Apostle

The Apostles share a meal with Jesus during the Last Supper. Each Apostle is considered to be blessed and consequently is represented with a halo. Only Judas, the betrayer, is depicted without a halo. Painting by Simon Ushakov.

In Christianity, an Apostle (Greek: Ἀπόστολος apostolos: meaning "sent forth"), designates an individual comissioned by God to spread the "Good News" of the Christian message to the world. Normally, the term refers to one of the Twelve Apostles, listed in the New Testament, who were chosen by Jesus to heal the sick, drive out demons, and to raise the dead (Mark 6:7-13, cf. Matthew 10:5-42, Luke 9:1-6). Later in the Gospel narratives the Twelve Apostles were described as having been commissioned to preach the Gospel to the world.

The biblical lists of Apostles have some variations (see below) and a few figures are disputed as Apsotels such as Paul and Mary. In Christainity, the status of the Apostles was quite high, and many Churches still base their authority on the idea of Apostolic Succession, which claims that their authenticity derives from being founding by an Apostle who influences the sucession of the lineage. Additionally, many early Gospels (both Cannonized and Gnostic) were written in the names of Apostles (regardless of whether they were actually the true authors). Thus, at one time there were Gospels of Peter and Thomas, for example, even though these works were eventually rejected as part of the Bible.

Etymology

The word apostle comes from the Greek term ἀπόστολος (apostolos), which means one who is sent on a mission, a commissioned representative of a congregation, a messenger for God, a person who has the special task of founding and establishing churches. The word apostle has two meanings, the broader meaning of a messenger and the narrow meaning of an early Apostle restricted to those directly linked to Jesus Christ. For most of Church history the word apostle has lost its generalized meaning, except in some cases where for instance the word is translated into Latin by the word missio, from which we get the word missionary. However, the word as used in the original Greek did not carry the restricted meaning of only 12 apostles, but was a more generalized term meaning anyone who was an envoy or missionary. An apostle was a special type of messenger, generally restricted to the immediate followers of Jesus, or extended to some others like Paul or other early Christians active in proclaiming the Gospel.

For most of Church history, the word has been restricted to the 12 Apostles, some Christians are repulsed by those who call themselves apostles today, finding it to be bordering on blasphemy. So many churches use culturally more appropriate terms to avoid any controversy, such as missionary, envoy, delegate, messenger, church planter, church founder, etc. Some churches which use the word apostle frequently for modern men, recognize this dilemma and so call contemporary church leaders apostles with a small "a" reserving the capital "A" for the 12 Apostles. While it is not linguistically wrong for people to take the ancient Greek meaning and call themselves apostles today, it does miss the important fact that languages change through time, and calling oneself an apostle today is for many people implying that the speaker is making himself equal to the original 12 Apostles. This modern use has been a gross offense to many and a cause of much misunderstanding among Christian groups.

Although the Apostles are portrayed as having been Galilean Jews, and 10 of their names are Aramaic, the other 4 names are Greek, suggesting a more metropolitan background.

List of the Twelve Apostles

According to the Synoptic Gospels (Mark 3:13-19, Matthew 10:1-4, Luke 6:12-16), the Twelve chosen by Jesus near the beginning of his ministry as Apostles were:

1. Simon: called Peter (Grk. petros, petra; Aram. kēf; Engl. rock) by Jesus, also known as Simon bar Jonah and Simon bar Jochanan (Aram.) and earlier (Pauline Epistles were written first) Cephas (Aram.) by Paul of Tarsus and Simon Peter, a fisherman from Bethsaida "of Galilee" (John 1:44; cf. 12:21)
2. Andrew: brother of Peter, a Bethsaida fisherman and disciple of John the Baptist, and also the First-Called Apostle
3. James and
4. John: sons of Zebedee, called by Jesus Boanerges (an Aramaic name explained in Mk 3:17 as "Sons of Thunder")
5. Philip: from Bethsaida "of Galilee" (John 1:44, 12:21)
6. Bartholomew: in Aramaic "bar-Talemai?", "son of Talemai" or from Ptolemais, some identify with Nathanael
7. Thomas: also known as Judas Thomas Didymus - Aramaic T'oma' = twin, and Greek Didymous = twin
8. James: commonly identified with James the Less and sometimes with James, brother of Jesus
9. Matthew: the tax collector, some identify with Levi son of Alphaeus
10. Simon the Canaanite: called in Luke and Acts "Simon the Zealot", some identify with Simeon of Jerusalem
11. Judas Iscariot: the name Iscariot may refer to the Judaean towns of Kerioth or to the sicarii (Jewish nationalist insurrectionists), or to Issachar; He was replaced as an apostle in Acts by Matthias
12. The identity of the other apostle of the twelve, traditionally called St. Jude, varies between the Synoptic Gospels and also between ancient manuscripts of each gospel:

• Mark names him as Thaddaeus
• Some manuscripts of Matthew also identify him as Thaddeus
• Some manuscripts of Matthew name him as Lebbaeus
• Some manuscripts of Matthew name him as Judas the Zealot
• Luke names him as Judas, son of James or in the KJV: "Judas the brother of James" Luke 6:16|KJV}}

The Gospel of John, unlike the Synoptic Gospels, does not offer a formal list of apostles, but does refer to the Twelve in |John6:67}}, |John6:70}}, and John|6:71}}. The following nine apostles are identified by name:

• Peter
• Andrew (identified as Peter's brother)
• the sons of Zebedee (plural form implies at least two apostles)
• Philip
• Nathanael
• Thomas (also called Didymus (John11:16}}, |John20:24}}, |John21:2))
• Judas Iscariot
• Judas (not Iscariot) (John14:22)

The individual that the Gospel of John names as Nathanael is traditionally identified as the same person that the Synoptic Gospels call Bartholomew, and most would agree that the sons of Zebedee is likely to be a reference to James the Great and John, while Judas (not Iscariot) probably refers to Thaddaeus, also known as St. Jude. Noticeably missing from the Gospel of John are James, son of Alphaeus, Matthew, and Simon the Canaanite/Zealot. James the Just was, according to the Book of Acts, the leader of the Jerusalem church, and Matthew is noticeably the most Jewish of the Gospels, and it may be the case that the author of John deliberately left out these two figures for a motive opposed to Jewish Christianity. By the second century, the presence of two Simons in the list of the Synoptic Gospels allowed a case to be made for Simon Magus being the other of the Simons, and hence one of the twelve apostles; and it may have been for this reason that John left the other Simon out. The second Simon may also have been Simeon of Jerusalem, the second leader of the Jerusalem church, after James.

Recruitment

File:Duccio - Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew.JPG

Duccio's Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew

The three Synoptic Gospels record the circumstances in which some of the disciples were recruited, Matthew only describing the recruitment of Simon and Andrew and James and John. All three Synoptic Gospels state that these four were recruited fairly soon after Jesus returned from being tempted by the devil.

Simon and Andrew are, according to Matthew, the first two apostles to be appointed, and Matthew identifies them as fishermen. Mark does not identify Simon as also being called Peter until a long time after Simon is introduced in the narrative, but Matthew immediately makes the connection as soon as he is first mentioned. This has the effect of changing the later passage where Jesus names Simon as Peter from one where Jesus bestows the name onto Simon into one where Jesus merely starts using a long held nickname. Both Andrew and Peter are names of Greek origins, which France sees as a reflection on the multicultural nature of Galilee at this time, although evidence exists that Andrew was used by Jews as a name since at least 169 B.C.E. in the early period of Hellenic influence. (It is also notable that Peter is identified by Paul in his letters as Cephas, which is the Aramaic equivalent of the Greek Peter, both words meaning "rock"). Simon however is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Shimeon, a common Jewish name found referring to several other individuals in contemporary works such as Josephus as well as in the Old Testament.

Despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, the two are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets to do so. Traditionally the immediacy of their consent was viewed as an example of divine power, although this statement isn't made in the text itself. The alternative and much more ordinary solution is that Jesus was simply friends with the individuals beforehand, as implied by the Gospel of John, which states that Andrew and an unnamed other had been a disciple of John the Baptist, and started following Jesus as soon as Jesus had been baptized. As a carpenter (Mark 6:3), it is eminently plausible for Jesus to have been employed to build and repair fishing vessels, thus having many opportunities to interact with and befriend such fishermen.

Albright and Mann extrapolate from Simon and Andrew abandonment's of their nets, that Matthew is emphasizing the importance of renunciation by converting to Christianity, since fishing was profitable, though required large start-up costs, and abandoning everything would have been an important sacrifice. Regardless, Simon and Andrew's abandonment of what were effectively their most important worldly possessions was taken as a model by later Christian ascetics.

The synoptics go on to describe that much later, after Jesus had later begun his ministry, Jesus noticed, while teaching, a tax collector in his booth. The tax collector, Levi according to some Gospels, Matthew according to others, is asked by Jesus to become one of his disciples. Matthew/Levi is stated to have accepted and then invited Jesus for a meal with his friends. Tax collectors were seen as villains in Jewish society, and the Pharisees are described by the synoptics as asking Jesus why he is having a meal with such disreputable people. The reply Jesus gives to this is now well known: it is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick ... I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners (Mark 2:17).

They were also instructed to: "take nothing for their journey, except a mere staff — no bread, no bag, no money in their belt — but to wear sandals; and He added, "Do not put on two tunics." (NASB), and that if any town rejects them they ought to shake the dust off their feet as they leave, a gesture which some scholars think was meant as a contemptuous threat (Miller 26).

Fishers of men

Adriaen van de Venne's Fishers of Men. Oil on panel (1614)

The phrase fishers of men, used both in Mark and Matthew, is how Jesus is described the role of Apostle. This image has also been applied to Jesus himself and is laregly responsible for the adoption of the Ichthys symbol of Christianity, in early times. However, the fullness of what the phrase means is a matter of some serious debate, even among different Christian groups. It has a strong resonance amongst Evangelical groups, who view it as a metaphor for evangelism, and the most important such metaphor. It has an even deeper significance for Catholic Christians, who view it not only as a great evangelical call, but also as one of many scripture passages that support the "Primacy of Peter" as a great sign of unity among the Church (Christ's body), and the teaching that the popes throughout the ages are the actual successors of "The Chair (or office) of Peter", as Christ's prime earthly shepherd's for each generation, after His resurrection and ascension into heaven.

The institution by Jesus of "The Twelve" apostles is also seen by Catholics as a reference to the universality of the Church, that was prefigured (begun) in "The Twelve Tribes of Israel" in the Old Testament. Those successors of "The Twelve" apostles (the bishops), in union with the successors of Peter (the pope), are collectively called the "magisterium of the Church" - the official, authoritative teaching office established by Christ Himself. (For a more complete explanation of exactly what the magisterium officially teaches, see "The Catechism of the Catholic Church", or the more condensed, easier to read, but still authoritative "Compendium of the Catechism".)

The biblical references to "The Twelve" as "fishers of men", especially the image of Peter's sole role of pulling the net full of "153 large fish" onto the shore (where Christ was ironically already feasting! John 21) without tearing the net, when all the apostles present couldn't lift the net into the boat just moments earlier, portray and confirm, among faithful Catholics, the Church's teaching on "papal infallibility" - that Christ's "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic" Church is divinely guided and protected from teaching error, so that all who desire to truly, humbly know His truth (including His written, inspired word, the bible, but not exclusively, as in the Protestant belief in "Sola Scriptura", the bible alone) may have that opportunity.

Some scholars question whether the metaphor has a universal meaning at all, postulating that instead it is simply a phrase tailored to fit people who are fishers - that if Jesus had met a teacher he would have asked them to teach for him, and if he had met a soldier he would have asked him to do battle for him.

The exact methodology implied by the phrase is generally disputed, particularly by Evangelical groups. A similar reference to fishing occurs in the Book of Jeremiah (at 16:15), upon which this phrase may be based, and there it is placed in the context of actively hunting down sinners. Wallace argues that the common view of fishing with a line and hook and bringing each fish in individually is misplaced; Simon and Andrew would have used nets to fish and would have brought in large numbers of fish at once through grand acts. Wuellner presents an alternate view arguing that the disciples may have caught fish individually, and even by hand. Manek believes that to fully appreciate the metaphor one must understand how the sea was viewed at the time, arguing that throughout the Old Testament the sea is presented as unholy, and in stories such as that of Jonah, the depths of the sea are portrayed as synonymous with the underworld, hence in Manek's view the act of fishing is a metaphor for bringing people from the domain of sin and death to one of God. The water reference might also be linked to the idea of baptism, which towards the end of Matthew is explicitly linked to the disciples' mission.

The Apostle to the Gentiles

Paul of Tarsus

Paul, the "Apostle of the Gentiles", writing a letter

In his writings, Saul, later known as Paul, though not one of the Twelve, described himself as an apostle, one "born out of time" (e.g. Romans 1:1 and other letters), claimed he was appointed by the resurrected Jesus himself during his Road to Damascus vision; specifically he referred to himself as the Apostle to the Gentiles (Romans 11:13, Galatians 2:8). He also described some of his companions as apostles (Barnabas, Silas, Apollos, Andronicus and Junia) and even some of his opponents as super-apostles (2nd Corinthians 11:5 and 12:11). As the Catholic Encyclopedia states: "It is at once evident that in a Christian sense, everyone who had received a mission from God, or Christ, to man could be called 'Apostle'"; thus extending the original sense beyond the original Twelve. Since Paul claimed to have received the Gospel through a revelation of Jesus Christ (cf. Gal 1:12; Acts 9:3-19, 26-27, 22:6-21, 26:12-23) after the latter's death and resurrection, (rather than before like the Twelve) , he was often obliged to defend his apostolic authority (1st Corinthians 9:1 "Am I not an apostle?") and proclaim that he had seen and was anointed by Jesus while on the road to Damascus; but James, Peter and John in Jerusalem accepted his apostleship to the Gentiles (specifically those not circumcised) as of equal authority as Peter's to the Jews (specifically those circumcised) according to Paul in Galatians 2:7-9. "James, Peter and John, those reputed to be pillars ... agreed that we <Paul and Barnabas> should go to the Gentiles, and they to the Jews." (Galatians 2:9NIV) Paul, despite his self-designation as an Apostle, considered himself inferior to the other Apostles because he had persecuted Christ's followers (1 Corinthians 15:9).

Many historians maintain that Paul and Peter certainly disagreed on the extent of Paul's authority as an Apostle, with Peter maintaining Paul was not one of those chosen by Jesus, or by his chosen after his death. See also Pauline Christianity and Jewish Christians. Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church consider Paul an Apostle; they honor Paul and Peter together on June 29. Paul sometimes replaces Matthias in classical depictions of "The Twelve Apostles," although he has also been called the "Thirteenth Apostle" because he was not a member of the original Twelve (unlike the replacement Matthias) but is still considered an apostle.

Other apostles

Judas Iscariot

Judas having betrayed Christ and then in guilt committed suicide before Christ's resurrection (in one Gospel account), the apostles then numbered eleven. According to Acts 1:16–20, Peter states, "Judas, who was guide to those who took Jesus… For he was numbered with us, and received his portion in this ministry… For it is written in the book of Psalms, 'Let his habitation be made desolate, Let no one dwell therein,' and, 'Let another take his office.'"

Matthias

Between the ascension of Christ and the day of Pentecost, the remaining apostles elected a twelfth apostle by casting lots, a traditional Jewish way to determine the Will of God as a replacement of Judas. The lot fell upon Matthias, who then became the last of the Twelve Apostles in the New Testament.

This is one of several verses used by the Roman Catholic church to defend its teaching of "apostolic succession" - that each of "The Twelve" apostles had "an office", and a successor (the bishops). Also intimately connected to the Catholic teaching of apostolic succession is the papacy - the teaching that Peter (the "rock", Matt. 16:18-19) was the "prime apostle" - the first pope - and that after his death, successors to his "chair" (referring to his office as pope, "prime minister") would take over his role as universal shepherd of Christ's flock.

Beloved Disciple

A figure in the Gospel of John is only referred to as the disciple "whom Jesus loved."

It is not known exactly who the beloved disciple was, but many hold to be John himself.

Jesus Himself

The writer of the Hebrews (3:1) refers to Jesus as the "apostle and high priest of our professed faith" and of rank greater than that of Moses.

Barnabas

In Acts 14:14, Barnabas, the man who introduced Paul to the circle of disciples and the desposyni at Jerusalem, is referred to as an apostle.

James the Just

Brother or relative of Jesus (see James the Just for details), described by Paul as: "James, Cephas, and John, who were reputed to be pillars" (Gal 2:9 NIV) and described in Acts as leader of the Jerusalem Church, is not called an apostle in the Gospels, though Paul in Galatians 1:19 states that he is one and according to Orthodox Christian Tradition he is the first of the Seventy of Luke 10:1-20. Many believe that the Seventy were also called apostles. The Greek text doesn't use the noun form apostolos but uses the verb form apostello which means to send away and in combination with the rest of the text strongly implies that they are apostles.

Andronicus and Junia

In Romans 16:7 Paul states that Andronicus and Junia were "of note among the apostles", indicating that he considered these two as well-known to the apostles. Little evidence points to Junia being a woman, nonetheless, this is cited as an example of gender neutrality in the early church.

However, the tag "of note among the apostles" can also be considered to mean simply that the apostles considered them to be noteworthy Christians. This is the preferred interpretation of most conservative (those who treat the text as legitimate historical material) theologians, and renders the gender argument irrelevant. Following is a quote from Matthew Henry:

"They were of note among the apostles, not so much perhaps because they were persons of estate and quality in the world as because they were eminent for knowledge, and gifts, and graces, which made them famous among the apostles, who were competent judges of those things, and were endued with a spirit of discerning not only the sincerity, but the eminency, of Christians."

Constantine the Great

The Emperor Constantine the Great, sometimes considered founder of the Byzantine Empire, formally recognized Christianity in the Roman Empire in the Edict of Milan in 313. According to Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church: "Soon after his death, Eusebius set him above the greatest princes of all times; from the fifth century he began to be recognized in the East as a saint; and the Greek and Russian church to this day celebrates his memory under the extravagant title of "Isapostolos," the "Equal of the apostles." The Latin church, on the contrary, has never placed him among the saints, but has been content with naming him "the Great," in just and grateful remembrance of his services to the cause of Christianity and civilization. Comp the Acta Sact. ad 21 Maii, p. 13 sq. Niebuhr remarks: "When certain oriental writers call Constantine `equal to the Apostles,’ they do not know what they are saying; and to speak of him as a ’saint’ is a profanation of the word."

In the Orthodox Church, also saint prince Vladimir of Kiev and Cyrilland Methodius are called "equal to the Apostles".

Later Christianizing apostles

A number of successful pioneering missionaries are known as Apostles. In this sense, in the traditional list below, the apostle first brought Christianity (or Arianism in the case of Ulfilas and the Goths) to a land. Or it may apply to the truly influential Christianizer, such as Patrick's mission to Ireland, where a few struggling Christian communities did already exist. The reader will soon think of more of the culture heroes.

• Apostle to the Abyssinians: Saint Frumentius
• Apostle to the Caucasian Albania: Saint Yelisey came from Jerusalem in I century AD
• Apostle of the Alleghanies: Demetrius Augustine Gallitzin, 1770–1840
• Apostle of Andalusia: Juan de Avila, 1500–1569
• Apostle of the Ardennes: Saint Hubert, 656–727
• Apostle to the Armenians: Saint Gregory the Illuminator, 256–331
• Apostle to Brazil: José de Anchieta, 1533–1597
• Apostle to Karantania: Bishop Virgilius of Salzburg (745–84)
• Apostle to the Cherokees: Cephas Washburn
• Apostle to China: Hudson Taylor
• Apostle to the English: Saint Augustine, died 604
• Apostle to the Franks: Saint Denis (3rd century)
• Apostle to the Franks: Saint Remigius, ca 437–533
• Apostle to the Frisians: Saint Willibrord, 657–738
• Apostle to the Gauls: Saint Irenaeus, 130–200
• Apostle to the Gauls: Saint Martin of Tours, 338–401
• Apostle to the Georgians: Saint Nino, 320s
• Apostle to the Gentiles: Saint Paul
• Apostle to the Germans: Saint Boniface, 680–755
• Apostle to the Goths: Bishop Ulfilas
• Apostle to Hungary: Saint Anastasius, 954–1044
• Apostle to India: Saint Thomas;died around 72 C.E.
• Apostle to India: Saint Francis Xavier; 1506–1552
• Apostle to India (Protestant): William Carey
• Apostle to the "Indians" (Amerindians): John Eliot, 1604–1690
• Apostle to the Indies (West): Bartolomé de las Casas, 1474–1566
• Apostle to the Indies (East): Saint Francis Xavier, 1506–1552
• Apostle to Ireland: Saint Patrick, 373–463
• Apostle to the Iroquois, Francois Piquet, 1708–1781
• Apostle to Noricum: Saint Severinus
• Apostle to the North: Saint Ansgar, 801–864
• Apostle to the Parthians: Saint Thomas
• Apostle of the Permians: Saint Stephen of Perm, 1340–1396
• Apostle of Peru: Alonzo de Barcena, 1528–1598
• Apostle to the Picts: Saint Ninian, 5th century
• Apostle to the Polish: Saint Adalbert
• Apostle to the Pomeranians: Saint Otto of Bamberg, 1060–1139
• Apostle to the Scots: Saint Columba, 521–597
• Apostle to the Slavs: Saint Cyril, c 820–869
• Apostle to the Slavs: Saint Methodius
• Apostle of Spains: James the Great (d. 44)
• Apostle of Mercy: Saint Faustina Kowalska, 1905–1938

Some Eastern Orthodox saints are given the title specific to the Eastern rites "equal-to-the-apostles", see isapostolos Cosmas of Aetolia. The myrrh-bearing women, who went to anoint Christ's body and first learned of his resurrection, are sometimes called the "apostles to the apostles" because they were sent by Jesus to tell the apostles of his resurrection.

Twelve Apostles of Christ in the Book of Mormon

According to the Book of Mormon, shortly after his resurrection, Jesus visited a group of people living in the Americas, and chose twelve men to support his church in that region. These men were not called "apostles" in the text, but rather "disciples," as there were already apostles in Jerusalem. Although separated geographically from the Apostles, these New World disciples were nonetheless considered subordinate to the Old World apostles (at least in a spiritual sense, if not, for practical reasons, administratively, see 1 Nephi, 12:8-10). The disciples in the Book of Mormon had the responsibility of caring for the Church in the Americas. Their names, according to 3 Nephi, chapter 19 verse 4, were Nephi, Timothy, Jonas, Mathoni, Mathonihah, Kumen, Kumenonhi, Jeremiah, Shemnon, Jonas, Zedekiah, and Isaiah. According to the book, nine of the twelve died of old age, with three (an unidentified subset of the twelve, who would become to be known as "the Three Nephites") remained on the Earth, as did John the Revelator, without "tasting death," to await the Second Coming of Jesus. That is, they were translated from mortal to a state of immortality. However, when Jesus comes again, they will be changed yet again, becoming immortal without dying.

Apostolic succession and Apostles today

In the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, bishops are seen as the successors to the Apostles.

Many Charismatic churches consider apostleship to be a gift of the Holy Spirit still given today (based on 1 Corinthians 12:28, and Ephesians 4:11). The gift is associated with church leadership, governing, delegation and church planting.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon) believes that the authority of the original twelve apostles is a distinguishing characteristic of the true church established by Jesus. For this reason, it ordains Apostles as members of its Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, second in authority to the church's First Presidency which is led by the senior Apostle similar to Peter leading the twelve disciples.

The New Apostolic Church believes also in the current existence of modern day apostles. They believe in the return of the apostles in the 1830s in England by prophecies. From among the renewal movements in the 1800's see: Catholic Apostolic Church; from which the New Apostolic Church split off. Other examples include the United Apostolic Church.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Navarre RSV Holy Bible. Four Courts Press, Dublin, Ireland, 1999.
• Albright, W.F. and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
• Carson, D.A. "The Limits of Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation - and other Limits Too." The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World. edited by Glen G Scorgie, Mark L. Strauss, Steven M. Voth.
• Carter, Warren. "Matthew 4:18-22 and Matthean Discipleship: An Audience-Oriented Perspective." Catholic Bible Quarterly. Vol. 59. No. 1. 1997.
• Clarke, Howard W. The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
• "Fisher's of Men." A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. David Lyle Jeffrey, general editor. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1992.
• France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
• Manek, Jindrich. "Fishers of Men." Novum Testamentum. 1958 pg. 138
• Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
• Wuellner, Wilhelm H. The Meaning of "Fishers of Men". Westminster Press, 1967.

External links

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostles
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Apostle and Apostleship
• Apostles.com: Biographies of Christ's Apostles
• Fishing in first century Judea
• The fishing economy in Galilee
• OrthodoxWiki: Apostle
• Apostle in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

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