Difference between revisions of "Colonialism" - New World Encyclopedia
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== History of colonialism == | == History of colonialism == | ||
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The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the [[Hittites]], the [[Incas]] and the [[United Kingdom|British]], although the term ''colonialism'' is normally used with reference to discontiguous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise, which are conventionally described by the term ''imperialism''. Examples of land-based empires include the [[Mongol Empire]], a large empire stretching from the Western [[Pacific]] to [[Eastern Europe]], the Empire of [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the [[Persian Empire]], the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] was created across [[Mediterranean]], [[North Africa]] and into [[South-Eastern Europe]] and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world. | The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the [[Hittites]], the [[Incas]] and the [[United Kingdom|British]], although the term ''colonialism'' is normally used with reference to discontiguous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise, which are conventionally described by the term ''imperialism''. Examples of land-based empires include the [[Mongol Empire]], a large empire stretching from the Western [[Pacific]] to [[Eastern Europe]], the Empire of [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the [[Persian Empire]], the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] was created across [[Mediterranean]], [[North Africa]] and into [[South-Eastern Europe]] and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world. | ||
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The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of [[New Imperialism]], when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the [[Scramble for Africa]]. During the 20th Century, the overseas colonies of the losers of [[World War I]] were distributed amongst the victors as [[mandates]], but it was not until the end of [[World War II]] that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. | The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of [[New Imperialism]], when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the [[Scramble for Africa]]. During the 20th Century, the overseas colonies of the losers of [[World War I]] were distributed amongst the victors as [[mandates]], but it was not until the end of [[World War II]] that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. | ||
− | [[Image:reynolds.clive.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|"[[Robert Clive]] and his family with an Indian maid", painted by [[Joshua Reynolds]], 1765.]] | + | [[Image:reynolds.clive.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|"[[Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive ]] and his family with an Indian maid", painted by [[Joshua Reynolds]], 1765.]] |
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+ | ==Justification for Colialism argued by Colonial Powers== | ||
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== Neocolonialism == | == Neocolonialism == | ||
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Despite the [[decolonization]] in the 1960s-70s, former colonies still are today for the most part under strong Western influence. Critics of this continued Western influence talk of [[neocolonialism]]. The exception to this rule being in particular the [[East Asian Tigers]] (mainly Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan), and the emerging Indian and Chinese powers. (''See [[Immanuel Wallerstein]].'') | Despite the [[decolonization]] in the 1960s-70s, former colonies still are today for the most part under strong Western influence. Critics of this continued Western influence talk of [[neocolonialism]]. The exception to this rule being in particular the [[East Asian Tigers]] (mainly Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan), and the emerging Indian and Chinese powers. (''See [[Immanuel Wallerstein]].'') | ||
− | [[Image:Promises.JPG|250px|left|thumb|1900 Campaign poster for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. "The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory but for humanity's sake.", president [[William McKinley]], July 12, 1900. On the left hand, we see how the situation allegedly was in 1896, before [[United States presidential election, 1896|Mc Kinley's victory during the elections]]: "[[Democratic Party (United States)|Gone Democratic]]: A run on the bank, [[History of Cuba|Spanish rule in Cuba]]". On the right hand, we see how the situation allegedly is in 1900, after four years of McKinley's rule: "Gone Republican: a run to the bank, American rule in Cuba" (the [[Spanish-American War]] took place in 1898). The [[History of the United States|USA]] is becoming, as other European powers, an imperialist power. As did [[French Revolution|France]] before with its [[universalism|universalist]] doctrine, it [[American exceptionalism|claims that it acts for "Humanity"]]. | + | [[Image:Promises.JPG|250px|left|thumb|1900 Campaign poster for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. "The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory but for humanity's sake.", president [[William McKinley]], July 12, 1900. On the left hand, we see how the situation allegedly was in 1896, before [[United States presidential election, 1896|Mc Kinley's victory during the elections]]: "[[Democratic Party (United States)|Gone Democratic]]: A run on the bank, [[History of Cuba|Spanish rule in Cuba]]". On the right hand, we see how the situation allegedly is in 1900, after four years of McKinley's rule: "Gone Republican: a run to the bank, American rule in Cuba" (the [[Spanish-American War]] took place in 1898). The [[History of the United States|USA]] is becoming, as other European powers, an imperialist power. As did [[French Revolution|France]] before with its [[universalism|universalist]] doctrine, it [[American exceptionalism|claims that it acts for "Humanity"]]. |
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===U.S. foreign intervention=== | ===U.S. foreign intervention=== | ||
On the other hand, because of the Cold War, which led Moscow and Beijing to support anti-imperialist movements, the US (as well as other NATO countries) interfered in various countries, by issuing an [[United States embargo against Cuba|embargo against Cuba]] after the 1959 [[Cuban Revolution]]—which started on [[February 7]], [[1962]]—and supporting various [[covert operations]] (the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], [[the Cuban Project]], etc.) for example. Theorists of neo-colonialism are of the opinion that the US—and France, for that matter—preferred supporting [[dictatorships]] in Third World countries rather than having democracies that always presented the risk of having the people choose being aligned with the [[Communist bloc]] rather than the so-called "[[Free World]]". | On the other hand, because of the Cold War, which led Moscow and Beijing to support anti-imperialist movements, the US (as well as other NATO countries) interfered in various countries, by issuing an [[United States embargo against Cuba|embargo against Cuba]] after the 1959 [[Cuban Revolution]]—which started on [[February 7]], [[1962]]—and supporting various [[covert operations]] (the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], [[the Cuban Project]], etc.) for example. Theorists of neo-colonialism are of the opinion that the US—and France, for that matter—preferred supporting [[dictatorships]] in Third World countries rather than having democracies that always presented the risk of having the people choose being aligned with the [[Communist bloc]] rather than the so-called "[[Free World]]". | ||
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== Post-colonialism == | == Post-colonialism == | ||
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Post-colonialism (aka post-colonial theory) refers to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of [[Postmodern literature]] concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take [[Edward Said]]'s book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' (1978) to be the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as [[Aimé Césaire]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] made similar claims decades before Said). | Post-colonialism (aka post-colonial theory) refers to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of [[Postmodern literature]] concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take [[Edward Said]]'s book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' (1978) to be the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as [[Aimé Césaire]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] made similar claims decades before Said). | ||
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Edward Said analyzed the works of [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]] and [[Lautréamont]], exploring how they were both influenced by and helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Post-colonial fictional writers interact with the traditional colonial [[discourse]], but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]]'s ''[[Subaltern (post-colonialism)|Can the Subaltern Speak?]]'' (1998) gave its name to the [[Subaltern Studies]]. | Edward Said analyzed the works of [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]] and [[Lautréamont]], exploring how they were both influenced by and helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Post-colonial fictional writers interact with the traditional colonial [[discourse]], but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]]'s ''[[Subaltern (post-colonialism)|Can the Subaltern Speak?]]'' (1998) gave its name to the [[Subaltern Studies]]. | ||
− | In ''A Critique of Postcolonial Reason'' (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European [[metaphysics]] (e.g., [[Kant]], [[Hegel]]) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human [[subject (philosophy)|subjects]]. Hegel's ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (1807) is famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, in considering the [[Western civilization]] as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also allowed some traces of [[racialism]] to enter his work. | + | In ''A Critique of Postcolonial Reason'' (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European [[metaphysics]] (e.g., [[Kant]], [[Hegel]]) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human [[subject (philosophy)|subjects]]. Hegel's ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (1807) is famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, in considering the [[Western civilization]] as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also allowed some traces of [[racialism]] to enter his work. The depiction of [[Algeria|Algerian]] Arabs in Paul Camus' ''L'Étranger'', of Africans and Africa in [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''Heart of Darkness'', of India and Indian's in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''Kim'', all by winners of the [[Noble Prize]] for literature, represent stereotypes that informed European attitudes of superiority. Even the murdered Arab in Camus' novel is unnamed, a faceless native. Camus' Arabs are merely ciphers, lacking personality or substance, unlike the European characters, who are solid. Conrad's Africans are Kipling's India is a terrtory waiting to be mapped, disciplined, |
== Impact of colonialism and colonization == | == Impact of colonialism and colonization == | ||
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− | Debate about the perceived positive and negative aspects of colonialism has occurred for centuries, amongst both colonizer and colonized, and continues to the present day. The questions of | + | Debate about the perceived positive and negative aspects of colonialism has occurred for centuries, amongst both colonizer and colonized, and continues to the present day. The questions of miscegenation; the alleged ties between colonial enterprises, genocides; and the questions of the nature of imperialism, dependency theory and neocolonialism (in particular the Third World debt) continues attract wide discussion and debate. |
== References == | == References == | ||
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==Bibliography== | ==Bibliography== | ||
− | * | + | * Arendt, Hannah, ''The Origins of Totalitarianism'' (1951) (second chapter on Imperialism examines ties between colonialism and [[totalitarianism]]) |
− | * | + | * Conrad, Joseph, ''Heart of Darkness'', 1899 |
− | * | + | * Fanon, Frantz, ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'', Pref. by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001 |
− | * | + | * Gobineau, Arthur de, ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'', 1853-55 |
− | * | + | * Gutiérrez, Gustavo, ''A [[Theology of Liberation]]: History, Politics, Salvation'', 1971 |
− | * | + | * Kipling, Rudyard, ''The White Man's Burden'', 1899 |
− | * | + | * Las Casas, Bartolomé de, ''A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies'' ([[1542]], published in [[1552]]) |
− | * | + | * LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier, ''Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial'', Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2213623163 |
− | * | + | * Lindqvist, Sven, ''Exterminate All The Brutes'', 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2 |
− | * | + | * Petringa, Maria''Brazza, A Life for Africa'' (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0 |
− | * [[Edward Said|Said, Edward]], '' | + | * [[Edward Said|Said, Edward]], ''Orientalism]]'', 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6 |
== External links == | == External links == |
Revision as of 06:51, 14 August 2008
Colonialism is the extension of a nation's sovereignty over territory beyond its borders by the establishment of either settler colonies or administrative dependencies in which indigenous populations are directly ruled or displaced. Colonising nations generally dominate the resources, labor, and markets of the colonial territory, and may also impose socio-cultural, religious and linguistic structures on the conquered population (see also cultural imperialism). Though the word colonialism is often used interchangeably with imperialism, the latter is sometimes used more broadly as it covers control exercised informally (via influence) as well as formal military control or economic leverage.
The term colonialism may also be used to refer to a set of beliefs used to legitimize or promote this system. Colonialism was often based on the ethnocentric belief that the morals and values of the colonizer were superior to those of the colonized; some observers link such beliefs to racism and pseudo-scientific theories dating to the 17th and 18th centuries. In the western world, this led to a form of proto-social Darwinism that placed white people at the top of the animal kingdom, "naturally" in charge of dominating non-European indigenous populations.
Types of colonies
Several types of colonies may be distinguished, reflecting different colonial objectives. Settler colonies, such as Hungary and Thailand and the later United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Argentina were established by the movement of large numbers of people from a mother country to the new colony. The local people or tribes, such as the Aboriginal people in Canada and the United States, were usually far overwhelmed numerically by the settlers and were thus moved forcibly to other regions or exterminated. These forcible population transfers, usually to areas of poorer-quality land or resources often led to the permanent detriment of indigenous peoples. In today's language, such colonization would be called illegal immigration, and in most aforementioned cases, crime and terrorism.
In some cases, for example the Vandals, Matabeles and Sioux, the colonizers were fleeing more powerful enemies, as part of a chain reaction of colonization.
Settler colonies may be contrasted with dependencies, where the colonizers did not arrive as part of a mass emigration, but rather as administrators over existing sizable native populations. Examples in this category include the British Raj, Egypt, the Dutch East Indies, and the Japanese colonial empire. In some cases large-scale colonial settlement was attempted in substantially pre-populated areas and the result was either an ethnically mixed population (such as the mestizos of the Americas), or racially divided, such as in French Algeria or Southern Rhodesia.
With plantation colonies such as Barbados, Saint-Domingue and Jamaica, the white colonizers imported black slaves who rapidly began to outnumber their owners, leading to minority rule, similar to a dependency. Trading posts, such as Hong Kong, Macau, Malacca, Deshima and Singapore constitute a fifth category, where the primary purpose of the colony was to engage in trade rather than as a staging post for further colonization of the hinterland.
History of colonialism
The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the Hittites, the Incas and the British, although the term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise, which are conventionally described by the term imperialism. Examples of land-based empires include the Mongol Empire, a large empire stretching from the Western Pacific to Eastern Europe, the Empire of Alexander the Great, the Umayyad Caliphate, the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Empire was created across Mediterranean, North Africa and into South-Eastern Europe and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world.
European colonialism began in the 15th century, with Portugal's conquest of Ceuta. Colonialism was led by Portuguese and Spanish exploration of the Americas, and the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and East Asia. Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17th century that England, France and the Netherlands successfully established their own overseas empires, in direct competition with each other and those of Spain and Portugal.
The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective metropoles. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies, but Britain (after the union of England and Scotland), France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. Germany, after being united under Prussia also sought colonies in Deutsch Ost Afrika.
The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism, when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa. During the 20th Century, the overseas colonies of the losers of World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest.
Justification for Colialism argued by Colonial Powers
Neocolonialism
Despite the decolonization in the 1960s-70s, former colonies still are today for the most part under strong Western influence. Critics of this continued Western influence talk of neocolonialism. The exception to this rule being in particular the East Asian Tigers (mainly Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan), and the emerging Indian and Chinese powers. (See Immanuel Wallerstein.)
, 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6
External links
- Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf) - by professor Daniel Klein
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
- Globalization (and the metaphysics of control in a free market world) - an online video on globalization, colonialism, and control.
Template:Colonial Empires
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