Gift economy

File:Love gift - Calyx krater Aegisthos painter ca 460 BCE.jpg

Love gift
Man presents a cut of meat to a youth with a hoop. Athenian red-figure vase, ca. 460 B.C.E.

Gift exchange is a type of long-standing and cross-cultural human tradition involving the giving of money, goods, etc., without the direct compensation that is involved in trade, although possibly involving a social expectation of reciprocity, or a return in the form of prestige or power. In many human societies, the act of mutually exchanging gifts contributes to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy.

Nature of Gifts

The word gift most commonly refers to "the action of giving, an instance of the same; a giving, bestowal". In contemporary times, gifts are often thought of as tangible goods that are either purchased for the sole purpose of being given as a gift, or goods that are created for the express purpose of gift exchange, such as the armbands and necklaces in the Trobriand Islands' Kula exchange. Often times there are specific occasions for giving gifts, such as a holiday, birthday or other forms of celebration. Other times, the simple act of giving is occasion enough. Beyond the giving of tangible goods, a gift has many different historical connotations.

A gift can refer to anything that makes the other more happy or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness, and kindness (even when the other is not kind).

A gift can also be a special talent or ability that was not earned through the usual amount of long and difficult practice but instead comes easily to the recipient in a natural way. A person with such a gift is said to be "a natural" or "gifted" in that field of endeavor. A gift, in this sense, can be thought of as being given by God or by nature: a God-given or natural gift received by one at birth. For example, a fluent and entertaining speaker is said to have "the gift of gab." Ritual sacrifices can be seen as return gifts to a deity. Sacrifice can also be seen as a gift from a deity: Christianity considers the Incarnation and subsequent death of Jesus to be a "gift" to humankind, and the Jākata contains a tale of the Buddha in his incarnation as the Wise Hare giving the ultimate alms by offering himself up as a meal for Sakka..

The intent behind the gift giving is also significant when looking at individual traditions. While many people consider the essence of a gift to be a self-less act, historically gifts have not always been given with such innocence. Gifts have often been used as bribes, as a way to placate a difficult situation, or are given more out of a sense of obligation than from a desire to help someone or make them happy. With the increase of materialism in today's world, gifts are often evaluated based upon their material value; the more expensive the gift, the better. Certain traditions, such as Christmas, have taken on a wide-spread commercialization, often times driven by retailers who make their largest profits during these times.

Presentation

When material objects are given as gifts, in many cultures they are traditionally packaged in some manner. For example, in Western culture, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a gift note which may note the occasion, the giftee's name, and the giver's name. In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck.

Gifts under a Christmas tree.

Legal aspects of gifts

In common law, for a gift to have legal effect, it was required that there be (1) intent by the donor to give a gift, (2) acceptance of the gift by the donee, and (3) delivery to the donee of the item to be given as a gift.

In the United States and some other countries, certain types of gifts above a certain monetary amount are subject to taxation. See gift tax for more information.

Gift-giving Occasions

There are many occasions involving the exchange of a gift. The most common may be:

• Expression of love or friendship
• Expression of gratitude for a gift received
• Expression of piety, in the form of charity
• Expression of solidarity, in the form of mutual aid
• To share wealth
• To offset misfortune
• Offering travel souvenirs
• Custom, on occasions (often celebrations) such as
  • A birthday (the person who has his or her birthday gives cake, etc. and/or receives gifts)
  • A potlatch, in societies where status is associated with gift-giving rather than acquisition.
  • Christmas (people give each other gifts, often supposedly receiving them from Santa Claus)
  • Saint Nicholas (people give each other gifts, often supposedly receiving them from Saint Nicholas)
  • A wedding (the couple receives gifts and gives food and/or drinks at the wedding reception)
  • A funeral (visitors bring flowers, the relatives of the deceased give food and/or drinks after the ceremonial part)
  • A birth (the baby receives gifts)
  • Passing an examination (the student receives gifts)
  • Father's Day (the father receives gifts)/Mother's Day (the mother receives gifts)
  • Exchange of gifts between a guest and a host, often a traditional practice
  • Giving a round of drinks in a bar.
  • Lagniappe

Examples

Koha

Koha is a New Zealand Māori custom which can be translated as gift, donation, or remuneration.

It is an example of the reciprocity which is a common feature of much Māori tradition, and often involves the giving of gifts by visitors to a host marae. Traditionally this has often taken the form of food although taonga (treasured possessions) are also sometimes offered as koha.

In modern times money is most commonly given to offset the costs of hosting a hui (Māori assembly). For the benefit of non-Māori unfamiliar with the custom some marae may suggest a particular amount to be given as koha although this amount may not meet the actual costs associated with the meeting.

In wider current New Zealand society the term has a broader meaning more closely associated with the English term donation. When you are invited to a "free" event you may be asked for 'koha', usually in the form of a "gold coin donation" (i.e., $1 or $2 - this being the colour of these coins - rather than smaller silver coin denominations).

It is becoming more frequent to refer in English language to the small gifts, or more commonly food such as; biscuits, deserts or cakes, which are presented when visiting friends or family as 'koha'. This is a common custom amongst New Zealanders, especially so in rural areas. This custom, if not rooted in the Māori custom (tikanga), has been reinforced by it.

It is also sometimes used to mean, quite bluntly, payment as in "He aha te koha?" meaning "What does it cost?"

Sepik Coast Exchange

Sepik Coast exchange is the method of social networking and alliance in the Sepik Coast area of Papua New Guinea.

Families living along the Sepik Coast in northern Papua New Guinea form alliances with families in other communities. Depending on the importance and status of the family, it can have anywhere between 5 and 75 contacts in its social network. In each surrounding town, the family knows another. When they travel to another town, they bring gifts to their contact family, and that family will house and care for them. Gifts are reciprocated when given or later when families return the visit. Common gifts are sago, tobacco, baskets, wooden bowls, and other similar items. The recipient does not specify which type of gift they would like to receive, but as a result of the vast quantity of exchanges taking place, the needs of participants are generally met.

A social field is one in which all the members have similar expectations of each other. In the social networks of the Sepik Coast, the significant expectations are hospitality, gift giving and reciprocation from friends in different villages. Alliances are passed along and preserved through many generations, because fathers bring their sons on their trips and families honor an association, no matter how long it has been since the last gift exchange.

Moka

The Moka is a system of exchange in the Mt. Hagen area, Papua New Guinea.

It is a complex system of exchange that relies heavily on pigs as currency for status in the community.

The Moka is the vehicle by which big-men obtain their status and is a complicated game of zero-sum exchanges of material culture that serves to elevate prestige. A big-man can have several Moka partners with whom he carries on exchanges: some on a larger scale than others. He must be constantly thinking about people he owes and people who owe him, the timing of the next Moka, and how he might subtly undermine another big-man to gain more prestige.

The Moka encompasses a large area around Mt. Hagen and involves large-scale exchanges of pigs between big-men. Moka is based on competition between big-men; at any given time in the process, there is inequality between the players. Big-men are able to exchange huge numbers of pigs at the Moka by having a large support group of men who have received small gifts of sweet potatoes or pigs in exchange for one or two pigs. The pigs accumulate from many sources and when there are enough, they are given to a rival big-man. That big-man uses them to repay what he owes to his supporters (in addition to using many of them as a feast at the Moka) and has a few years to breed and amass pigs enough to equal and outdo the previous gift. In this fashion the exchange is continued, each exceeding the other in turn. He could also use the gift to make Moka to a third big-man, guaranteeing superiority over him for a time.

The Moka depends on the big-man, who is dependent upon his social network of supporters.

The Moka continues until one of the big-men cannot reciprocate and increase the gift and his inferiority to the other is established. Theoretically, Moka exchanges continue for an indefinite amount of time and an outcome is never reached. At any time, one of the more important members of a big-man’s social network may decide that he is better off supporting a rival big-man and could switch sides, so to speak, and undermine his former big-man while strengthening his rival. There is always uncertainty involved in the Moka.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Strathern, Andrew. 1971. The Rope of Moka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Welsch, Robert and John Terrell. 1998. "Material Culture, Social Fields, and Social Boundaries on the Sepik Coast of New Guinea." In The Archaeology of Social Boundaries. Miriam Stark, ed. Pp. 50-77. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

• Marcel Mauss and W.D. Halls, Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, W. W. Norton, 2000, trade paperback, ISBN 0-393-32043-X
• Lewis Hyde: The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property, 1983 (ISBN 0-394-71519-5), especially part I, "A Theory of Gifts," part of which was originally published as "The Gift Must Always Move" in Co-Evolution Quarterly No. 35, Fall 1982.

• "Ongka's Big Moka: The Kawelka of Papua New Guinea" (DVD) 1976, Shanachie

External links

• NZ Justice Dept
• WikiTravel Māori Phrasebook

• Dictionary definition
• Article, book review
• Kula, a similar exchange system

• Information on New Guinea
• Sepic Area

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• Sepik_Coast_exchange  ^history
• Koha_(custom)  ^history
• Moka_exchange  ^history

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• History of "Gift economy"

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