed up to 50% of the revenue. The imperial government depended on the services of those officials, not on the service of the military ([[knight]]s) as in Europe.
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Weber emphasized that instead of metaphysical conjectures, [[Confucianism]] taught adjustment to the world. "Superior" men ''(literati)'' should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a [[civil service|civil servant]] was preferred to becoming a [[business]]man and granted a much higher status.
  
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Weber emphasized that Confucianism tolerated a great number of popular cults without any effort to systematize them into a [[religious doctrine]]. Instead of metaphysical conjectures, it taught adjustment to the world. The "superior" man ([[literati]]) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a [[civil service|civil servant]] was preferred to becoming a [[business]]man and granted a much higher status.
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Chinese civilization had no religious [[prophecy]] nor a powerful [[priest]]ly class. The emperor was the [[high priest]] of the [[state religion]] and the supreme ruler, but popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the church curbed the power of [[secularism|secular]] rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike.
  
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Chinese civilization had no religious [[prophecy]] nor a powerful [[priest]]ly class. The emperor was the [[high priest]] of the [[state religion]] and the supreme ruler, but popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the [[Church]] curbed the power of [[secularism|secular]] rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike.
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According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalization, each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs. However, Confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used it as means of adjustment to the world, [[education]], self-perfection, politeness, and familial piety.
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According to Confucianism, the worship of great deities is the affair of the state, while ancestral worship is required of all, and the multitude of popular cults is tolerated.
 
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Confucianism tolerated [[magic]] and [[mysticism]] as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses; it denounced them as [[heresy]] and suppressed them when they threatened the established order (hence the opposition to [[Buddhism]]).
 
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Weber argued that while several factors favoured the development of a capitalist economy (long periods of peace, improved control of rivers, population growth, freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community, free choice of occupation) they were outweighed by others (mostly stemming from religion):
 
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* technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion, in the sense that the disturbance of ancestral spirits was argued to lead to bad luck, and adjusting oneself to the world was preferred to changing it.
 
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* sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult.
 
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* extended kinship groups (based on the religious importance of family ties and ancestry) protected its members against economic adversities, therefore discouraging payment of debts, work discipline, and rationalization of work processes.
 
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* those kinship groups prevented the development of an urban status class and hindered developments towards legal institutions, codification of laws, and the rise of a lawyer class.
 
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According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalization, each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs. Both encouraged sobriety and self-control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth. However, Confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used as means adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness and familial piety. Puritanism used those means in order to create a "tool of God", creating a person that would serve the God and master the world. Such intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the aesthetic values of Confucianism. Therefore, Weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China.
 
  
 
====''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism''====
 
====''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism''====
  
−
''The Religion of India: The Sociology of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]'' was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion. In this work he deals with the structure of [[India|Indian]] society, with the [[orthodox]] [[doctrine]]s of Hinduism and the [[heterodox]] doctrines of Buddhism, with modifications brought by the influence of popular [[religiosity]], and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society.
+
''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism'' was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion. In this work, he dealt with the structure of [[India|Indian]] society, the orthodox [[doctrine]]s of [[Hinduism]] and the heterodox doctrines of [[Buddhism]], the modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity, and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society.
  
−
The Indian social system was shaped by the concept of [[caste]]. It directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into [[status group]]s. Weber describes the caste system, consisting of the [[Brahmin]]s (priests), the [[Kshatriya]]s (warriors), the [[Vaisya]]s (merchants), the [[Sudra]]s (labourers), and the [[untouchables]]. Then he describes the spread of the caste system in India due to [[conquest]]s, the marginalization of certain [[tribe]]s and the subdivision of castes.
+
The Indian social system was shaped by the concept of [[caste system|caste]]. It directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into status groups. The caste system consisted of the [[Brahmin]]s (priests), the [[Kshatriya]]s (warriors), the [[Vaisya]]s (merchants), the [[Sudra]]s (laborers), and the [[untouchables]].
  
−
Weber pays special attention to Brahmins and analyzes why they occupied the highest place in Indian society for many centuries. With regard to the concept of [[dharma]] he concludes that the Indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of [[Confucianism]] and [[Christianity]]. He notes that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups.
+
Weber paid special attention to Brahmins and analyzed why they occupied the highest place in Indian society for many centuries. With regard to the concept of [[dharma]], he concluded that the Indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of [[Confucianism]] and [[Christianity]]. He noted that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups.
  
−
Next, Weber analyzes the Hindu religious beliefs, including [[asceticism]] and the Hindu world view, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in India, the [[Hindu restoration]], and the evolution of the [[guru]].  Weber asks the question whether religion had any influence upon the daily round of mundane activities, and if so, how it impacted economic conduct. He notes the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of [[rebirth]] and the deprecation of the mundane world, and finds that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development; in other words, the "spirit" of the caste system militated against an indigenous development of [[capitalism]].
+
Next, Weber analyzed Hindu religious beliefs, including [[asceticism]] and the Hindu worldview, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in India, the Hindu restoration, and the evolution of the [[guru]]. He noted the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world, and found that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development.
  
−
Weber concludes his study of society and religion in India by combining his findings with his previous work on China. He notes that the beliefs tended to interpret the meaning of life as otherworldly or [[mysticism|mystical]] experience, that the [[intellectual]]s tended to be [[Wiktionary:apolitical|apolitical]] in their orientation, and that the social world was fundamentally divided between the educated, whose lives were oriented toward the exemplary conduct of a [[prophet]] or wise man, and the uneducated masses who remained caught in their daily rounds and believed in [[magic]]. In Asia, no [[Messianic]] prophecy appeared that could have given "plan and meaning to the everyday life of educated and uneducated alike". He argues that it was the Messianic prophecies in the countries of the [[Near East]], as distinguished from the prophecy of the [[Asia]]tic mainland, that prevented the countries of the [[Occident]] from following the paths of development marked out by China and India, and his next work, [[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]] was an attempt to prove this theory.
+
He argued that it was the [[Messiah|Messianic]] prophecies in the countries of the [[Near East]], as distinguished from the prophecy of the [[Asia]]tic mainland, that prevented the countries of the Occident from following the paths of development marked out by China and India. His next work, ''Ancient Judaism'' was an attempt to prove this theory.
  
 
====''Ancient Judaism''====
 
====''Ancient Judaism''====
  
−
In ''Ancient [[Judaism]]'', his fourth major work on the sociology of religion, Weber attempts to explain the "combination of circumstances" that was responsible for the early differences between [[Oriental]] and [[Occidental]] [[religiosity]]. It is especially visible when the interworldly [[asceticism]] developed by Western [[Christianity]] is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in [[India]]. Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. This fundamental characteristic of Christianity (when compared to [[Far East|Far Eastern]] religions) stems originally from the ancient Jewish [[prophecy]].  
+
In ''Ancient Judaism,'' his fourth major work on the [[sociology of religion]], Weber attempted to explain the "combination of circumstances" that was responsible for the early differences between Oriental and Occidental religiosity. It is especially visible when the interworldly [[asceticism]] developed by Western [[Christianity]] is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in [[India]]. Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. This fundamental characteristic of Christianity (when compared to Far Eastern religions) stems originally from the ancient [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[prophecy]].  
  
−
Stating his reasons for investigating ancient Judaism, Weber wrote that ''"Anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern European civilization will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions, which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate. These questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely Western and that have at the same time (…) a universal cultural significance"''.
+
Stating his reasons for investigating ancient Judaism, Weber wrote that
 +
<blockquote>Anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern European civilization will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions, which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate. These questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely Western and that have at the same time (…) a universal cultural significance.</blockquote>
  
−
''"For the Jew (…) the social order of the world was conceived to have been turned into the opposite of that promised for the future, but in the future it was to be overturned so that Jewry could be once again dominant. The world was conceived as neither eternal nor unchangeable, but rather as being created. Its present structure was a product of man's actions, above all those of the Jews, and God's reaction to them. Hence the world was a historical product designed to give way to the truly God-ordained order (…). There existed in addition a highly rational religious ethic of social conduct; it was free of magic and all forms of irrational quest for salvation; it was inwardly worlds apart from the path of salvation offered by Asiatic religions. To a large extent this ethic still underlies contemporary Middle Eastern and European ethic.  
+
Weber analyzed the interaction between the [[Bedouin]]s, the cities, the herdsmen, and the [[peasant]]s, including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the [[United Monarchy]]. The time of the United Monarchy appears as a mere episode, dividing the period of [[confederation|confederacy]] since the [[Exodus]] and the settlement of the [[Israelite]]s in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the period of political decline following the [[Division of the Monarchy]]. This division into periods has major implications for religious history. Since the basic tenets of Judaism were formulated during the time of Israelite confederacy and after the fall of the United Monarchy, they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on Western civilization.
  
−
Weber analyzes the interaction between the [[Bedouin]]s, the cities, the herdsmen and the peasants, including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the [[United Monarchy]]. The time of the United Monarchy appears as a mere episode, dividing the period of [[confederation|confederacy]] since the [[Exodus]] and the settlement of the [[Israelite]]s in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from the period of political decline following the [[Division of the Monarchy]]. This division into periods has major implications for religious history. Since the basic tenets of Judaism were formulated during the time of Israelite confederacy and after the fall of the United Monarchy, they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on the Western civilization.
+
Weber noted that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and [[Islam]], but was crucial to the rise of modern Occident state, as its influences were as important to those of [[Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cultures.
  
−
Weber notes that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and Islam, but was crucial to the rise of modern Occident state, as its influence were as important to those of [[Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cultures.  
+
===Sociology of politics and government===
 +
In the sociology of politics and government, ''Politics as a Vocation'' is considered to be Weber's most significant essay. Therein, Weber unveiled the definition of the [[state]] that has become so pivotal to Western social thought: the state is that entity which possesses a [[monopoly]] on the legitimate use of physical force, which it may elect to delegate as it sees fit. [[Politics]] is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force. A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic," understood by Weber as being the ethic of the [[Sermon on the Mount]], that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek. An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a [[saint]], for it is only saints, according to Weber, that can appropriately follow it. The political realm is no realm for saints. A politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility, and must possess both a passion for his avocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions (the governed).  
  
−
===Sociology of politics and government===
+
Weber distinguished three pure types of political leadership domination and authority: [[charisma]]tic domination ([[family|familial]] and [[religion|religious]]), traditional domination ([[patriarch]]s, [[patrimonialism]], [[feudalism]]), and legal domination (modern [[law]] and state, [[bureaucracy]]). In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained elements that can be analyzed on the basis of this tripartite distinction. He also noted that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority.  
−
In the sociology of politics and government, Weber's most significant essay is probably his ''[[Politics as a Vocation]]''. Therein, Weber unveils the definition of the [[state]] that has become so pivotal to Western social thought: that the [[state]] is that entity which possesses a [[monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force]], which it may nonetheless elect to delegate as it sees fit. Politics is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force. Politics thus comes to be understood as deriving from power. A politician must not be a man of the "true [[Christian ethic]]", understood by Weber as being the ethic of the [[Sermon on the Mount]], that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek. An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a [[saint]], for it is only saints, according to Weber, that can appropriately follow it. The political realm is no realm for saints. A politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility, and must possess both a passion for his avocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions (the governed).
 
  
−
Weber distinguished three [[pure type]]s of political leadership, domination and authority: [[charismatic domination]] (familial and religious), [[traditional domination]] ([[patriarch]]s, [[patrimonalism]], [[feudalism]]), and [[legal domination]] (modern law and state, [[bureaucracy]]). In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained elements that can be analysed on the basis of this [[tripartite classification of authority|tripartite]] distinction. He also notes that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority. Likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a "traditional revolution".  
+
Many aspects of modern [[public administration]] are attributed to Weber. A classic, hierarchically organized [[civil service]] of the continental type is called "Weberian civil service," although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his magnum opus, ''Economy and Society'' (1922). In this work, Weber outlined his description of rationalization (of which bureaucratization is a part) as a shift from a value-oriented organization and action (traditional authority and charismatic authority) to a goal-oriented organization and action (legal-rational authority). The result, according to Weber, is a "polar night of icy darkness," in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control.
  
−
Weber is also well-known for his study of the bureaucratization of society, the rational ways in which formal social organizations apply the ideal type characteristics of a bureaucracy. Many aspects of modern [[public administration]] go back to him, and a classic, hierarchically organized [[civil service]] of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service", although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his ''[[magnum opus]]'' ''Economy and Society'' (1922), and one that he did not particularly like himself - he only thought it particularly efficient and successful. In this work, Weber outlines a description, which has become famous, of rationalization (of which bureaucratization is a part) as a shift from a value-oriented organization and action (traditional authority and charismatic authority) to a goal-oriented organization and action (legal-rational authority). The result, according to Weber, is a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control. Weber's bureaucracy studies also led him to his analysis &mdash; correct, as it would turn out &mdash; that [[socialism]] in [[Russia]] would, due to the abolishing of the [[free market]] and its mechanisms, lead to over-bureaucratization (evident, for example, in the [[shortage economy]]) rather than to the "withering away of the state" (as [[Karl Marx]] had predicted would happen in [[communism|communist]] society).
+
Weber's studies of bureaucracy also led him to his accurate prediction that [[socialism]] in [[Russia]] would, due to abolishing the [[Capitalism|free market]] and its mechanisms, lead to over-bureaucratization (evident, for example, in the shortage economy) rather than to the "withering away of the state" (as [[Karl Marx]] had predicted would happen in a [[communism|communist]] society).
  
 
===Economics===
 
===Economics===
  
−
While Max Weber is best known and recognized today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, he also accomplished much in the field of [[economics]]. However, during his life no such distinctions really existed.
+
While Max Weber is best known and recognized today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, he also accomplished much in the field of [[economics]]. However, during his lifetime, economics was not nearly as developed as it is today.
 +
 
 +
From the point of view of economists, Weber is a representative of the "Youngest" [[German Historical School]]. His most valued contribution to the field is his famous work, ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.'' This seminal essay discussed the differences between [[religion]]s and the relative wealth of their followers. Weber's work paralleled [[Werner Sombart]]'s treatise of the same phenomenon, which, however, located the rise of [[capitalism]] in [[Judaism]]. Weber acknowledged that capitalist societies had existed prior to [[John Calvin|Calvinism]]. However, he argued that in those cases, religious views did not support the capitalist enterprise, but rather limited it. Only the [[Protestant]] ethic, based on Calvinism, actively supported the accumulation of capital as a sign of [[God]]'s [[grace]].  
  
−
From the point of view of the economists, he is a representative of the "Youngest" [[German Historical School]]. His most valued contributions to the field of economics is his famous work, ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''. This is a seminal essay on the differences between religions and the relative wealth of their followers. Weber's work is parallel to [[Werner Sombart|Sombart's]] treatise of the same phenomenon, which however located the rise of Capitalism in [[Judaism]]. Weber's other main contributions to economics (as well as to social sciences in general) is his work on [[methodology]]: his theories of "[[Verstehen]]" (known as ''understanding'' or ''[[Interpretative Sociology]]'') and of [[antipositivism]] (known as ''[[humanistic sociology]]'').
+
Weber's other main contributions to economics (as well as to [[social science]] in general) is his work on methodology: his theories of ''Verstehen'' (known as "understanding" or "interpretative sociology") and of antipositivism (known as "humanistic sociology").
  
−
Max Weber formulated a [[three-component theory of stratification]], with [[social class]], [[status class]] and [[party class]] (or political class) as conceptually distinct elements.
+
Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with "social class," "status class," and "party class" (or political class) as conceptually distinct elements.
−
* Social class is based on economically determined relationship to the [[market]] (owner, [[renting|renter]], employee etc.).
+
* Social class is based on an economically determined relationship to the [[market]] (owner, [[rent|renter]], employee, etc.).
−
* Status class is based on non-economical qualities like [[honour]], [[prestige]] and religion.
+
* Status class is based on non-economic qualities like honor, prestige, and religion.
 
* Party class refers to affiliations in the political domain.
 
* Party class refers to affiliations in the political domain.
−
All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances".
+
All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances."
  
 +
Weber felt that economics should be a broad science covering not only economic phenomena, but also non-economic phenomena that might influence the economy ("economically relevant phenomena") and non-economic phenomena that, to some extent, had been influenced by economic phenomena ("economically conditioned phenomena") (Weber 1949: 64–66). The name that Weber gave to this broad type of economics was “social economics." Weber’s thought in this area provided a platform for productive interdisciplinary dialogue between economists and sociologists. To understand Weber’s perspective, one cannot ignore the value he placed on economic history and economic sociology in the study of economic theory.
  
 +
== Contribution and Legacy ==
  
 +
Weber's sociological theories had a great impact on twentieth-century [[sociology]]. He developed the notion of "ideal types," which were examples of situations in history that could be used as reference points to compare and contrast different societies. This approach analyzes the basic elements of social institutions and examines how these elements relate to one another. His study of the [[sociology of religion]] allowed for a new level of cross-cultural understanding and investigation.
  
 +
Through his celebrated work, ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,'' Max Weber was one of the first scholars to emphasize the [[moral]] and [[religion|spiritual]] dimensions of [[economics|economic]] behavior. His analysis of the spiritual and moral conditions for successful economic productivity continues to be a source of inspiration to modern social scientists and other thinkers.
  
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== References ==
+
His insights and understanding concerning the weaknesses of [[capitalism]] have also had long-lasting impact. He concluded that the capitalist spirit was born more from psychological tensions that Calvinist theological obligations tended to create in the minds of the faithful, than as a result of pure religious devotion. According to Weber, the [[anxiety]] and inner loneliness resulting from the Calvinist doctrine of [[predestination]] created an all-consuming, driving force in the minds of believers, compelling them to essentially enslave themselves with materialistic pursuit while simultaneously creating an unprecedented increase in economic development.
 +
 
 +
However, he also observed that once capitalism became divorced from its religious sentiment, it developed into a secular ethic with "inexorable power," leading him to denigrate capitalists as "specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart."
  
−
Weber's work is generally quoted according to the critical [http://www.mohr.de/mw/mwg.htm ''Gesamtausgabe''] (collected works edition), which is published by [[Mohr Siebeck]] in [[Tübingen]], Germany.
+
Weber was fiercely independent, refusing to bend to any ideological line. Although he repeatedly entered the political arena, he was not truly a political man, one who is able to make compromises in the pursuit of his aims (according to Weber's own definition).  
  
−
* [[Reinhard Bendix|Bendix, Reinhard]] (1960). ''Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait''. Doubleday.
+
Weber regarded the world of modernity as having been deserted by the gods, because man had chased them away&mdash;rationalization had replaced [[mysticism]]. He saw the future world as one without feeling, passion, or commitment, unmoved by personal appeal and personal fealty, by grace and by the ethics of charismatic heroes. In many ways the twentieth century fulfilled his deepest fears, yet it also saw the birth of incredible development in all areas of human life.  
−
* [[Dirk Kaesler|Kaesler, Dirk]] (1989). ''Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life and Work''. University of Chicago Press.
 
−
* [[Wolfgang Mommsen|Mommsen, Wolfgang]] (1974). ''Max Weber und die Deutsche Politik 1890-1920''. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
 
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* Roth, Guenther (2001). Max Webers deutsch-englische Familiengeschichte. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
 
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* [[Marianne Weber|Weber, Marianne]] (1929/1988). ''Max Weber: A Biography''. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
 
  
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* [http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_4_58/ai_58496750 Richard Swedberg, "Max Weber as an Economist and as a Sociologist"], ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology''
+
Weber's last words were reported to be: "The Truth is the Truth" (Coser 1977: 242–243). This intellectual giant, suffering from deep tensions caused by his relationships with his family, and by the oppressive political atmosphere, was finally limited by circumstance in how much truth he could uncover.
  
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==See also==
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== Major Works ==
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*[[Civil religion]]
 
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*[[Political religion]]
 
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*[[Liberalism]]
 
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*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
 
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*[[List of economists]]
 
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*[[List of sociologists]]
 
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*[[Speeches of Weber]]
 
−
*[[Spirit of capitalism]]
 
  
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==External links==
+
*Weber, Max. 1922/1968. ''Economy and Society.'' Edited by Max Rheinstein. Translated by Edward Shils and Max Rheinstein. New York: Simon and Schuster.
 +
*Weber, Max. 1946/1958. ''From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology.'' Translated and edited by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0195004620
 +
*Weber, Max. 1949. ''The Methodology of the Social Sciences.'' New York: Free Press.
 +
*Weber, Max. 1962. ''The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism.'' Free Press.
 +
*Weber, Max. 1967. ''Ancient Judaism.'' Free Press. ISBN 0029341302
 +
*Weber, Max. 1968. ''The Religion of China.'' Free Press. ISBN 0029344506
 +
*Weber, Max. 1993. ''Basic Concepts in Sociology.'' Translated and with an introduction by H.P. Secher. New York: Citadel Press (original work published 1962). ISBN 0806503041
 +
*Weber, Max. 2001. ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,'' 2nd ed. Routledge (original work published 1904). ISBN 041525406X
 +
*Weber, Max. 2004. ''The Vocation Lectures: Science As a Vocation, Politics As a Vocation.'' Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0872206653
  
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Texts of Weber works:
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== References ==
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* [http://www.uni-potsdam.de/u/paed/Flitner/Flitner/Weber/index.htm Large collection of the German original texts]
 
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* [http://www.ne.jp/asahi/moriyuki/abukuma/weber_texts.html Large collection of English translations]
 
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* [http://www.cpm.ehime-u.ac.jp/AkamacHomePage/Akamac_E-text_Links/Weber.html Another collection of English translations]
 
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* [http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/sociosite/topics/weber.html Yet another collection of English translations]
 
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* [http://ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Theory/weber.html English translations of many of Weber's works, unfortunately merged into one very long unformatted file]
 
  
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About Weber:
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* Bendix, Reinhard. 1978. ''Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait.'' University of California Press. ISBN 0520031946
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* [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/weber.htm Biography entry and link section]
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* Coser, Lewis. 1977. ''Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context.'' Harcourt. ISBN 0155551302
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* [http://www.ualr.edu/~jdrobson/idealtype.htm Weber on Ideal Types]
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* Kaesler, Dirk. 1989. ''Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life and Work.'' University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226425606
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* [http://www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Weber/WEBRPER.HTML Max Weber - The person]
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* Mommsen, Wolfgang. 1974. ''Max Weber und die Deutsche Politik 1890–1920.'' J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). ISBN 0226533999
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* [http://www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Weber/WEBERW3.HTML More of Weber on Ideal Types]
+
* Roth, Guenther. 2001. ''Max Webers deutsch-englische Familiengeschichte.'' J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
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* [http://www.criticism.com/md/weber1.html An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science]
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* Swedberg, Richard. 1999. [http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_4_58/ai_58496750 “Max Weber as an Economist and as a Sociologist.”] ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology'' October 1999.
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* [http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/Ockham/y64l09.html Max Weber: On Bureaucracy &mdash; A study guide developed for a political theory course which draws from several works by, or about, Weber thoughts on bureaucracy]
+
* Weber, Marianne. 1929/1988. ''Max Weber: A Biography.'' New Brunswick: Transaction Books.
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* [http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/Ockham/y64l10.html Max Weber: On Capitalism As above, but on capitalism]
 
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* [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/soc/courses/soc2r3/weber/weberidx.htm Some of Weber concepts in the form of a list]
 
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* [http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/~felwell/Theorists/Weber/Whome.htm Max Weber's HomePage "A site for undergraduates"]
 
  
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Images:
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==External links==
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* [http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~kaesler/max.html Dirk Kaesler's Max Weber gallery]
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All links retrieved November 8, 2022.
  
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* [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/WEBER/cover.html ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'']
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* [http://www.criticism.com/md/weber1.html An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science]
  
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{{Historical School economists}}
 
{{Credit|25850826}}
 
{{Credit|25850826}}

Latest revision as of 01:03, 9 November 2022


Max Weber

Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern "antipositivistic" study of sociology and public administration. His major works deal with the sociology of religion and government, but he also wrote much in the field of economics. His most recognized work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. Weber argued that religion was one of the primary reasons for the different ways the cultures of the Occident and the Orient have developed. Weber stated that the modern world was devoid of gods, because we had chased them away, and he feared that loss of religious ideals and commitment had endangered human society, causing it to become a prison in which humankind would be trapped in a soulless existence.

While the twentieth century in many ways proved him correct, stronger personal faith in God might have allowed Weber to realize that God would not abandon humankind.

Life and career

Maximilian Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany, the eldest of seven children of Max Weber Sr., a prominent politician and civil servant, and his wife Helene Fallenstein. While both his parents came from Protestant families, it was his mother who held strong religious commitments and exemplified the Calvinistic sense of duty. His younger brother, Alfred, was also a sociologist and economist. Max grew up in a household immersed in politics, and his father received a long list of prominent scholars and public figures in his salon. At the time, Max proved to be intellectually precocious.

Max Weber and his brothers Alfred and Karl in 1879.

In 1882, Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student. Weber chose as his major study his father's field of law. Apart from his work in law, he attended lectures in economics and studied medieval history. In addition, Weber read a great deal in theology. In the fall of 1884, Weber returned to his parents' home to study at the University of Berlin. In 1886, he passed the examination for "Referendar," comparable to the bar examination in the American legal system. He earned his doctorate in law in 1889, writing his dissertation on legal history entitled The History of Medieval Business Organisations.

Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894.

Weber first became engaged to his cousin, Emmy Baumgarten, who was in ill health both physically and mentally. After six years, during which he suffered agonizing doubts and feelings of guilt, Weber finally broke the engagement. In 1893, he married his distant cousin, Marianne Schnitger, later a feminist and author in her own right, who after his death in 1920, was decisive in collecting and publishing Weber's works as books. In 1894, the couple moved to Freiburg, where Weber was appointed professor of economics at Freiburg University, before accepting the same position at the University of Heidelberg in 1897. That same year, his father died two months after having a severe quarrel with him. Following this incident, Weber was more and more prone to "nervousness" and insomnia. He spent several months in a sanatorium in the summer and fall of 1900.

After his immense productivity in the early 1890s, he finally resigned as a professor in the fall of 1903. In 1904, Max Weber began to publish some of his most seminal papers, notably his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. It became his most famous work, and laid the foundations for his later research on the impact of cultures and religions on the development of economic systems.

Max Weber in 1917.

In 1915 and 1916, he was a member of commissions that tried to retain German supremacy in Belgium and Poland after the war. Weber was a German imperialist and wanted to enlarge the German empire to the east and the west.

In 1918, Weber became a consultant to the German Armistice Commission at the Treaty of Versailles and to the commission charged with drafting the Weimar Constitution. He argued in favor of inserting Article 48 into the Weimar Constitution. This article was later used by Adolf Hitler to declare martial law and seize dictatorial powers.

From 1918, Weber resumed teaching, first at the University of Vienna, then in 1919 at the University of Munich. In Munich, he headed the first German University institute of sociology. Many colleagues and students in Munich despised him for his speeches and left-wing attitude during the German revolution of 1918 and 1919. Right-wing students protested at his home.

Max Weber died of pneumonia in Munich on June 14, 1920.

Weber and German politics

Weber thought that the only way that German culture would survive was by creating an empire. He influenced German policy towards eastern Germany. In 1894, he proposed closing the border to Polish workers from Russia and Austria-Hungary. However, in 1895, impressed by the attitude of the Russian liberal party, which wanted to change Russian nationalism by accepting ethnic minorities as Russians, he reversed his position.

Weber advocated democracy as a means for selecting strong leaders. He viewed democracy as a form of charisma where the "demagogue imposes his will on the masses." For this reason, the European left has been highly critical of Weber for, albeit unwittingly, preparing the intellectual groundwork for Adolf Hitler's leadership.

Weber was strongly anti-socialist, despising the anti-nationalist stance of the Marxist parties. He was surprised that the communists in Russia (who dissolved the old elite and bureaucracy) could survive for more than half a year.

Weber was very opposed to the conservatives who tried to hold back the democratic liberation of the working classes. Weber's personal and professional letters show considerable disgust for the anti-Semitism of his day. It is doubtful that Weber would have supported the Nazis had he lived long enough to see their activities.

Achievements

Max Weber was—along with Karl Marx, Vilfredo Pareto, and Émile Durkheim—one of the founders of modern sociology. Whereas Pareto and Durkheim, following Comte, worked in the positivist tradition, Weber created and worked, like Werner Sombart, in the antipositivist, idealist, and hermeneutic tradition. Those works started the antipositivistic revolution in social sciences, which stressed the difference between the social sciences and natural sciences, especially due to human social actions. Weber's early work was related to industrial sociology, but he is most famous for his later work on the sociology of religion and sociology of government.

Max Weber began his studies of rationalization in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he showed how the aims of certain Protestant denominations, particularly Calvinism, shifted towards the rational means of economic gain as a way of expressing that they had been blessed. The rational roots of this doctrine, he argued, soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious, and so the latter were eventually discarded. Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works, notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classifications of authority.

Theories

Sociology of religion

Weber's work on the sociology of religion started with the essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and continued with the analysis of The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, and Ancient Judaism.

His three main themes were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities, the relation between social stratification and religious ideas, and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilization.

His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the Occident and the Orient. In the analysis of his findings, Weber maintained that Puritan (and more widely, Protestant) religious ideas had had a major impact on the development of the economic system of Europe and the United States, but noted that they were not the only factors in this development. "Disenchantment of the world" was identified by Weber as an important distinguishing aspect of Western culture.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Weber's essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is his most famous work. Here, Weber put forward the controversial thesis that the Protestant ethic influenced the development of capitalism. Religious devotion had usually been accompanied by rejection of worldly affairs, including economic pursuit. Why was that not the case with Protestantism? Weber addressed this paradox in his essay, finding his answer in the religious ideas of the Reformation.

Weber argued that certain Protestant ideas, particularly John Calvin's understanding of predestination that sinful people cannot know directly whether they are part of God's elect to whom the grace of salvation is offered, favored rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities. Resultant insecurity on the part of Protestants, and their fear of eternal damnation, led them to seek signs indicating God's direction for their lives and affirmation of their correct behavior. Thus, hard work followed by financial success came to be the hallmark of God's grace. Coupled with traditional religious asceticism, these ideas encouraged people to accumulate wealth. It was not the goal of those religious ideas, but rather a byproduct—the inherent logic of those doctrines and the advice based upon them, both directly and indirectly, encouraged planning and self-denial in the pursuit of economic gain.

According to Weber, this "spirit of capitalism" not only involved hard work and entrepreneurialism on the part of Protestants, but also a sense of stewardship over the resulting gains. For if money is not sought after for luxury or self-indulgence, but as moral affirmation, economizing and reinvesting in worthy enterprises become normal economic practices.

The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism

The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism was Weber's second major work on the sociology of religion. Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe and especially contrasted with Puritanism, and posed the question, why did capitalism not develop in China?

As in Europe, Chinese cities had been founded as forts or leaders' residences, and were the centers of trade and crafts. However, they never received political autonomy and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to the strength of kinship ties, which stems from religious beliefs in ancestral spirits. Also, the guilds competed against each other for the favor of the emperor, never uniting in order to fight for more rights. Therefore, the residents of Chinese cities never constituted a separate status class like the residents of European cities.

Weber emphasized that instead of metaphysical conjectures, Confucianism taught adjustment to the world. "Superior" men (literati) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a civil servant was preferred to becoming a businessman and granted a much higher status.

Chinese civilization had no religious prophecy nor a powerful priestly class. The emperor was the high priest of the state religion and the supreme ruler, but popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the church curbed the power of secular rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike.

According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalization, each attempting to order human life according to certain ultimate religious beliefs. However, Confucianism aimed at attaining and preserving "a cultured status position" and used it as means of adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness, and familial piety.

The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism

The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism was Weber's third major work on the sociology of religion. In this work, he dealt with the structure of Indian society, the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism, the modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity, and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society.

The Indian social system was shaped by the concept of caste. It directly linked religious belief and the segregation of society into status groups. The caste system consisted of the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriyas (warriors), the Vaisyas (merchants), the Sudras (laborers), and the untouchables.

Weber paid special attention to Brahmins and analyzed why they occupied the highest place in Indian society for many centuries. With regard to the concept of dharma, he concluded that the Indian ethical pluralism is very different both from the universal ethic of Confucianism and Christianity. He noted that the caste system prevented the development of urban status groups.

Next, Weber analyzed Hindu religious beliefs, including asceticism and the Hindu worldview, the Brahman orthodox doctrines, the rise and fall of Buddhism in India, the Hindu restoration, and the evolution of the guru. He noted the idea of an immutable world order consisting of the eternal cycles of rebirth and the deprecation of the mundane world, and found that the traditional caste system, supported by the religion, slowed economic development.

He argued that it was the Messianic prophecies in the countries of the Near East, as distinguished from the prophecy of the Asiatic mainland, that prevented the countries of the Occident from following the paths of development marked out by China and India. His next work, Ancient Judaism was an attempt to prove this theory.

Ancient Judaism

In Ancient Judaism, his fourth major work on the sociology of religion, Weber attempted to explain the "combination of circumstances" that was responsible for the early differences between Oriental and Occidental religiosity. It is especially visible when the interworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity is contrasted with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in India. Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world, rather than withdraw from its imperfections. This fundamental characteristic of Christianity (when compared to Far Eastern religions) stems originally from the ancient Jewish prophecy.

Stating his reasons for investigating ancient Judaism, Weber wrote that

Anyone who is heir to the traditions of modern European civilization will approach the problems of universal history with a set of questions, which to him appear both inevitable and legitimate. These questions will turn on the combination of circumstances which has brought about the cultural phenomena that are uniquely Western and that have at the same time (…) a universal cultural significance.

Weber analyzed the interaction between the Bedouins, the cities, the herdsmen, and the peasants, including the conflicts between them and the rise and fall of the United Monarchy. The time of the United Monarchy appears as a mere episode, dividing the period of confederacy since the Exodus and the settlement of the Israelites in Palestine from the period of political decline following the Division of the Monarchy. This division into periods has major implications for religious history. Since the basic tenets of Judaism were formulated during the time of Israelite confederacy and after the fall of the United Monarchy, they became the basis of the prophetic movement that left a lasting impression on Western civilization.

Weber noted that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and Islam, but was crucial to the rise of modern Occident state, as its influences were as important to those of Hellenistic and Roman cultures.

Sociology of politics and government

In the sociology of politics and government, Politics as a Vocation is considered to be Weber's most significant essay. Therein, Weber unveiled the definition of the state that has become so pivotal to Western social thought: the state is that entity which possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, which it may elect to delegate as it sees fit. Politics is to be understood as any activity in which the state might engage itself in order to influence the relative distribution of force. A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic," understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek. An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a saint, for it is only saints, according to Weber, that can appropriately follow it. The political realm is no realm for saints. A politician ought to marry the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility, and must possess both a passion for his avocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions (the governed).

Weber distinguished three pure types of political leadership domination and authority: charismatic domination (familial and religious), traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonialism, feudalism), and legal domination (modern law and state, bureaucracy). In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained elements that can be analyzed on the basis of this tripartite distinction. He also noted that the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority.

Many aspects of modern public administration are attributed to Weber. A classic, hierarchically organized civil service of the continental type is called "Weberian civil service," although this is only one ideal type of public administration and government described in his magnum opus, Economy and Society (1922). In this work, Weber outlined his description of rationalization (of which bureaucratization is a part) as a shift from a value-oriented organization and action (traditional authority and charismatic authority) to a goal-oriented organization and action (legal-rational authority). The result, according to Weber, is a "polar night of icy darkness," in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in an "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control.

Weber's studies of bureaucracy also led him to his accurate prediction that socialism in Russia would, due to abolishing the free market and its mechanisms, lead to over-bureaucratization (evident, for example, in the shortage economy) rather than to the "withering away of the state" (as Karl Marx had predicted would happen in a communist society).

Economics

While Max Weber is best known and recognized today as one of the leading scholars and founders of modern sociology, he also accomplished much in the field of economics. However, during his lifetime, economics was not nearly as developed as it is today.

From the point of view of economists, Weber is a representative of the "Youngest" German Historical School. His most valued contribution to the field is his famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. This seminal essay discussed the differences between religions and the relative wealth of their followers. Weber's work paralleled Werner Sombart's treatise of the same phenomenon, which, however, located the rise of capitalism in Judaism. Weber acknowledged that capitalist societies had existed prior to Calvinism. However, he argued that in those cases, religious views did not support the capitalist enterprise, but rather limited it. Only the Protestant ethic, based on Calvinism, actively supported the accumulation of capital as a sign of God's grace.

Weber's other main contributions to economics (as well as to social science in general) is his work on methodology: his theories of Verstehen (known as "understanding" or "interpretative sociology") and of antipositivism (known as "humanistic sociology").

Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with "social class," "status class," and "party class" (or political class) as conceptually distinct elements.

  • Social class is based on an economically determined relationship to the market (owner, renter, employee, etc.).
  • Status class is based on non-economic qualities like honor, prestige, and religion.
  • Party class refers to affiliations in the political domain.

All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances."

Weber felt that economics should be a broad science covering not only economic phenomena, but also non-economic phenomena that might influence the economy ("economically relevant phenomena") and non-economic phenomena that, to some extent, had been influenced by economic phenomena ("economically conditioned phenomena") (Weber 1949: 64–66). The name that Weber gave to this broad type of economics was “social economics." Weber’s thought in this area provided a platform for productive interdisciplinary dialogue between economists and sociologists. To understand Weber’s perspective, one cannot ignore the value he placed on economic history and economic sociology in the study of economic theory.

Contribution and Legacy

Weber's sociological theories had a great impact on twentieth-century sociology. He developed the notion of "ideal types," which were examples of situations in history that could be used as reference points to compare and contrast different societies. This approach analyzes the basic elements of social institutions and examines how these elements relate to one another. His study of the sociology of religion allowed for a new level of cross-cultural understanding and investigation.

Through his celebrated work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber was one of the first scholars to emphasize the moral and spiritual dimensions of economic behavior. His analysis of the spiritual and moral conditions for successful economic productivity continues to be a source of inspiration to modern social scientists and other thinkers.

His insights and understanding concerning the weaknesses of capitalism have also had long-lasting impact. He concluded that the capitalist spirit was born more from psychological tensions that Calvinist theological obligations tended to create in the minds of the faithful, than as a result of pure religious devotion. According to Weber, the anxiety and inner loneliness resulting from the Calvinist doctrine of predestination created an all-consuming, driving force in the minds of believers, compelling them to essentially enslave themselves with materialistic pursuit while simultaneously creating an unprecedented increase in economic development.

However, he also observed that once capitalism became divorced from its religious sentiment, it developed into a secular ethic with "inexorable power," leading him to denigrate capitalists as "specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart."

Weber was fiercely independent, refusing to bend to any ideological line. Although he repeatedly entered the political arena, he was not truly a political man, one who is able to make compromises in the pursuit of his aims (according to Weber's own definition).

Weber regarded the world of modernity as having been deserted by the gods, because man had chased them away—rationalization had replaced mysticism. He saw the future world as one without feeling, passion, or commitment, unmoved by personal appeal and personal fealty, by grace and by the ethics of charismatic heroes. In many ways the twentieth century fulfilled his deepest fears, yet it also saw the birth of incredible development in all areas of human life.

Weber's last words were reported to be: "The Truth is the Truth" (Coser 1977: 242–243). This intellectual giant, suffering from deep tensions caused by his relationships with his family, and by the oppressive political atmosphere, was finally limited by circumstance in how much truth he could uncover.

Major Works

  • Weber, Max. 1922/1968. Economy and Society. Edited by Max Rheinstein. Translated by Edward Shils and Max Rheinstein. New York: Simon and Schuster.
  • Weber, Max. 1946/1958. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Translated and edited by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0195004620
  • Weber, Max. 1949. The Methodology of the Social Sciences. New York: Free Press.
  • Weber, Max. 1962. The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism. Free Press.
  • Weber, Max. 1967. Ancient Judaism. Free Press. ISBN 0029341302
  • Weber, Max. 1968. The Religion of China. Free Press. ISBN 0029344506
  • Weber, Max. 1993. Basic Concepts in Sociology. Translated and with an introduction by H.P. Secher. New York: Citadel Press (original work published 1962). ISBN 0806503041
  • Weber, Max. 2001. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 2nd ed. Routledge (original work published 1904). ISBN 041525406X
  • Weber, Max. 2004. The Vocation Lectures: Science As a Vocation, Politics As a Vocation. Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0872206653

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bendix, Reinhard. 1978. Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait. University of California Press. ISBN 0520031946
  • Coser, Lewis. 1977. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context. Harcourt. ISBN 0155551302
  • Kaesler, Dirk. 1989. Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life and Work. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226425606
  • Mommsen, Wolfgang. 1974. Max Weber und die Deutsche Politik 1890–1920. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). ISBN 0226533999
  • Roth, Guenther. 2001. Max Webers deutsch-englische Familiengeschichte. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
  • Swedberg, Richard. 1999. “Max Weber as an Economist and as a Sociologist.” American Journal of Economics and Sociology October 1999.
  • Weber, Marianne. 1929/1988. Max Weber: A Biography. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.

External links

All links retrieved November 8, 2022.

Economists of the Historical School

Wilhelm Roscher · Karl Knies · Bruno Hildebrand · Gustav von Schmoller · Lujo Brentano · Werner Sombart · Max Weber

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