Halakha
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Halakha (Hebrew: הלכה ; alternate transliterations include Halakhah, Halocho, and Halacha), is the collective corpus of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life. Hence, Halakha guides not only religious practices and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day life. Halakha is often translated as "Jewish Law," though a more literal translation might be "the path" or "the way of walking." The word is derived from the Hebrew root that means to go, to walk or to travel.
Historically, Halakha served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of civil and religious law. In the modern era, Jewish citizens may be bound to Halakhah only by their voluntary consent. In Israel, though, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are governed by rabbinic interpretations of Halakha. Reflecting the diversity of Jewish communities, somewhat different approaches to Halakha are found among Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Yemenite Jews. Among Ashkenazi Jews, disagreements over Halakha, and over whether Jews should continue to follow Halakha, have played a pivotal role in the emergence of the Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist streams of Judaism.
Terminology
The term Halakha may refer to a single law, to the literary corpus of rabbinic legal texts, or to the overall system of interpreting religious law. The Halakha is often contrasted with the Aggadah, the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical and other non-legal literature. At the same time, since writers of Halakha may draw upon the aggadic literature, there is a dynamic interchange between the two genres.
Halakha constitutes the practical application of the 613 mitzvot ("commandments," singular: mitzvah) in the Torah, (the five books of Moses, the "Written Law") as developed through discussion and debate in the classical rabbinic literature. Its laws, guidelines, and opinions cover a vast range of situations and principles. It is also the subject of intense study in yeshivas; see Torah study.
Controversies lend rabbinic literature much of its creative and intellectual appeal. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures. Instead, Jews interested in observing Halakha may choose to follow specific rabbis or affiliate with a community following a specific halakhic tradition.
Laws of the Torah
Broadly, the Halakha comprises the practical application of the commandments. According to the Talmud (Tractate Makot), there are 613 mitzvot ("commandments"), including 248 positive mitzvot and 365 negative mitzvot given in the Torah, supplemented by seven mitzvot legislated by the rabbis of antiquity.
Positive commandments (of which tradition holds there are 248) require an action to be performed, and thus bring one closer to God. Negative commandments forbid a specific action; thus violations create a distance from God. In striving to "be holy" as God is holy, one attempts so far as possible to live in accordance with God's wishes for humanity, striving to more completely live with each of these with every moment of one's life.
Classical rabbinic Judaism has two basic categories of laws:
- Laws believed revealed by God to the Jewish people at Mount Sinai (including both the written Pentateuch and its elucidation by the prophets and rabbinical sages);
- Laws believed to be of human origin, including specific rabbinic decrees, interpretations, customs, etc.
Laws of the first category are not optional, with exceptions made only for life-saving and similar emergency circumstances. Halakhic authorities may disagree on which laws fall into which categories or the circumstances (if any) under which prior rabbinic rulings can be re-examined by contemporary rabbis, but all halakhic Jews hold that both categories exist.
Sin
Judaism regards the violation of the commandments, the mitzvot, to be a sin. In Judaism, unlike Christianity, sins do not always involve a lapse in morality. Three categories of sin are:
- Pesha—an intentional sin, committed in deliberate defiance of God
- Avon—a sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion committed knowingly but not not in defiance of God
- Chet—an "unintentional sin" committed unknowingly or by accident
Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However a state of sin does not condemn a person to damnation; there is always a road of teshuva (repentance, literally: "return").
When Jews had a functioning court system, these courts were empowered to administer physical punishments for various violations: corporal punishment, incarceration, excommunication, or death. Since the fall of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., capital punishment by religious courts has been forbidden.
Gentiles and Jewish law
Judaism holds that Gentiles are obliged only to follow the seven Noahide Laws, given to Noah after the flood. The Noahide laws are specified in the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 57a), including six "negative" commandments and one "positive" one:
- Murder is forbidden.
- Theft is forbidden.
- Sexual immorality is forbidden.
- Eating flesh cut from a still-living animal is forbidden.
- Belief in and worship or prayer to "idols" is forbidden.
- Blaspheming God is forbidden.
- Society must establish a fair system of legal justice.
In Christian tradition, the rules mentioned in Acts 15:29 appears to be based on the Noahide Laws, omitting several—against murder, theft, and blasphemy—that were probably considered non-controversial: "You are to abstain from food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals, and from sexual immorality."
The sources and process of Halakha
The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning and debate. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of Halakha as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions. The major sources consulted include:
- The foundational Talmudic literature, especially the Mishna and the Babylonian Talmud, with associated commentaries
- Post-Talmudic literature, such as Maimonides' twelfth century Mishneh Torah and the sixteenth century Shulchan Aruch codified by Rabbi Yosef Karo
- Regulations and other legislative enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies, such as the Gezeirah (rules intended to prevent violations of the commandments) and the Takkanah (legislation not directly justified by the commandments)
- Minhagim: customs, community practices, and traditions
- The she'eloth u-teshuvoth: responsa, literally "questions and answers," including both Talmudic and post-Talmudic literature
- Dina d'malchuta dina ("the law of the land is law"): non-Jewish laws recognized as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to any laws of Judaism.
In antiquity, the Sanhedrin functioned essentially as both the Supreme Court and legislature for Judaism. That court ceased to function in its full mode in 40 C.E. Today, the authoritative application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and local rabbinical courts, where these exist.
Since the days of the Sanhedrin, however, no single body is generally regarded as having the authority to determine universally recognized precedents. When a rabbinic posek ("decisor") proposes a new interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by rabbis and members of similar Jewish communities.
The halakhic tradition embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation. Generally speaking, a rabbi in any one period will not overrule specific laws from an earlier era, unless supported by a relevant earlier precedent. There are important exceptions to this principle, however, which empower the posek (decisor) or beth din (court) to create innovative solutions.
Within certain Jewish communities, formal organized halakhic bodies do exist. iModern Orthodox rabbis, for example, generally agree with the views set by the leaders of the Rabbinical Council of America. Within Conservative Judaism, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards generally sets the denomination's halakhic policy. Reform Judaism does not consider Halakha binding on modern Jews.
Takkanot
Main article: Takkanah
Traditional Jewish law granted the Sages wide legislative powers. Technically, one may discern two powerful legal tools within the halakhic system:
- Gezeirah: "preventative legislation" of the Rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the commandments
- Takkanah: "positive legislation," practices instituted by the Rabbis not based (directly) on the commandments
However, in common parlance sometimes people use the general term takkanah to refer either gezeirot or takkanot.
Takkanot, in general, do not affect or restrict observance of Torah mitzvot. However, the Talmud states that in exceptional cases, the Sages had the authority to "uproot matters from the Torah" in certain cases. In Talmudic and classical halakhic literature, this authority refers to the authority to prohibit some things that would otherwise be biblically sanctioned (shev v'al ta'aseh). Rabbis may rule that a Torah mitzvah should not be performed, e.g. blowing the shofar on Shabbat, or blessing the lulav and etrog on Shabbat. These are takkanot are executed out of fear that some might otherwise carry the mentioned items between home and the synagogue, thus inadvertently violating a Sabbath melakha.
Another rare and limited form of takkanah involved overriding Torah prohibitions. In some cases, the Sages allowed the temporary violation a prohibition in order to maintain the Jewish system as a whole. This was part of the basis for Esther's relationship with Ahasuerus. (Sanhedrin)
For general usage of takkanaot in Jewish history see the article Takkanah. For examples of this being used in Conservative Judaism see Conservative Halakha.
Eras of history important in Jewish law
| Rabbinical Eras |
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- The Tannaim (literally the "repeaters") are the sages of the Mishnah (70–200)
- The Amoraim (literally the "sayers") are the sages of the Gemara (200–500)
- The Savoraim (literally the "reasoners") are the classical Persian rabbis (500–600)
- The Geonim (literally the "prides" or "geniuses") are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylonia (650–1250)
- The Rishonim (literally the "firsts") are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1250–1550) preceding the Shulchan Aruch
- The Acharonim (literally the "lasts") are the rabbis of 1550 to the present.
Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is the study of rules for the exact determination of the meaning of a text. It played a notable role in early rabbinic Jewish discussion. Compilations of such hermeneutic rules include:
- the seven Rules of Hillel
- the 13 Rules of R. Ishmael
- the 32 Rules of R. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili.
Neither Hillel, Ishmael, nor Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili sought to give a complete enumeration of the rules of interpretation current in his day. They restricted themselves to a compilation of the principal methods of logical deduction, which they called middot (measures).
The antiquity of the rules can be determined only by the dates of the authorities who quote them. In general, they can not safely be declared older than the tanna (sage) to whom they are first ascribed. It is generally agreed, however, that the seven middot of Hillel and the 13 of Ishmael are earlier than the time of these tannaim, who were the first to transmit them.
The Talmud itself gives no information concerning the origin of the middot, although the Geonim regarded them as Sinaitic, a view firmly rejected by modern historians.
The middot seem to have been first laid down as abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they were not immediately recognized by all as valid and binding. Different schools interpreted and modified, restricted, or expanded them in various ways. Akiba and Ishmael especially contributed to the development or establishment of these rules. Akiba devoted his attention to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ishmael developed the logical ones. The rules laid down by one school were frequently rejected by another because the principles that guided them in their respective formulations were essentially different. Some scholars have observed a similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture.
How Halakha is viewed today
Orthodox Judaism holds that Jewish Law was dictated by God to Moses essentially as it exists today. However, there is significant disagreement within Orthodox Judaism, particularly between Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism, about the circumstances under which post-Sinaitic additions can be changed, the Haredi being the more conservative.
Conservative Judaism holds that Halakha is normative and binding, and is developed as a partnership between people and God based on Sinaitic Torah. However Conservative Judaism rejects "fundamentalism" and welcomes modern critical study of the Bible. Conservatives emphasize that Halakha has always been an evolving process subject to interpretation by rabbis in every time period, including the present. See Conservative Judaism, Beliefs.
Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism both hold that the legal regulations of the Talmud and other halakhic literature are no longer binding on Jews. Some members of these movements see the Halakha as a personal starting-point, but leave the interpretation of the commandments and their applicability up to the individual conscience.
Codes of Jewish law
The Torah and the Talmud are not formal codes of law; they are sources of law. There are many formal codes of Jewish law that have developed over the past few thousand years. These codes have influenced, and in turn, have been influenced by, the responsa; History of Responsa thus provides an informative complement to the survey below.
The major codes are:
- The Mishnah, composed by Rabbi Judah the Prince, in 200 C.E., as a basic outline of the state of the Oral Law in his time. This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based; the Talmud's dialectic analysis of the content of the Mishna (gemara; completed c. 500) became the basis for all later halakhic decisions and subsequent codes.
- Codifications by the Geonim of the halakhic material in the Talmud. An early work, She'iltot ("Questions") by Achai of Shabcha (c. 752), discusses over 190 Mitzvot—exploring and addressing various questions on these. The first legal codex proper, Halakhot Pesukot ("Decided Laws"), by Yehudai Gaon (c. 760), rearranges the Talmud passages in a structure manageable to the layman. (It was written in vernacular Aramaic, and subsequently translated into Hebrew as Hilkhot Riu). Halakhot Gedolot ("Great Law Book"), by R. Simeon Kayyara, published two generations later, contains extensive additional material, mainly from Responsa and Monographs of the Geonim, and is presented in a form that is closer to the original Talmud language and structure. (Probably since it was distributed, also, amongst the newly established Ashkenazi communities.) The She'iltot was influential on both subsequent works.
- The Hilchot of the Rif, Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (1013–1103), summations of the legal material in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excludes all Aggadic (non-legal, homiletic) matter. The Hilchot soon superseded the geonic codes, as it contained all the decisions and laws then relevant, and additionally, served as an accessible Talmudic commentary; it has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
- The Mishneh Torah (also known as the Yad Ha-Hazaqah for its 14 volumes), by Maimonides (Rambam; 1135–1204). This work encompasses the full range of Talmudic law; it is organized and reformulated in a logical system—in 14 books, 83 sections and 1000 chapters—with each Halakha stated clearly. The Mishneh Torah is very influential to this day, and several later works reproduce passages verbatim. It also includes a section on Metaphysics and fundamental beliefs. (Some claim this section draws heavily on Aristotelian science and metaphysics; others suggest that it is within the tradition of Saadia Gaon.) It is the main source of practical Halakha for many Yemenite Jews—mainly Baladi and Dor Daim—as well as for a growing community referred to as talmidei haRambam.
- The work of the Rosh, Rabbi Asher ben Jehiel (1250?/1259?–1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the Tosafists. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud.
- The Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The "SeMaG") of Rabbi Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century, Coucy, France). "SeMaG" is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive commandments, separately discussing each of them according to the Talmud (in light of the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot) and the other codes existent at the time.
- "The Mordechai"—by Mordecai ben Hillel, d. Nuremberg 1298—serves both as a source of analysis, as well of decided law. Mordechai considered about 350 halakhic authorities, and was widely influential, particularly amongst the Ashkenazi and Italki communities. Although organised around the Hilchot of the Rif, it is, in fact, an independent work. It has been printed with every edition of the Talmud since 1482.
- The Arba'ah Turim (The Tur, The Four Columns) by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher (1270–1343, Toledo, Spain). This work traces the Halakha from the Torah text and the Talmud through the Rishonim, with the Hilchot of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the Tur covers only those areas of Jewish religious law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all codes since this time have followed the Tur's arrangement of material.
- Orach Chayim—"The Way of Life" worship and ritual observance in the home and synagogue, through the course of the day, the weekly sabbath and the festival cycle.
- Yoreh De'ah—"Teach Knowledge" assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning menstrual impurity.
- Even Ha'ezer—"The Rock of the Helpmate" marriage, divorce and other issues in family law.
- Choshen Mishpat—"The Breastplate of Judgment" The administration and adjudication of civil law.
- The Beit Yosef, and the Shulchan Aruch of Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575). The Beit Yosef is a huge commentary on the Tur in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later rabbinical literature (examining thirty-two authorities, beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi Israel Isserlein). The Shulchan Aruch is, in turn, a condensation of the Beit Yosef—stating each ruling simply (literally translated, Shulchan Aruch means "set table"); this work follows the chapter divisions of the Tur. The Shulchan Aruch, together with its related commentaries, is considered by many to be the most authoritative compilation of halakha since the Talmud. In writing the Shulchan Aruch, Rabbi Karo based his rulings on three authorities—Maimonides (Rambam), Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif); he considered the Mordechai in inconclusive cases. Sephardic Jews, generally, refer to the Shulchan Aruch as the basis for their daily practice.
- The works of Rabbi Moshe Isserles ("Rema"; Kraków, Poland, 1525 to 1572). Rema noted that the Shulkhan Arukh was based on the Sephardic tradition, and he created a series of glosses to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Arukh for cases where Sephardi and Ashkenazi customs differed (based on the works of Yaakov Moelin, Israel Isserlein and Israel Bruna). The glosses are called Hamapah, the "Tablecloth" for the "Set Table." His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the Shulkhan Arukh, typeset in a different script; today, "Shulchan Aruch" refers to the combined work of Karo and Isserles. Isserles' Darkhei Moshe is similarly a commentary on the Tur and the Beit Yosef.
- The Shulchan Aruch HaRav of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (c. 1800) was an attempt to recodify the law as it stood at that time—incorporating commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch, and subsequent responsa—and thus stating the decided halakha, as well as the underlying reasoning. The work was written, partly, so that laymen would be able to study Jewish law. Unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication. It is held in esteem by many Hasidim and non-Hasidim, and is quoted as authoritative by many subsequent works.
- "Layman oriented" digests of Halakha. The Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh of Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried (Hungary 1804–1886), based on the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century, became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity. This work is not binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulchan Aruch. It is still popular in Orthodox Judaism as a framework for study, if not always for practice. Chayei Adam and Chochmat Adam by Avraham Danzig (Poland, 1748–1820) are similar Ashkenazi works, but are regarded as a more appropriate basis for practice. The Ben Ish Chai by Yosef Chaim (Baghdad, 1832–1909) is a corresponding Sephardi work.
- Works structured directly on the Shulchan Aruch, providing analysis in light of Acharonic material and codes. The Mishnah Berurah of Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen, (the "Chofetz Chaim," Poland, 1838–1933) is a commentary on the "Orach Chayim" section of the Shulchan Aruch, discussing the application of each Halakha in light of all subsequent Acharonic decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of Orthodox Ashkenazic Jewry in the postwar period. Arukh HaShulkhan by Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1888) is a scholarly analysis of Halakha through the perspective of the major Rishonim. The work follows the structure of the Tur and the Shulkhan Arukh; rules dealing with vows, agriculture, and ritual purity, are discussed in a second work known as Arukh HaShulkhan he'Atid. Kaf HaChaim on Orach Chayim and parts of Yoreh De'ah, by the Sephardi sage Yaakov Chaim Sofer (Baghdad and Jerusalem, 1870–1939) is similar in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah. Yalkut Yosef, by Rabbi Yitzchak Yosef, is a voluminous, widely cited and contemporary work of Halakha, based on the rulings of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef.
- "A Guide To Jewish Religious Practice," by Rabbi Isaac Klein, with contributions from the Conservative Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly. This work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a Conservative Jewish point of view. It is not accepted among Orthodox Jews.
See also
- Mishpat Ivri
Notes
External links and references
General
- Judaism 101 Laws and Customs - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- The Rules of Halacha - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Talmudic Law - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Law, Codification of - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- FAQ on halakha and Jewish law - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Halakhah article - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- FAQ on the different rabbinic eras - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- An introduction to the system of Jewish Law - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Entry on Halakhah - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Intro to Halacha: Classes on Understanding the Halachic Process and Basic Halacha Classes - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- MP3 Halacha Shiurim by Rav Nissan Kaplan of Mir Yeshiva, Jerusalem - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
Discussion
- Religious Praxis: The Meaning of Halakhah - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- On the Matter of Masorah - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- The Oral Law and Our Own Opinions - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Great Rabbis of the Muslim Empire - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Freedom to Interpret - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Jewish Law Articles: "Examining Halacha, Jewish Issues and Secular Law" - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Orthodox Responses to Sociological and Technological Change - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Da'at Torah—The Unqualified Authority Claimed for Halachists - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Authority and Autonomy in Pesikat HaHalacha - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
Fulltext resources
- Mishneh Torah - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Shulchan Aruch HaRav - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Kitzur Shulchan Aruch - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Ben Ish Chai - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Mishna Berura - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
Responsa
- Index of Orthodox Responsa - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Rabbinical Assembly Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (American Conservative) - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Rabbinical Assembly Vaad Halakha (Israeli Masorti) - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Topical index of non-binding Reform responsa - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
Study resources
- Mishneh Torah overview - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim overview - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah overview - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Mishna Berura translation - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Mishna Berura Audio Lectures - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Kitzur Shulchan Aruch translation - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Ch 1–97 - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Ch 98–221 - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Ben Ish Chai lectures - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- Laws and customs: daily, shabbat and festivals - Retrieved October 1, 2007.
Bibliography
- J. David Bleich, Contemporary Halakhic Problems (5 vols), Ktav. ISBN 0-87068-450-7, ISBN 0-88125-474-6, ISBN 0-88125-315-4, ISBN 0-87068-275-X, Feldheim ISBN 1-56871-353-3
- Menachem Elon, Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri (trans. Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles ISBN 0-8276-0389-4), Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0-8276-0537-4
- Jacob Katz, Divine Law in Human Hands—Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility, Magnes Press. ISBN 965-223-980-1
- Mendell Lewittes, Jewish Law: An Introduction, Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-302-6
- Daniel Pollack ed., Contrasts in American and Jewish Law, Ktav. ISBN 0-88125-750-8
- Emanuel Quint, A Restatement of Rabbinic Civil Law (11 vols), Gefen Publishing. ISBN 0-87668-765-6, ISBN 0-87668-799-0, ISBN 0-87668-678-1, ISBN 0-87668-396-0, ISBN 0-87668-197-6, ISBN 1-56821-167-8, ISBN 1-56821-319-0, ISBN 1-56821-907-5, ISBN 0-7657-9969-3, ISBN 965-229-322-9, ISBN 965-229-323-7, ISBN 965-229-375-X
- Emanuel Quint, Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources & Modern Applications , Taylor and Francis. ISBN 3-7186-0293-8
- Joel Roth, Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis, Jewish Theological Seminary. ISBN 0-87334-035-3
- Joseph Soloveitchik, Halakhic Man, Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan. ISBN 0-8276-0397-5
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