Difference between revisions of "Vinegar" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 17:55, 11 June 2007

Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs; here, it is flavored with oregano.

Vinegar is a sour liquid produced from the fermentation of diluted alcohol products to yield the organic compound acetic acid, its key ingredient. Used in many cultures as a condiment and preservative, vinegar can be made from a variety of liquids, including malted barley, rice, and cider; however, as its name suggests, it was probably first made from wine. (The word vinegar derives from the Old French vinaigre, meaning "sour wine.")

Crucially, vinegar must be derived from a sugar-containing source in a two-step process. In the first stage, the sugars are broken down in the absence of oxygen (i.e., fermented) by yeast to produce alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide. In the second stage, the addition of oxygen enables bacteria to produce amino acid, water, and other compounds. Thus, the British alternative to malt vinegar, called non-brewed condiment, does not qualify as vinegar because its acetic acid component is obtained directly by distilling wood chips, bypassing the first, ethanol-producing stage.

Though commercial production of vinegar continues to involve the natural action of bacteria, industrial production accelerates the process, primarily through mechanisms that increase the supply of oxygen (necessary for the conversion of ethanol into acetic acid) to the bacteria. High-quality vinegars, such as balsamic vinegars prepared in Modena, Italy, continue to be produced via a slow process of fermentation, typically aging in wood barrels for a period of 3-12 years.

Vinegar is as old as civilization itself: traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 B.C.E., and Babylonian scrolls recording the use of vinegar date even earlier, to around 5000 B.C.E. Known as “poor man’s wine” (posca) in Biblical times, vinegar was often carried by Roman legionnaires; four Biblical passages note that Roman soldiers offered vinegar to Christ at the Crucifixion.

Today, vinegar remains an important element in European, Asian, and other traditional cuisines of the world; it is often used in pickling and in the creation of marinades, dressings, and other sauces. It also functions as a folk remedy in many cultures and as a natural household cleaning product and herbicide.

Components and properties

A three-dimensional model of acetic acid, the key component of vinegar.

Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH₃COOH. It is one of the simplest carboxylic acids. Though carboxylic acids are weak acids, they are stronger than the alcohols (-OH) from which they are derived, in part as a result of the electron-withdrawing power of their second oxygen atom. (The greater number of oxygen atoms attached, the stronger the acid.)

The acetic acid concentration in vinegar typically ranges from 4 to 8 percent by volume for table vinegar, though higher concentrations are found in vinegars used for pickling (up to 18%). Natural vinegars also contain smaller amounts of tartaric acid, citric acid, and other acids.

Acetic acid gives vinegar its characteristic sour taste and pungent smell. It also accounts for vinegar’s chemical properties. The pH of vinegar is typically in the range of 2 to 3.5, depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Commercially available vinegar usually has a pH of about 2.4. Vinegar has a density of approximately 0.96 g/mL, depending on the acidity of the vinegar.

Commercial production

Acetic acid is produced both synthetically and by bacterial fermentation. Today, the biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for vinegar production, as many of the world food purity laws stipulate that vinegar used in foods must be of biological origin.

For most of human history, acetic acid has been made from fermented liquids by acetic acid bacteria of the genus Acetobacter. However, their function was not understood until Louis Pasteur discussed the microbiological basis of vinegar in his 1858 work Etudes sur le Vinaigre (which was updated in 1864 as Memoirs sur la Fermentation Acetic).

Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs. Commonly used feeds include apple cider, wine, and fermented grain, malt, rice, or potato mashes. The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria can be summarized as follows:

C₂H₅OH + O₂ → CH₃COOH + H₂O

A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with acetobacter and kept in a warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months. Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of oxygen to the bacteria.

Barrels of balsamic vinegar aging in a maker's attic, an example of the slow method of fermentation.

The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably resulted from errors in the winemaking process. If must is fermented at an overly high temperature, acetobacter will overwhelm the yeast naturally occurring on the grapes. As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine.

According to the Orleans process (named after a town in France where high-quality vinegar is still produced today), vinegar is made in fifty-gallon barrels packed with an oxygenating substance, such as chips of wood. When it reaches the desired degree of acidity, the vinegar is transferred to an aging barrel and left to mature to a mellow smoothness.

One of the first modern commercial processes was the fast method or German method, first practiced in Germany in 1823. In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings, corncobs, or charcoal. The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh air is supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced convection. The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks.

Most vinegar today is made in submerged tank culture, first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 2–3 days.

The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime known as the mother of vinegar, a mixture of acetic acid bacteria and soluble cellulose. (In industrial fermentation, a madmade mother of vinegar called Acetozym is added as a nutrient.) As with wine, the aging process also generates a complexity and depth of flavor lacking in newly brewed vinegar, which tends to be sharp and harsh in taste.

Types of vinegar

Vinegar can be made from any carbohydrate-containing liquid capable of being converted into alcohol, hence, the diversity of materials:

Apple cider vinegar

Apple cider vinegar, otherwise known simply as cider vinegar, is made from cider or apple must, and is often sold unfiltered, with a brownish-yellow color.

Balsamic vinegar

Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic vinegar manufactured from the concentrated must of white grapes (typically of the Trebbiano variety), which is then fermented via a slow aging process that concentrates the flavors. The flavor intensifies over decades, as the vinegar is kept in fine wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. Balsamic has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tartness, making it very mellow in flavor. Originally an artisanal product available only to the Italian upper classes, balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century.

The finest and most traditional balsamic vinegar, manufactured in Modena, Italy, is very labor-intensive to produce; while it ages and gradually evaporates, the liquid is transferred to successively smaller casks made of different woods, absorbing the flavour characteristics of each wood and becoming more concentrated with each transfer. Oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, ash, and acacia are the most commonly used woods.[1] Some older balsamic vinegar is added to the must to create a more complex and intricate taste, and to enhance acidity. At the end of the process, the vinegar is taken from the smallest cask: each cask is filled with the contents of the preceding (larger) cask and the cooked must is added to the largest cask.

The commercial balsamic sold in supermarkets is typically made with red wine vinegar or concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar which is laced with caramel and sugar. However produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product.

Malt vinegar

Malt vinegar is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. An ale is then brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged. Malt vinegar is typically light brown in color. It is especially popular as a condiment for the traditional pub fare of fish and chips in England.

Rice vinegars

Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in white (actually light yellow), red, and black variants. The Japanese prefer a light and more delicate rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar is traditionally colored with red yeast rice, although some Chinese brands use artificial food coloring instead.[2]. Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, although it is also produced in Japan.

Because rice vinegar typically has a bland flavor, some varieties are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.

Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, or sorghum, or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor.[3] A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is also produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu.

White vinegar

White vinegar, which is actually transparent in appearance, is an example of a distilled vinegar. In the distilling process, the vinegar is first turned into steam using high heat, then allowed to condense back into liquid form. This process destroys many of the nutrients present in the undistilled vinegar, resulting in a vinegar that is almost pure acetic acid. Most commercial white vinegars are 5% acetic acid solutions, and are made from grain (often maize) and water. White vinegar is used for culinary as well as cleaning purposes; it is a good choice for pickling because it will not alter the color of the vegetable being preserved.

Wine vinegars

Wine vinegar, made from red or white wine, is the most commonly used vinegar in the cuisines of the Mediterranean countries and Central Europe. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a less acidity than that of white or cider vinegars. There are also wine vinegars made from individual grape varieties, such as Champagne, Sherry, or pinot grigio.

Other types of vinegar

Coconut vinegar, made from the sap, or "toddy," of the coconut palm, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (particularly in the Philippines, which is a major producer), as well as in some cuisines of India. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.
Cane vinegar, made from sugar cane juice, is most popular in the Ilocos Region of the northern Philippines (where it is called sukang iloko), although it is also produced in France and the United States. It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Contrary to expectation, it is not sweeter than other vinegars, containing no residual sugar. In the Philippines, it is often labeled as sukang maasim, although this is simply a generic term meaning "sour vinegar."
Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, black currant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a growing market for high price vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). Persimmon vinegar is popular in South Korea, and jujube vinegar is produced in China.
Raisin and date vinegars are used in cuisines of the Middle East.
Vinegar made from honey is rare, though commercially available honey vinegars are produced in Italy and France.
Kombucha vinegar is made from kombucha, a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of nutrients and populate the vinegar with symbiotic bacteria that promote a healthy digestive tract. Kombucha vinegar is primarily used to make a vinaigrette and flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.

Flavored vinegars

Popular fruit-flavored vinegars include those infused with whole raspberries, blueberries, or figs (or else from flavorings derived from these fruits). Some of the more exotic fruit-flavored vinegars include blood orange and pear.

Herb vinegars are flavored with herbs, most commonly Mediterranean herbs such as thyme or oregano. Such vinegars can be prepared at home by adding sprigs of fresh or dried herbs to store-bought vinegar; generally a light-colored, mild-tasting vinegar such as that made from white wine is used for this purpose.

Sweetened vinegar is made from rice wine, sugar and herbs including ginger, cloves and other spices.

Spiced vinegar, from the Philippines (labeled as spiced sukang maasim), is flavored with chili peppers, onions, and garlic.

Uses

Culinary uses

Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation, particularly in pickling processes, vinaigrettes, and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in condiments such as mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is an essential component of chutneys, marinades, and other sauces.

Uses in alternative medicine

Various folk remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia in cultures worldwide. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (ca. 460 B.C.E. – ca. 370 B.C.E.), for example, prescribed vinegar for many ailments, from skin rash to ear infection. And the therapeutic use of vinegar for the treatment of headaches is recorded in the second verse of the nursery rhyme “Jack and Jill”: “Went to bed and bound his head / With vinegar and brown paper.” Other – include:

Treatment for jellyfish stings Applying vinegar to jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts.
Apple cider vinegar is a much more useful astringent than ice and will reduce inflammation, bruising and swelling in approximately a third of the time that ice will take.
Claims that cider vinegar can be used as a beauty aid also persist, it is a powerful remedy for Acne skin conditions when diluted 50:50 with water and used as a toner. The British Romantic poet Lord Byron, for example, would consume vast quantities of white vinegar in an attempt to keep his complexion pale.
Cider vinegar is also claimed to be a solution to dandruff, in that the acid in the vinegar kills the fungus Malassezia furfur (formerly known as Pityrosporum ovale) and restores the chemical balance of the skin.
Vinegar is also used to cure mild to moderate sunburn when soaked on the area with a towel or in a bath.
Cider vinegar is a natural remedy for yeast infections, when diluted with water and used as a douche.

Though few of the remedies above have been verifiable using controlled medical trials, clinical trials have revealed that small amounts of vinegar (approx. 20 mls or two tablespoons of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, reduce the glycemic index of carbohydrate-rich foods in both healthy and diabetic recipients.^[1]^[2]^[3] This has also been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.^[4]^[5]

Multiple trials indicate that taking vinegar with food increases satiety (the feeling of fullness) and so reduces the amount of food consumed.^[6]^[7] Even a single application of vinegar can lead to reduced food intake for a whole day.^[8]

Use as a household cleaner

White vinegar, diluted with water, is often used as a natural household cleaning agent. It is especially useful for cleaning mineral deposits on glass and other smooth surfaces. Care should be taken to not allow contact with eyes (if such contact occurs, the eyes should be flushed immediately and persistently with warm water) or skin (the affected skin area should be washed thoroughly after use).

Agricultural and horticultural uses

Vinegar can be used as a herbicide as shown by scientific trials reported by the US Dept of Agriculture in 2002.^[9] Vinegar made from natural products classifies as organic and so there is interest in it being used on farms/orchards/gardens certified as organic. The trials showed that a number of common weeds could be effectively controlled using vinegar with 5% to 20% acetic acid. Lower concentrations are less effective. A crop of corn can be sprayed with vinegar at 20% strength without causing harm to that crop, and so it can be used to help keep a corn crop clear of weeds. Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems and so vinegar will kill top growth but perennial plants will reshoot.^[10]

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

↑ Liljeberg H, Bjorck I. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;64:886-893
↑ Leeman M, Ostman E, Bjorck I. Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycemic and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1266-1271
↑ Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:281-282
↑ Sugiyama M, Tang AC, Wakaki Y, Koyama W. Glycemic index of single and mixed meal foods among common Japanese foods with white rice as a reference food. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:743-752
↑ Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:96-100
↑ Ostman E, Granfeldt Y, Persson L, Bjorck I. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59,983-988
↑ [High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection?Roberts SB. High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity Is there a connection? Nutr Rev. 2000;58:163-169]
↑ Carb and weight control through acetic acid?
↑ Spray Weeds With Vinegar?
↑ Vinegar as herbicide

Antol, M.N. 2000. The Incredible Secrets of Vinegar. New York: Avery Publishing Group.
Atkins, P., and L. Jones. 2005. Chemical Principles, 3rd edition. New York: W. H. Freeman.

External links

[4] - Apple Cider Vinegar Cure Research- Page 2
[5] - Apple Cider Vinegar Cure Research - Page 1
The Vinegar Institute - Promotional website from members of the vinegar industry
Acetic Acid
Vinegar: Medicinal Uses and Antiglycemic Effect - Medscape.com article by Carol S. Johnston, PhD, RD and Cindy A. Gaas, BS.
Vinegar Connoisseurs International
Information about production and uses
Weird Facts - 50 Uses for Vinegar
Apple Vinegar- Therapeutical properties.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

Vinegar ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Vinegar"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

[1] Liljeberg H, Bjorck I. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;64:886-893

[2] Leeman M, Ostman E, Bjorck I. Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycemic and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1266-1271

[3] Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:281-282

[4] Sugiyama M, Tang AC, Wakaki Y, Koyama W. Glycemic index of single and mixed meal foods among common Japanese foods with white rice as a reference food. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:743-752

[5] Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:96-100

[6] Ostman E, Granfeldt Y, Persson L, Bjorck I. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59,983-988

[7] [High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection?Roberts SB. High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity Is there a connection? Nutr Rev. 2000;58:163-169]

[8] Carb and weight control through acetic acid?

[9] Spray Weeds With Vinegar?

[10] Vinegar as herbicide

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Claimed}}
-[[Image:Vinegar infused with oregano.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vinegar is sometimes [[infused]] with spices or herbs—as here, with [[oregano]].]]
+[[Image:Vinegar infused with oregano.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Vinegar is sometimes [[infused]] with spices or herbs; here, it is flavored with [[oregano]].]]
-'''Vinegar''' is a liquid produced from the fermentation of [[ethanol]] in a process that yields its key ingredient, [[acetic acid]].
-Variety of materials; first made from wine
+'''Vinegar''' is a [[sour]] liquid produced from the [[fermentation]] of diluted [[alcohol]] products to yield the organic compound [[acetic acid]], its key ingredient. Used in many cultures as a [[condiment]] and [[preservative]], vinegar can be made from a variety of liquids, including [[malt]]ed [[barley]], [[rice]], and [[cider]]; however, as its name suggests, it was probably first made from [[wine]]. (The word ''vinegar'' derives from the [[Old French]] ''vinaigre'', meaning "sour wine.")
-Process/reactions: sugars → ethanol → acetic acid
+Crucially, vinegar must be derived from a [[sugar]]-containing source in a two-step process. In the first stage, the sugars are broken down in the absence of oxygen (i.e., fermented) by [[yeast]] to produce alcohol ([[ethanol]]) and carbon dioxide. In the second stage, the addition of [[oxygen]] enables [[bacteria]] to produce [[amino acid]], water, and other compounds. Thus, the British alternative to malt vinegar, called ''non-brewed condiment'', does not qualify as vinegar because its acetic acid component is obtained directly by distilling wood chips, bypassing the first, [[ethanol]]-producing stage.
-[[Louis Pasteur]] showed in 1864 that vinegar results from a natural [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]] process. (more on acetobacter’s function)
+Though commercial production of vinegar continues to involve the natural action of bacteria, industrial production accelerates the process, primarily through mechanisms that increase the supply of oxygen (necessary for the conversion of ethanol into acetic acid) to the bacteria. High-quality vinegars, such as balsamic vinegars prepared in [[Modena]], [[Italy]], continue to be produced via a slow process of fermentation, typically aging in wood barrels for a period of 3-12 years.
-Vinegar as old as civ itself; Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 [[BC]].
+Vinegar is as old as civilization itself: traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 B.C.E., and Babylonian scrolls recording the use of vinegar date even earlier, to around 5000 B.C.E. Known as “poor man’s wine” (''posca'') in Biblical times, vinegar was often carried by Roman legionnaires; four Biblical passages note that Roman soldiers offered vinegar to Christ at the Crucifixion.
-relation to human civ and culture: OFr vinaigre The word "vinegar" derives from the [[Old French]] ''vinaigre'', meaning "sour wine."
-It has been used since ancient times, and is an important element in [[Western world|Western]] and [[European cuisine|European]], [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], and other traditional cuisines of the world.
+Today, vinegar remains an important element in [[European cuisine|European]], [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], and other traditional cuisines of the world; it is often used in pickling and in the creation of marinades, dressings, and other sauces. It also functions as a folk remedy in many cultures and as a natural household cleaning product and herbicide.
 ==Components and properties==
-[[Image:Acetic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|right|100px|Acetic acid]]
+[[Image:Acetic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|right|100px|A three-dimensional model of acetic acid, the key component of vinegar.]]
-'''Acetic acid''', also known as '''ethanoic acid''', is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] best recognized for giving [[vinegar]] its sour taste and pungent smell. It is one of the simplest [[carboxylic acid]]s (the second-simplest, after [[formic acid]]).
+Acetic acid, also known as ''ethanoic acid'', is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] with the formula CH<sub>3</sub>COOH. It is one of the simplest [[carboxylic acid]]s. Though carboxylic acids are weak acids, they are stronger than the alcohols (-OH) from which they are derived, in part as a result of the electron-withdrawing power of their second oxygen atom. (The greater number of oxygen atoms attached, the stronger the acid.)
-CH<sub>3</sub>COOH
+The acetic acid concentration in vinegar typically ranges from 4 to 8 percent by volume for table vinegar, though higher concentrations are found in vinegars used for pickling (up to 18%). Natural vinegars also contain smaller amounts of [[tartaric acid]], [[citric acid]], and other acids.
-The acetic acid concentration ranges typically from 4 to 8 percent by volume for table vinegar <ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgfod/cpg525-825.html FDA: Sec. 525.825 Vinegar, Definitions - Adulteration with Vinegar Eels (CPG 7109.22)]</ref> (typically 5%) and higher concentrations for pickling (up to 18%) although in some countries the minimum strength may be less. Natural vinegars also contain smaller amounts of [[tartaric acid]], [[citric acid]], and other acids.
+Acetic acid gives vinegar its characteristic sour taste and pungent smell. It also accounts for vinegar’s chemical properties. The [[pH]] of vinegar is typically in the range of 2 to 3.5, depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Commercially available vinegar usually has a pH of about 2.4. Vinegar has a density of approximately 0.96 [[g]]/[[milliliters|mL]], depending on the acidity of the vinegar.
-The greater number of oxygen attached, the stronger the acid; Carboxylic acids are weak acids, but stronger than alcohols, in part as a result of the electron-withdrawing power of their second oxygen atom.
-Acetic acid gives sour taste and pungent smell; in concentrated form, corrosive and its vapor irritates the eyes
-The [[pH]] of vinegar is typically in the range of 2 to 3.5, depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Commercially available vinegar usually has a pH of about 2.4{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
-Vinegar has a density of approximately 0.96 [[g]]/[[milliliters|mL]]. The density level depends on the acidity of the vinegar.
 ==Commercial production==
-Acetic acid is produced both synthetically and by bacterial [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]].  Today, the biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for vinegar production, as many of the world food purity laws stipulate that vinegar used in foods must be of biological origin.
+Acetic acid is produced both synthetically and by bacterial fermentation. Today, the biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for vinegar production, as many of the world food purity laws stipulate that vinegar used in foods must be of biological origin.
-'''Acetic acid bacteria''' are [[bacterium|bacteria]] that derive their energy from the [[oxidation]] of [[ethanol]] to [[acetic acid]] during [[Cellular respiration|respiration]]. They are [[Gram-negative]], [[Obligate aerobe|aerobic]], rod-shaped [[bacterium|bacteria]].
+For most of human history, acetic acid has been made from fermented liquids by [[acetic acid bacteria]] of the genus ''[[Acetobacter]]''. However, their function was not understood until [[Louis Pasteur]] discussed the microbiological basis of vinegar in his 1858 work ''Etudes sur le Vinaigre'' (which was updated in 1864 as ''Memoirs sur la Fermentation Acetic'').
-The acetic acid bacteria are found in nature where ethanol is being formed as a result of [[yeast]] [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of [[sugar]]s and plant [[carbohydrate]]s.  They can be isolated from the [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] of flowers and from damaged fruit. Other good sources are fresh apple [[cider]] and [[pasteurization|unpasteurized]] [[beer]] which has not been filter sterilized. In these liquids the acetic acid bacteria grow as
+Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs.  Commonly used feeds include [[Cider|apple cider]], [[wine]], and fermented [[cereal|grain]], [[malt]], [[rice]], or [[potato]] mashes.  The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria can be summarized as follows:
-a surface film due to their [[aerobe|aerobic]] nature and active motility. [[Vinegar]] is produced when acetic acid bacteria act on [[alcoholic beverage]]s such as [[wine]].
-Some genera, such as ''[[Acetobacter]]'', can eventually oxidize acetic acid to [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]] using [[Krebs cycle]] [[enzyme]]s. Other genera, such as ''[[Gluconobacter]]'', doesn't further oxidize acetic acid, as they do not have a full set of Krebs cycle enzymes.
+: [[ethanol|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH]] + [[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] → CH<sub>3</sub>COOH + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
-'''''Acetobacter''''' is a genus of [[acetic acid bacteria]] characterized by the ability to convert alcohol ([[ethanol]]) to [[acetic acid]] in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other [[bacterium|bacteria]] capable of forming acetic acid under various conditions; but all of the ''Acetobacter'' are known by this characteristic ability.
-''Acetobacter'' are of particular importance commercially, because:
-*they are used in the production of [[vinegar]] (intentionally converting the ethanol in the [[wine]] to acetic acid)
-*they can destroy wine which it infects by producing excessive amounts of acetic acid or [[ethyl acetate]], both of which can render the wine unpalatable.
-Acetic acid is produced and [[Excretion|excreted]] by certain [[Bacterium|bacteria]], notably the ''[[Acetobacter]]'' genus and ''[[Clostridium acetobutylicum]]''. These bacteria are found universally in [[food]]stuffs, [[water]], and [[soil]], and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and some other foods spoil.
+A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with ''acetobacter'' and kept in a warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months.  Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of [[oxygen]] to the bacteria.
-For most of human history, acetic acid, in the form of vinegar, has been made by bacteria of the genus ''[[Acetobacter]]''.  Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs.  Commonly used feeds include [[Cider|apple cider]], [[wine]], and fermented [[cereal|grain]], [[malt]], [[rice]], or [[potato]] mashes.  The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria is
+[[image:barrels_vinegar.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Barrels of balsamic vinegar aging in a maker's attic, an example of the slow method of fermentation.]]
-: [[ethanol|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH]] + [[oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]] → CH<sub>3</sub>COOH + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
+The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably resulted from errors in the [[winemaking]] process. If [[must]] is fermented at an overly high temperature, ''acetobacter'' will overwhelm the yeast naturally occurring on the [[grapes]]. As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine.
-A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with ''Acetobacter'' and kept in a warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months.  Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of [[oxygen]] to the bacteria.
+According to the ''Orleans process'' (named after a town in France where high-quality vinegar is still produced today), vinegar is made in fifty-gallon barrels packed with an oxygenating substance, such as chips of wood. When it reaches the desired degree of acidity, the vinegar is transferred to an aging barrel and left to mature to a mellow smoothness.
-The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably followed errors in the [[winemaking]] process. If [[must]] is fermented at too high a temperature, acetobacter will overwhelm the [[yeast]] naturally occurring on the [[grapes]]. As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine. This method was slow, however, and not always successful, as the vintners did not understand the process.
+One of the first modern commercial processes was the ''fast method'' or ''German method'', first practiced in Germany in 1823.  In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings, corncobs, or [[charcoal]].  The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] is supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced [[convection]].  The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks.
-One of the first modern commercial processes was the "fast method" or "German method", first practised in Germany in 1823.  In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings or [[charcoal]].  The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced [[convection]].  The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks.
 Most vinegar today is made in submerged tank [[Microbiological culture|culture]], first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution.  Using this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 2–3 days.
-; Anaerobic fermentation
+The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime known as the [[mother of vinegar]], a mixture of acetic acid bacteria and soluble [[cellulose]]. (In industrial fermentation, a madmade mother of vinegar called Acetozym is added as a nutrient.) As with wine, the aging process also generates a complexity and depth of flavor lacking in newly brewed vinegar, which tends to be sharp and harsh in taste.
-Some species of [[anaerobic bacteria]], including several members of the genus ''[[Clostridium]]'', can convert sugars to acetic acid directly, without using ethanol as an intermediate.  The overall chemical reaction conducted by these bacteria may be represented as:
-: [[glucose|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>]] → 3 CH<sub>3</sub>COOH
-More interestingly from the point of view of an industrial chemist, many of these [[Acetogen|acetogenic bacteria]] can produce acetic acid from one-carbon compounds, including [[methanol]], [[carbon monoxide]], or a mixture of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[hydrogen]]:
-: 2 [[carbon dioxide|CO<sub>2</sub>]] + 4 [[hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]] → CH<sub>3</sub>COOH + 2 [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
-This ability of ''Clostridium'' to utilise sugars directly, or to  produce acetic acid from less costly inputs, means that these bacteria could potentially produce acetic acid more efficiently than ethanol-oxidisers like ''Acetobacter''.  However, ''Clostridium'' bacteria are less acid-tolerant than ''Acetobacter''. Even the most acid-tolerant ''Clostridium'' strains can produce vinegar of only a few per cent acetic acid, compared to some ''Acetobacter'' strains that can produce vinegar of up to 20% acetic acid.  At present, it remains more cost-effective to produce vinegar using ''Acetobacter'' than to produce it using ''Clostridium'' and then concentrating it.  As a result, although acetogenic bacteria have been known since 1940, their industrial use remains confined to a few niche applications.
-Vinegar is made from the [[oxidation]] of [[ethanol]] in [[wine]], [[cider]], [[beer]], fermented [[fruit juice]], or nearly any other liquid containing alcohol.
-Commercial vinegar is produced either by fast or slow [[fermentation]] processes. Slow methods are generally used with traditional vinegars and fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of weeks or months. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of [[acetic acid bacteria]] and soluble [[cellulose]], known as the [[mother of vinegar]] (confusing construction because it’s the bacteria that are the mother of vinegar). Fast methods add mother of vinegar (i.e. bacterial culture) to the source liquid and then add air using a [[venturi pump]]<!--shouldn't "Venturi" be capitalized?—> system or a [[turbine]] to promote oxygenization to give the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in a period ranging between 20 hours and three days.
-Need something on the importance of aeration (contact with oxygen). Curious about what the advantages are of slow fermentation then; why does it yield a richer result?
-[[Vinegar eels]] (''Turbatrix aceti''), a form of [[nematode]], may occur in some forms of vinegar. These feed on the mother and occur in naturally fermenting vinegar.<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgfod/cpg525-825.html FDA: Sec. 525.825 Vinegar, Definitions - Adulteration with Vinegar Eels (CPG 7109.22)]</ref> Most manufacturers [[wiktionary:filter|filter]] and [[pasteurize]] their product before bottling to eliminate any potential adulteration.
 ==Types of vinegar==
-can be made from any carbohydrate-containing liquid capable of being converted into alcohol, hence, the diversity of materials
+Vinegar can be made from any carbohydrate-containing liquid capable of being converted into alcohol, hence, the diversity of materials:
-===White vinegar===
-So-called "white vinegar" (actually transparent in appearance) can be made by oxidizing a [[Distilled beverage|distilled alcohol]]. Alternatively, it may be nothing more than a solution of [[acetic acid]] in water.  Most commercial white vinegars are 5% acetic acid solutions.  They are made from [[Cereal|grain]] (often [[maize]]) and water. White vinegar is used for culinary as well as cleaning purposes.
-===Malt vinegar===
-Malt vinegar is made by [[malt]]ing [[barley]], causing the [[starch]] in the grain to turn to [[maltose]]. An [[ale]] is then [[brewing|brewed]] from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged.  It is typically light brown in color.
-A less expensive alternative to malt vinegar, called ''non-brewed condiment'', is a solution of 4-8% acetic acid [[Colourant|colored]] with [[caramel]]. There is also around 1-3% citric acid present.  Non-brewed condiment is popular in the North of England, and gained popularity with the rise of the [[Temperance movement]].
 ===Apple cider vinegar===
-Apple cider vinegar, otherwise known simply as cider vinegar, is made from [[cider]] or [[apple]] [[must]], and is often sold unfiltered, with a brownish-yellow color; it often contains [[mother of vinegar]]. It is currently very popular, partly due to its alleged beneficial health and beauty properties (see below).
+Apple cider vinegar, otherwise known simply as cider vinegar, is made from [[cider]] or [[apple]] [[must]], and is often sold unfiltered, with a brownish-yellow color.
-===Wine vinegars===
-[[Wine]] vinegar is made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar in [[Mediterranean]] countries and [[Central Europe]]. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years  and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a less acidity than that of white or cider vinegars. There are more expensive wine vinegars made from individual grape varieties, such as [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]], [[Sherry Vinegar|Sherry]], or [[Pinot Gris|pinot grigio]].
-===Fruit vinegars===
-Fruit vinegars are made from [[fruit wine]]s usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include [[apple]], [[blackcurrant|black currant]], [[raspberry]], [[quince]], and [[tomato]]. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain tasteable in the final vinegar.
-Most such vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a growing market for high price vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). [[Persimmon]] vinegar is popular in [[South Korea]], and [[jujube]] vinegar is produced in China.[http://www.tianjiaohong.com.cn/ecpjs/ZAOCU.HTM]
 ===Balsamic vinegar===
-[[Balsamic vinegar]] is an aromatic, aged type of vinegar traditionally manufactured in [[Modena]], [[Italy]], from the concentrated juice, or [[must]], of white grapes (typically of the [[Trebbiano]] variety).  It is very dark brown in color and its flavor is rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being the end product of years of aging in a successive number of casks made of various types of wood (including oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, ash, and acacia).  Originally an artisanal product available only to the Italian upper classes, balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century. True balsamic is aged between 3 - 12 years.  One can sometimes even find balsamics that have been aged for up to 100 years, though they are very expensive.
+[[Balsamic vinegar]] is an aromatic vinegar manufactured from the concentrated must of white grapes (typically of the [[Trebbiano]] variety), which is then fermented via a slow aging process that concentrates the flavors. The flavor intensifies over decades, as the vinegar is kept in fine wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. Balsamic has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tartness, making it very mellow in flavor. Originally an artisanal product available only to the Italian upper classes, balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century.
-The commercial balsamic sold in supermarkets is typically made with red wine vinegar or concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar which is laced with caramel and sugar. However produced, balsamic needs to be made from a grape product.
+The finest and most traditional balsamic vinegar, manufactured in [[Modena]], [[Italy]], is very labor-intensive to produce; while it ages and gradually evaporates, the liquid is transferred to successively smaller casks made of different [[wood]]s, absorbing the flavour characteristics of each wood and becoming more concentrated with each transfer. [[Oak]], [[mulberry]], [[chestnut]], [[cherry]], [[juniper]], [[ash tree|ash]], and [[acacia]] are the most commonly used woods.[http://www.igourmet.com/balsamicvinegar.asp] Some older balsamic vinegar is added to the must to create a more complex and intricate taste, and to enhance acidity. At the end of the process, the vinegar is taken from the smallest cask: each cask is filled with the contents of the preceding (larger) cask and the cooked must is added to the largest cask.
-Balsamic has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tart flavor, making it very mellow.
+The commercial balsamic sold in supermarkets is typically made with red wine vinegar or concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar which is laced with caramel and sugar. However produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product.
-[[image:barrels_vinegar.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Barrels of balsamic vinegar aging in a maker's attic.]]
+===Malt vinegar===
+Malt vinegar is made by [[malt]]ing [[barley]], causing the [[starch]] in the grain to turn to [[maltose]]. An [[ale]] is then [[brewing|brewed]] from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged.  Malt vinegar is typically light brown in color. It is especially popular as a condiment for the traditional pub fare of fish and chips in England.
-Balsamic vinegar is manufactured from the juice of white grapes (typically, [[trebbiano]] grapes) boiled down to approximately 50% of its original volume to create a concentrated must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over decades, with the vinegar being kept in fine wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated (what is gone is romantically referred to as "the angels' share," a term also used in the production of [[scotch whisky]]).
-The finest and most traditional balsamic vinegar is very labour-intensive to produce; while it ages and gradually evaporates, the liquid is transferred to successively smaller casks made of different [[wood]]s, absorbing the flavour characteristics of each wood and becoming more concentrated with each transfer. [[Oak]], [[mulberry]], [[chestnut]], [[cherry]], [[juniper]], [[ash tree|ash]], and [[acacia]] are the most commonly used woods.[http://www.igourmet.com/balsamicvinegar.asp] Some older balsamic vinegar is added to the must to create a more complex and intricate taste, and to enhance acidity. At the end of the process, the vinegar is taken from the smallest cask: each cask is filled with the contents of the preceding (larger) cask and the cooked must is added to the largest cask.
-Balsamic vinegar of the highest quality, labeled ''tradizionale'', usually sells for very high prices; a small (100 ml) bottle can cost between US $100 and $400. Most producers, however, do not employ all seven of the aforementioned woods in the aging process; some employ only oak. Several mass-produced, less expensive varieties may not be aged in wood at all, being nothing more than ordinary wine vinegar with coloring and added sugar. Legally, according to the rules of the Consortium, these are not allowed to be called "traditional". However, since the wording "Aceto Balsamico di Modena" failed to achieve the DOP status ("Denominazione di Origine Protetta" or "Protected Denomination of Origin"), products marketed by that name may not have even been produced in Modena.
 ===Rice vinegars===
-[[Rice vinegar]] is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in white (actually light yellow), red, and black variants. The [[Japan]]ese prefer a light and more delicate rice vinegar for the preparation of [[sushi]] rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar is traditionally colored with [[red yeast rice]], although some Chinese brands use artificial [[food coloring]] instead.[http://www.yamatohk.com.hk/en/qls_main_btm.php] Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in [[China]], although it is also produced in Japan (see [[Vinegar#East Asian black|East Asian black]], below).[http://www.yamatohk.com.hk/en/qls_main_btm.php] It may be used as a substitute for balsamic vinegar, although its dark color and the fact that it is aged may be the only similarity between the two products.
+[[Rice vinegar]] is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in white (actually light yellow), red, and black variants. The [[Japan]]ese prefer a light and more delicate rice vinegar for the preparation of [[sushi]] rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar is traditionally colored with [[red yeast rice]], although some Chinese brands use artificial [[food coloring]] instead.[http://www.yamatohk.com.hk/en/qls_main_btm.php]. Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in [[China]], although it is also produced in Japan.
-Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.
+Because rice vinegar typically has a bland flavor, some varieties are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.
-Chinese [[Rice vinegar|black vinegar]] is an aged product made from [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[millet]], or [[sorghum]], or a combination thereof.  It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor.[http://www.patchun.com.hk/english/products_aged_sorghum.html] There is no fixed recipe and thus some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Chinkiang vinegar, originated in the city of [[Zhenjiang]], in the eastern coastal province of [[Jiangsu]], China[http://news.asianweek.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=dcd86dc7c83d91f2079714cf8e3a053a], and is also produced in [[Tianjin]] and [[Hong Kong]].
+Chinese [[Rice vinegar|black vinegar]] is an aged product made from [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[millet]], or [[sorghum]], or a combination thereof.  It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor.[http://www.patchun.com.hk/english/products_aged_sorghum.html] A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is also produced in Japan, where it is called ''kurozu''.
-A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is also produced in Japan, where it is called ''kurozu''.  Since 2004 it has been marketed as a healthful drink; its manufacturers claim that it contains high concentrations of [[amino acid]]s.[http://www.export-saraya.com/lakanto/lakantoblackvinegar.html][http://web-japan.org/trends/lifestyle/lif050125.html][http://web-japan.org/trends/lifestyle/lif060822.html]
+===White vinegar===
+''White vinegar'', which is actually transparent in appearance, is an example of a [[distilled vinegar]]. In the distilling process, the vinegar is first turned into steam using high heat, then allowed to condense back into liquid form. This process destroys many of the nutrients present in the undistilled vinegar, resulting in a vinegar that is almost pure acetic acid. Most commercial white vinegars are 5% acetic acid solutions, and are made from [[Cereal|grain]] (often [[maize]]) and water. White vinegar is used for culinary as well as cleaning purposes; it is a good choice for pickling because it will not alter the color of the vegetable being preserved.
-===Other types===
+===Wine vinegars===
-although vinegars made from — are the most common, also xyz:
+[[Wine]] vinegar, made from red or white wine, is the most commonly used vinegar in the cuisines of the [[Mediterranean]] countries and [[Central Europe]]. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a less acidity than that of white or cider vinegars. There are also wine vinegars made from individual grape varieties, such as [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]], [[Sherry Vinegar|Sherry]], or [[Pinot Gris|pinot grigio]].
-*Coconut vinegar, made from the sap, or "[[palm wine|toddy]]," of the [[Coconut|coconut palm]], is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (particularly in the Philippines, a major producer of the product), as well as in some cuisines of India. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.
+===Other types of vinegar===
+*Coconut vinegar, made from the sap, or "[[palm wine|toddy]]," of the [[Coconut|coconut palm]], is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (particularly in the Philippines, which is a major producer), as well as in some cuisines of India. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.
 *Cane vinegar, made from [[sugar cane]] juice, is most popular in the [[Ilocos Region]] of the northern Philippines (where it is called ''sukang iloko''), although it is also produced in France and the United States.  It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste.  Contrary to expectation, it is not sweeter than other vinegars, containing no residual sugar. In the Philippines, it is often labeled as ''sukang maasim'', although this is simply a generic term meaning "sour vinegar."
-*Raisin vinegar is used in cuisines of the Middle East, and is produced in Turkey.  It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor.[http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/bni/24000855][http://www.vintagefood.com/webshop/product.php?productid=24855]
+*Fruit vinegars are made from [[fruit wine]]s usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include [[apple]], [[blackcurrant|black currant]], [[raspberry]], [[quince]], and [[tomato]]. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a growing market for high price vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). [[Persimmon]] vinegar is popular in [[South Korea]], and [[jujube]] vinegar is produced in China.
-*Vinegar made from [[Date Palm|dates]] is a traditional product of the Middle East.[http://mahramco.com/products.aspx?id=116]
+*Raisin and date vinegars are used in cuisines of the Middle East.
 *Vinegar made from [[honey]] is rare, though commercially available honey vinegars are produced in [[Italy]] and [[France]].
-*Kombucha vinegar, also referred to as probiotic vinegar,{{Fact|date=March 2007}} is made from [[kombucha]], a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of [[nutrients]] and populate the vinegar with symbiotic bacteria which promote a heathy digestive tract. Kombucha vinegar is primarily used to make a [[vinaigrette]] and flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.
+*Kombucha vinegar is made from [[kombucha]], a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of [[nutrients]] and populate the vinegar with symbiotic bacteria that promote a healthy digestive tract. Kombucha vinegar is primarily used to make a [[vinaigrette]] and flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.
 ===Flavored vinegars===
 Popular ''fruit-flavored vinegars'' include those infused with whole [[raspberry|raspberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], or [[fig]]s (or else from flavorings derived from these fruits). Some of the more exotic fruit-flavored vinegars include [[blood orange]] and [[pear]].
-''Herb vinegars'' are flavored with [[herb]]s, most commonly [[Mediterranean]] herbs such as [[thyme]] or [[oregano]]. Such vinegars can be prepared at home by adding sprigs of fresh or dried herbs to store-bought vinegar; generally a light-colored, mild tasting vinegar such as that made from white wine is used for this purpose.
+''Herb vinegars'' are flavored with [[herb]]s, most commonly [[Mediterranean]] herbs such as [[thyme]] or [[oregano]]. Such vinegars can be prepared at home by adding sprigs of fresh or dried herbs to store-bought vinegar; generally a light-colored, mild-tasting vinegar such as that made from white wine is used for this purpose.
 ''Sweetened vinegar'' is made from rice wine, sugar and herbs including ginger, cloves and other spices.
-''Spiced vinegar'', from the Philippines (labeled as spiced ''sukang maasim''), is flavored with chili peppers, onions, and garlic.[http://www.yoaxia.de/shop/index.php?mp=products&file=info&language=eng&cPath=31_157&products_id=394][http://www.orientalsuper-mart.com/OSM-category-get-selection.php?catid=23]
+''Spiced vinegar'', from the Philippines (labeled as spiced ''sukang maasim''), is flavored with chili peppers, onions, and garlic.
 ==Uses==
-===Culinary===
+===Culinary uses===
-Vinegar is commonly used in [[food]] preparation, particularly in [[pickling]] processes, [[vinaigrette]]s, and other [[Salad#Salad dressings|salad dressings]]. It is an ingredient in sauces such as [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]], [[ketchup]], and [[mayonnaise]]. Vinegar is an essential component of [[chutney]]s. It is often used as a [[condiment]]. [[Marinade]]s often contain vinegar.
+Vinegar is commonly used in [[food]] preparation, particularly in [[pickling]] processes, [[vinaigrette]]s, and other [[Salad#Salad dressings|salad dressings]]. It is an ingredient in [[condiment]]s such as [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]], [[ketchup]], and [[mayonnaise]]. Vinegar is an essential component of [[chutney]]s, [[marinade]]s, and other sauces.
-*Condiment for [[fish and chips]] - [[Briton]]s commonly use ''malt vinegar'' (or non-brewed condiment) on [[chips]]; it may be used in other territories where [[United Kingdom|British]]-style fish and chips are served.
-*Flavouring for [[potato chips]] - In the case of American-style chips or crisps, many manufacturers of pre-packaged potato chips/crisps feature a variety flavored with vinegar and salt.
-*Vinegar pie - is a North American [[dessert]] made with a vinegar to one's taste.<ref>[http://www.cooks.com/rec/search/0,1-0,vinegar_pie,FF.html Vinegar Pie]</ref>
-*Pickling -  any vinegar can be used to [[Pickling|pickle]] foods.
-*Cider vinegar and sauces - ''cider vinegar'' is not usually suitable for use in delicate sauces.
+===Uses in alternative medicine===
+Various folk remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia in cultures worldwide. The ancient Greek physician [[Hippocrates]] (''ca''. [[460 B.C.E.]] – ''ca.'' [[370 B.C.E.]]), for example, prescribed vinegar for many ailments, from [[skin rash]] to [[ear infection]]. And the therapeutic use of vinegar for the treatment of headaches is recorded in the second verse of the nursery rhyme “[[Jack and Jill (song)|Jack and Jill]]”: “Went to bed and bound his head / With vinegar and brown paper.” Other – include:
-*Substitute for lemon juice - ''cider vinegar'' can usually be substituted for lemon juice in recipes and obtain a pleasing effect.
+*Treatment for jellyfish stings Applying vinegar to [[jellyfish]] stings deactivates the [[nematocyst]]s.
+*Apple cider vinegar is a much more useful [[astringent]] than ice and will reduce inflammation, bruising and swelling in approximately a third of the time that ice will take.
+*Claims that cider vinegar can be used as a beauty aid also persist, it is a powerful remedy for Acne skin conditions when diluted 50:50 with water and used as a toner. The British Romantic poet [[Lord Byron]], for example, would consume vast quantities of white vinegar in an attempt to keep his complexion pale.
+*Cider vinegar is also claimed to be a solution to [[dandruff]], in that the acid in the vinegar kills the fungus ''[[Malassezia furfur]]'' (formerly known as ''Pityrosporum ovale'') and restores the chemical balance of the skin.
+*Vinegar is also used to cure mild to moderate sunburn when soaked on the area with a towel or in a bath.
+*Cider vinegar is a natural remedy for [[yeast infections]], when diluted with water and used as a douche.
-*Saucing roast lamb - pouring ''cider vinegar'' over the meat when roasting lamb, especially when combined with honey or when sliced onions have been added to the roasting pan, produces a tasty sauce.
+Though few of the remedies above have been verifiable using controlled medical trials, clinical trials have revealed that small amounts of vinegar (approx. 20 mls or two tablespoons of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, reduce the [[glycemic index]] of carbohydrate-rich foods in both healthy and diabetic recipients.<ref>Liljeberg H, Bjorck I. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;64:886-893</ref><ref>Leeman M, Ostman E, Bjorck I. Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycemic and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1266-1271</ref><ref>[http://www.diabetesincontrol.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2475 Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:281-282]</ref>  This has also been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.<ref>Sugiyama M, Tang AC, Wakaki Y, Koyama W. Glycemic index of single and mixed meal foods among common Japanese foods with white rice as a reference food. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:743-752</ref><ref>Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:96-100</ref>
-*Sweetened vinegar (see ''Flavored vinegars'' above) is used in the dish of Pork Knuckles and Ginger Stew which is made among Chinese people of Cantonese backgrounds to celebrate the arrival of a new child.<ref>[http://www.patchun.com.hk/ie/new_baby.htm New babies]</ref>
-*[[Sushi]] rice - Japanese use ''rice vinegar'' as an essential ingredient for sushi rice.
-*Red vinegar - Sometimes used in Chinese soups
-===Medicinal uses===
-Many remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia in many different cultures. However, few have been verifiable using controlled medical trials and several that are effective to some extent have significant risks and side effects. In most cases, alternative treatments are more effective and less risky. Nevertheless, there is verifiable evidence that vinegar is effective for certain conditions.
-Small amounts of vinegar (approx. 20 mls or two tablespoons of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, have been shown by a number of medical trials to reduce the [[glycemic index]] of carbohydrate food in both healthy and diabetic recipients.<ref>Liljeberg H, Bjorck I. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;64:886-893</ref><ref>Leeman M, Ostman E, Bjorck I. Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycemic and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1266-1271</ref><ref>[http://www.diabetesincontrol.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2475 Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:281-282]</ref>  This has also been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.<ref>Sugiyama M, Tang AC, Wakaki Y, Koyama W. Glycemic index of single and mixed meal foods among common Japanese foods with white rice as a reference food. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:743-752</ref><ref>Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:96-100</ref>
 Multiple trials indicate that taking vinegar with food increases satiety (the feeling of fullness) and so reduces the amount of food consumed.<ref>Ostman E, Granfeldt Y, Persson L, Bjorck I. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59,983-988</ref><ref>[High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection?Roberts SB. High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity Is there a connection? Nutr Rev. 2000;58:163-169]</ref> Even a single application of vinegar can lead to reduced food intake for a whole day.<ref>[http://www.ffnmag.com/NH/ASP/strArticleID/1037/strSite/FFNSite/articleDisplay.asp Carb and weight control through acetic acid?]</ref>
-Treatment for jellyfish stings
+===Use as a household cleaner===
-Applying vinegar to [[jellyfish]] stings deactivates the [[nematocyst]]s. However, placing the affected areas into hot-water is a more effective treatment because the venom is deactivated by heat. The latter requires immersion in 45 degrees celsius water for at least four minutes for the pain to be reduced to less than that of vinegar.<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14366033 A randomized paired comparison trial of cutaneous treatments for acute jellyfish (Carybdea alata) stings]</ref>
+White vinegar, diluted with water, is often used as a natural household cleaning agent. It is especially useful for cleaning mineral deposits on glass and other smooth surfaces. Care should be taken to not allow contact with eyes (if such contact occurs, the eyes should be flushed immediately and persistently with warm water) or skin (the affected skin area should be washed thoroughly after use).
-====Traditional and anecdotal treatments====
-*[[Hippocrates]] prescribed vinegar for many ailments, from [[skin rash]] to [[ear infection]].
-*Vinegar is a [[folk medicine]] used in [[China]] to prevent the spread of [[virus]] such as SARS ([[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]]) and other [[pneumonia]] outbreaks:
-*In February 2003, an outbreak in China's [[Guangdong]] province of an atypical pneumonia caused massive demand and soaring prices for vinegar, [[isatis]] root, and other [[medicine]]s believed to to be useful in killing the infectious agent.<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200302/13/eng20030213_111547.shtml "Guangdong Brings Atypical Pneumonia under Control, ''People's Daily Online'', dated 13 February 2003, retrieved 11 February 2007]</ref>
-*The therapeutic use of vinegar is recorded in the second verse of the nursery rhyme “[[Jack and Jill (song)|Jack and Jill]]”: “Went to bed and bound his head / With vinegar and brown paper.”  As with some nursery rhymes, there is truth in the story. The vinegar used would likely have been cider vinegar.
-*Apple cider vinegar is a much more useful [[astringent]] than ice and will reduce inflammation, bruising and swelling in approximately a third of the time that ice will take.  Application is directly onto the skin with a flannel, and left on for an hour or so.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-*Apple cider vinegar in particular is often touted as a medical aid, from cancer prevention to alleviation of joint pain to weight loss.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0GCU/is_n6_v14/ai_20152545 The sour truth about apple cider vinegar - evaluation of therapeutic use]</ref> Claims of its benefits go back at least to [[Hippocrates]]. In [[1958]], Dr. D. C. Jarvis made the remedy popular with a book that sold 500,000 copies.
-*Claims that cider vinegar can be used as a beauty aid also persist, it is a powerful remedy for Acne skin conditions when diluted 50:50 with water and used as a toner. <ref>[http://www.care2.com/channels/solutions/self/267 Beautiful Skin Tip: Apple Cider Vinegar]</ref> despite the fact that apple cider vinegar can sometimes be very dangerous to the eyes. The acid will burn and the eyes will become red, but no damage to the eyes has ever been described.<!-- Then it is _not_ very dangerous! —> If the vinegar contains mother of vinegar the slime bacteria of the mother can cause [[ophthalmitis]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-*Many believe that vinegar is also a cure to mild to moderate sunburn when soaked on the area with a towel or in a bath.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-*Cider vinegar is also claimed to be a solution to [[dandruff]], in that the acid in the vinegar kills the fungus ''[[Malassezia furfur]]'' (formerly known as ''Pityrosporum ovale'') and restores the chemical balance of the skin.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-*Cider vinegar is a natural remedy for [[yeast infections]], when diluted with water and used as a douche.<ref>[http://www.ehow.com/how_2200_treat-yeast-infection.html How to Treat a Yeast Infection Naturally]</ref>
-Vinegar along with [[hydrogen peroxide]] ([[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>2</sub>[[Oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub>) is used in the [[livestock]] industry to kill [[bacterium|bacteria]] and viruses before refrigeration storage. A chemical mixture of [[peracetic acid]] is formed when [[acetic acid]] is mixed with hydrogen peroxide. It is being used in some [[Asia|Asian]] countries by [[aerosol spray]]s for control of [[pneumonia]]. A mixture of five-percent acetic acid and three-percent hydrogen peroxide is commonly used.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
-Apple cider vinegar can be used to prevent some problems in the digestive systems of dogs, such as E. Coli. The vinegar is acidic until it enters the dog's body, and it lines their intestines. E. coli cannot attach to an alkaline vinegar-coated intestine.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}
-===Cleaning uses===
-White vinegar is often used as a natural household cleaning agent.  With most such purposes dilution with water is recommended for safety, reduced risk of damaging certain surfaces, and budgetary reasons.  It is especially useful for cleaning mineral deposits on glass and other smooth surfaces. Care should be taken to not allow contact with eyes (if such contact occurs, the eyes should be flushed immediately and persistently with warm water) or skin (the affected skin area should be washed thoroughly after use). See [[Household chemicals]].
 ===Agricultural and horticultural uses===
-Vinegar can be used as a [[herbicide]] as shown by scientific trials reported by the US Dept of Agriculture in 2002.<ref>[http://ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2002/020515.htm Spray Weeds With Vinegar?]</ref> Vinegar made from natural products classifies as [[Organic certification|organic]] and so there is interest in it being used on farms/orchards/gardens certified as organic. The trials showed that a number of common weeds could be effectively controlled using vinegar with 5% to 20% [[acetic acid]]. The lower concentration is less effective. A crop of [[Maize|corn]] can be sprayed with vinegar at 20% strength without causing harm to that crop and so it can be used to help keep a corn crop clear of weeds.
+Vinegar can be used as a [[herbicide]] as shown by scientific trials reported by the US Dept of Agriculture in 2002.<ref>[http://ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2002/020515.htm Spray Weeds With Vinegar?]</ref> Vinegar made from natural products classifies as [[Organic certification|organic]] and so there is interest in it being used on farms/orchards/gardens certified as organic. The trials showed that a number of common weeds could be effectively controlled using vinegar with 5% to 20% acetic acid. Lower concentrations are less effective. A crop of [[Maize|corn]] can be sprayed with vinegar at 20% strength without causing harm to that crop, and so it can be used to help keep a corn crop clear of weeds. Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems and so vinegar will kill top growth but [[perennial plant]]s will reshoot.<ref>[http://www.cahe.nmsu.edu/CES/yard/2004/041004.html Vinegar as herbicide]</ref>
-Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems and so vinegar will kill top growth but [[perennial plant]]s will reshoot.<ref>[http://www.cahe.nmsu.edu/CES/yard/2004/041004.html Vinegar as herbicide]</ref>
-Commercial vinegar available to consumers for household use does not exceed 5% and solutions above 10% need careful handling since they are corrosive and damaging to skin. Stronger solutions (i.e. greater than 5%) that are labeled for use as herbicides are available from some retailers.<ref>[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/vinegar.html Conquer Weeds with Vinegar?]</ref>
-==Miscellaneous==
-*According to the Prophet Muhammed, vinegar is one of the best condiments (Ref. [[Sahih Muslim]] Book 023, Number 5091).
-*[[Lord Byron]] would consume vast quantities of white vinegar in an attempt to keep his complexion pale. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 ==References==
 <references/>
+*Antol, M.N. 2000. ''The Incredible Secrets of Vinegar''. New York: Avery Publishing Group.
+*Atkins, P., and L. Jones. 2005. ''Chemical Principles'', 3rd edition. New York: W. H. Freeman.
 ==External links==