Henotheism
Henotheism (Greek from henos (“one”) and theos (“god”)) refers to religious belief systems that accept the existence of many gods (polytheism) but worship one deity as supreme. Such belief systems have been common throughout history and across the world's cultures. The term was first coined by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling to describe what he thought to be an earlier stage to monotheism, and was later brought into common usage by linguist Max Muller in order to characterize the religious beliefs found specifically in the Vedas of Hinduism. Anthropologist E.B. Tylor conceived of henotheism as a natural phase in the progression of religious development: after transcending the supposedly primitive polytheism, cultures adopted henotheistic views as a precursor to monotheism, which he presumed to be the supreme manifestation of religious thought. The term "Henotheism" continues to be used in the academic study of religion today as a typology or category of world religious belief.
Henotheism as a Category of Religion
The word "Henotheism" has generated much debate among scholars of religion regarding its validity and scope. Max Muller used the term interchangeably with kathenotheism (from the Greek kath’hena, “one by one”), to refer to the worship of one god (among many) at a particular time. Similarly, henotheism should not be confused with monolatrism, or belief systems which assert that many gods do exist, although they may exert their power on those individuals who worship them. Henotheism is less exclusive than monolatry since a monolator exclusively worships one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the pantheon, depending on circumstances.
Varieties of Henotheism found in Human Culture
Classical Greco-Roman Henotheism
Perhaps the most salient example of henotheism is found in the ancient cultures of classical Greece and Rome. Greco-Roman religion began as polytheism, but became thoroughly henotheistic over time. While the Greeks believed in multiple gods, each of whom took on specific roles or personalities, it was clear that Zeus, god of the sky and thunder, was the superior deity, presiding over the Greek Olympic pantheon and siring (?) many of the other heroes and heroines. At first, Uranus was the supreme deity, until he became tyrannical and was usurped by his son Cronus. Cronus ruled during the mythological Golden age, but became tyrannical himself, unwilling to give up his own position of supremacy to potential heirs. According to legend, Cronus swallowed each of his children whole as soon as they were born but when Zeus was about to be born, Rhea sought Uranus and Gaia to devise a plan to save Zeus. Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. Zeus was spared, and after reaching manhood, he forced Cronus to disgorge the other children. Along with his brothers and sisters, Zeus overthrew Cronus and the other Titans so that he could ascend to the throne as supreme god.
Darry- Please add something about Roman beliefs here because most of what you say is about Greek beliefs but your introduction mentions Greco-Roman beleifs. I think Jupiter was their supreme God but I am not sure. Please look into this.
Israelite and Judaic Beliefs
It is generally accepted that many of the Iron Age religions found in Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh, and the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief gods, El and Asherah. They had 70 sons between them who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, and became national gods worshipped in each region. More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the Hebrew culture in the Iron Age has put forth the thesis that Hebrew religion, like those around it, was henotheistic. The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom suggest that in at least some sections of Israelite society, Yahweh and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple. Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from syncretistic myths found within the Hebrew Bible itself. Various battles between Yahweh and Leviathan, Mot, the Tanninim, and Yamm are already presented in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at Ugarit (ancient Ras-Shamra). In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had assumed El's roles.
According to the Book of Genesis, prophet Abraham is revered as the individual who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding peoples by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with Him. In addition, he laid the foundations for what has been called by scholars "Ethical Monotheism". The first of the Ten commandments is commonly interpreted to forbid the Israelites from worshiping any god other than the one true God who had given them the Torah. However, this commandment has also be interpreted as a evidence of henotheism, since the Hebrew God states that the Israelites should have "no other gods before me" and thus insinuates the existence of other gods. Against the Torah's teachings, the patron god YHWH was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as Baal, Asherah, and El. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. Thus, by the end of the Babylonian captivity of Judah in the Tanakh, Judaism is strictly monotheistic.
Christianity
Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as monotheists, some argue that Christianity is best described as a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a Christian Godhead consisting of God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, with God the Father being dominant "actor" and "creator", since most Christians eschew the idea that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, Trinitarian Christians strongly reject the view that the three entities comprising the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The Council of Nicea (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek Ousia) and three Persona (Greek Hypostasis)". In addition, many Christians believe in what could be considered to be a "pantheon" of angels, demons, and/or Saints that are inferior to the Trinity. Christians do not label these beings as "gods", although they are attributed with supernatural powers and occassionally serve as an the object of prayer.
Some non-trinitarian Christian denominations are more overtly henotheistic. In the Gnostic cosmology, there is an ultimate God who brought forth from within Himself the substance of all worlds. Further, various Gnostic myths refer to Aeons, deific beings who serve as intermediaries between the transcendent God and humanity. In addition, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the Christian Godhead as three distinct beings, where God the Father is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in canonical LDS scripture, some Latter Day Saints also infer the existence of numerous other gods and goddesses who have no direct relevance to humanity on Earth. Some Latter Day Saints also acknowledge a Heavenly Mother in addition to God the Father. However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons," the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God.
Hinduism
Similarly, henotheism seems to be evident in early Vedic Hinduism, which covers the historical period before 1000 B.C.E. While it is difficult to classify Hinduism as a whole, (as it assumes features of pantheistic monism, as in Vedanta, stricter monotheism, as in Smarta Hinduism, or polytheism, in the case of popular understanding) the Rig Veda, one of the formative Hindu texts, was the sole artifcat which lead Max Müller to introduce the term henotheism. In the four Vedas, Müller posited that an impulsion towards One divinity was actually being cultivated through the worship of the various cosmic principles. These included Agni, god of fire, Indra, god of thunder and the sky, as well as Varuna, keeper of the celestial waters. Each of these gods were hailed as supreme in different sections of the books, and again, as is found in the mythology of the Greeks, the Vedic gods underwent their own battles for supremacy. In pre-Vedic times, Varuna was the supreme lord of the cosmos; however, in the [[Vedas], he is supplanted by Indra as king of the gods. Subsequently, Indra entered into primacy in terms of Vedic worship and sacrificial ritual. What further prevents this early Hinduism as being classified simply as polytheistic is the idea of Rita, or the supreme order of the universe which bound all the gods. Other phrases such as Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) provides additional evidence that the Vedic people identified a fundamental oneness beyond the personalities of their many gods. Based on this mixture of monism, monotheism and naturalistic polytheism Max Müller decided that henotheism was the most suitable classification for Vedic Hinduism. Whether the collective term of henotheism adequately addresses these complexities still remains a matter of contention. The term may underestimate the ideas of pure monism which can be identified even in the early Rig Veda Samhita, notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheistic movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the Upanishads.
While the Vedic period of Hinduism most closely corresponds to henotheism as Müller understood it, more subtle manifestations of henotheism can be discerned within the later traditions. Classical Hinduism evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into its own in the Puranas, focusing on particular gods such as Shiva and Vishnu, who represented aspects of a greater, undefinable God. Medieval Hinduism saw the emergence of devotional sects with the onset of the essentially monotheistic bhakti (loving devotion) movement. These worshippers, while admitting the existence of other deities, saw the particular deity of their choice as derivative from one principal source. As a result, different devotional traditions have disputed the relative importance of various gods, some insisting on the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and vice-versa, for example. Extreme monists within the Advaita Vedanta movement, Yoga philosophy and certain non-dual Tantra schools of Hinduism seem to preclude the categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic. They developed the concept of Brahman, a formless non-being which is said to be the Divine Ground from which all finitude arises. However, this transcendence subsumes the fundamental Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, gods which respectively represent creation, preservation and destruction in one cycle of being. This cycle of being is ultimately transcended with the attainment of moksha, which refers to union with the transcendent Brahman. This notion of Brahman, then, could be interpreted as the paramount principle in a belief system that is ultimately henotheistic. Again, "henotheism" proves to be a pliable term which can serve to clarify such ambiguities in vast, multifarious religious systems such as Hinduism.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- "Varuna." Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online.
<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/v/varuna.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
- "Indra" Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online.
<http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/indra.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
- "Henotheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987.
- "The Gnostic Worldview: A Brief Summary of Gnosticism." <http://www.webcom.com/gnosis/gnintro.htm> [Accessed March 10, 2006].
- Darry- Smith's book cited in the Israeli section needs to be added here.
See also
- Kathenotheism
- Monolatry
- Monotheism
- Polytheism
- Polydeism
- Comparative religion
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