Difference between revisions of "Vedanta" - New World Encyclopedia
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::''This article is about the Hindu philosophy. For the mining and minerals group, see [[Vedanta Resources]] and for the university, see [[Vedanta University]].'' | ::''This article is about the Hindu philosophy. For the mining and minerals group, see [[Vedanta Resources]] and for the university, see [[Vedanta University]].'' | ||
{{Hindu philosophy}} | {{Hindu philosophy}} | ||
| − | '''Vedanta''' ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|वेदान्त}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') is a school of philosophy within [[Hinduism]] dealing with the nature of reality. The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound of ''veda'' "knowledge" and ''anta'' "end, conclusion" | + | '''Vedanta''' ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|वेदान्त}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') is a school of philosophy within [[Hinduism]] dealing with the nature of reality. The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound of ''veda'' "knowledge" and ''anta'' "end, conclusion," translating to "the culmination of the ''[[Vedas]]''." An alternative reading is of ''anta'' as "essence," "core," or "inside," rendering the term "Vedānta": "the essence of the ''Vedas''".{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Vedānta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa, the 'former enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the [[Aranyaka|Āraṇyaka]]s (the "forest scriptures"), and the [[Upanishads]], composed from ca. the 6th century B.C.E. until modern times. |
==History== | ==History== | ||
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According to Birla, Karma Kanda, as it was called, was then in the hands of the priests. This was part of the Vedas, but in the hands of the priests it had assumed an aspect entirely different from the one Vyasa (Krishna) had shown. Sacrificing animals and drinking the juice of the Soma creeper soon became very attractive to the priests and the real purpose of the yajnas, nishkama karma, was lost sight of. Along with the ascendancy of the priests there came into force the teachings of the Sankhyas which advocated Sanyasa. To rescue humanity from both these paths Krishna established the Bhagavata dharma.<!-- This is even more PoV than the preceding; I can't see an easy way of making it NPoV. This Dharma, as has already been said, is a happy blending of the Bhakti and Karma yogas and it is the keynote of the Bhagavad Gita as taught by Krishna.—></ref> or ritualistic components of religion, continued to be practiced through the [[Brahmins]] as meditative and propitiatory rites to guide society to self-knowledge, more [[jnana]] (gnosis)- or knowledge-centered understandings began to emerge. These are [[mystical]] streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than on rituals. | According to Birla, Karma Kanda, as it was called, was then in the hands of the priests. This was part of the Vedas, but in the hands of the priests it had assumed an aspect entirely different from the one Vyasa (Krishna) had shown. Sacrificing animals and drinking the juice of the Soma creeper soon became very attractive to the priests and the real purpose of the yajnas, nishkama karma, was lost sight of. Along with the ascendancy of the priests there came into force the teachings of the Sankhyas which advocated Sanyasa. To rescue humanity from both these paths Krishna established the Bhagavata dharma.<!-- This is even more PoV than the preceding; I can't see an easy way of making it NPoV. This Dharma, as has already been said, is a happy blending of the Bhakti and Karma yogas and it is the keynote of the Bhagavad Gita as taught by Krishna.—></ref> or ritualistic components of religion, continued to be practiced through the [[Brahmins]] as meditative and propitiatory rites to guide society to self-knowledge, more [[jnana]] (gnosis)- or knowledge-centered understandings began to emerge. These are [[mystical]] streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than on rituals. | ||
| − | [[Etymologically]], ''veda'' means "knowledge" and ''anta'' means "end" | + | [[Etymologically]], ''veda'' means "knowledge" and ''anta'' means "end," so the literal meaning of the term "Vedānta" is "the end of knowledge" or "the ultimate knowledge" or "matter appended to the [[Veda]]." In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramana]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyakssa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid). |
===Formalization=== | ===Formalization=== | ||
| − | The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by [[Badarayana]] in the [[Vedanta Sutra]](200 B.C.E.), or | + | The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by [[Badarayana]] in the [[Vedanta Sutra]](200 B.C.E..), or Brahma Sutra. The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries claiming to be faithful to the original. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual's quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality, secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker. Nearly all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta. |
==Source texts== | ==Source texts== | ||
| − | All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the [[Upanishads]], a set of philosophical and instructive [[Vedas|Vedic]] scriptures, which deal mainly with forms of [[meditation]]. "The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta = "End of the Veda" | + | All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the [[Upanishads]], a set of philosophical and instructive [[Vedas|Vedic]] scriptures, which deal mainly with forms of [[meditation]]. "The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta = "End of the Veda." They are considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also derived from some of the earlier [[Aranyakas]]. |
| − | The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as [[Brahman]] is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage [[Vyasa]] was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the [[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtras]] based on the Upanishads. The concept of | + | The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as [[Brahman]] is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage [[Vyasa]] was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the [[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtras]] based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman – the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self existent, immanent and transcedent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being - is central to most schools of Vedānta. The concept of [[God]] or [[Ishvara]] is also there, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in how they identify God with Brahman. |
| − | The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretetions. Over a period of time, several scholars have interpreted the writings in [[Upanishad]]s and other scriptures like [[Brahma Sutra]]s according to their own understanding and the need of their time. There are a total of six important interpretations of these source texts, out of which, three (Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita) are prominent, both in India and abroad. These Vedantic schools of thought were founded by [[Adi Sankara|Shri Adi Shankara]], [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] and [[Shri Madhvacharya]], respectively. It should be noted, however, that the Indian pre-Shankara Buddhist writer Bhavya in the Madhyamakahrdaya Karika describes the Vedanta philosophy as "[[Bhedabheda]]" | + | The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretetions. Over a period of time, several scholars have interpreted the writings in [[Upanishad]]s and other scriptures like [[Brahma Sutra]]s according to their own understanding and the need of their time. There are a total of six important interpretations of these source texts, out of which, three (Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita) are prominent, both in India and abroad. These Vedantic schools of thought were founded by [[Adi Sankara|Shri Adi Shankara]], [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] and [[Shri Madhvacharya]], respectively. It should be noted, however, that the Indian pre-Shankara Buddhist writer Bhavya in the Madhyamakahrdaya Karika describes the Vedanta philosophy as "[[Bhedabheda]]." Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]]. |
While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, what with its representative syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an "upanishad" and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. In such a manner, Vedantists both old and new have implicitly attested to the Gita's importance to the development of Vedantic thought and practice.{[fact}} | While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, what with its representative syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an "upanishad" and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. In such a manner, Vedantists both old and new have implicitly attested to the Gita's importance to the development of Vedantic thought and practice.{[fact}} | ||
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===Vishishtadvaita=== | ===Vishishtadvaita=== | ||
| − | [[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Ramanuja]] and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the | + | [[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Ramanuja]] and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes, including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God. |
===Dvaita=== | ===Dvaita=== | ||
| − | [[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhva]]. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his incarnation [[Krishna]]. It regards | + | [[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhva]]. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his incarnation [[Krishna]]. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocated [[Bhakti]] as the route to liberation. There is no concept of Māyā as an illusionary power behind the world. |
===Dvaitādvaita=== | ===Dvaitādvaita=== | ||
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== References == | == References == | ||
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* ''Modern Physics and Vedanta'' by [[Swami Jitatmananda]] | * ''Modern Physics and Vedanta'' by [[Swami Jitatmananda]] | ||
* ''The Eye of Shiva''. New York, William Morrow & Co. 1981. Amaury de Reincourt | * ''The Eye of Shiva''. New York, William Morrow & Co. 1981. Amaury de Reincourt | ||
| Line 91: | Line 88: | ||
*''A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy'' by [[Hajime Nakamura]] | *''A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy'' by [[Hajime Nakamura]] | ||
*''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'' and "Vedanta Sutras of Narayana Guru" by [[Karl Potter]] and [[Sibajiban Bhattacharya]] | *''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'' and "Vedanta Sutras of Narayana Guru" by [[Karl Potter]] and [[Sibajiban Bhattacharya]] | ||
| − | *''The Upanishads'' by [[Sri Aurobindo]] [http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12]. [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry]]. | + | *''The Upanishads'' by [[Sri Aurobindo]] [http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12]. [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry]]. 1972. |
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Revision as of 02:40, 20 July 2007
- This article is about the Hindu philosophy. For the mining and minerals group, see Vedanta Resources and for the university, see Vedanta University.
| Part of a series on Hindu philosophy | |
| |
| Schools | |
|---|---|
| Samkhya · Yoga | |
| Nyaya · Vaisheshika | |
| Purva Mimamsa · Vedanta | |
| Schools of Vedanta | |
| Advaita · Vishishtadvaita | |
| Dvaita · Shuddhadvaita | |
| Dvaitadvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda | |
| Ancient figures | |
| Kapila · Patañjali | |
| Gotama · Kanada | |
| Jaimini · Vyasa | |
| Medieval figures | |
| Adi Shankara · Ramanuja | |
| Madhva · Madhusudana | |
| Tukaram · Namadeva | |
| Vedanta Desika · Jayatirtha | |
| Vallabha · Nimbarka | |
| Chaitanya | |
| Modern figures | |
| Ramakrishna · Ramana Maharshi | |
| Vivekananda · Narayana Guru | |
| A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | |
| N.C. Yati · Coomaraswamy | |
| Aurobindo ·Sivananda | |
| Satyananda · Chinmayananda | |
Vedanta (Devanagari: वेदान्त, Vedānta) is a school of philosophy within Hinduism dealing with the nature of reality. The word Vedanta is a compound of veda "knowledge" and anta "end, conclusion," translating to "the culmination of the Vedas." An alternative reading is of anta as "essence," "core," or "inside," rendering the term "Vedānta": "the essence of the Vedas".[citation needed] Vedānta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, or the 'latter' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa, the 'former enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teachings of the Āraṇyakas (the "forest scriptures"), and the Upanishads, composed from ca. the 6th century B.C.E. until modern times.
History
While the traditional Vedic Karma kānda,[1] or ritualistic components of religion, continued to be practiced through the Brahmins as meditative and propitiatory rites to guide society to self-knowledge, more jnana (gnosis)- or knowledge-centered understandings began to emerge. These are mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than on rituals.
Etymologically, veda means "knowledge" and anta means "end," so the literal meaning of the term "Vedānta" is "the end of knowledge" or "the ultimate knowledge" or "matter appended to the Veda." In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramana, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyakssa, and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid).
Formalization
The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarayana in the Vedanta Sutra(200 B.C.E.), or Brahma Sutra. The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries claiming to be faithful to the original. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual's quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality, secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker. Nearly all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta.
Source texts
All forms of Vedanta are drawn primarily from the Upanishads, a set of philosophical and instructive Vedic scriptures, which deal mainly with forms of meditation. "The Upanishads are commentaries on the Vedas, their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta = "End of the Veda." They are considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas and although they form the backbone of Vedanta, portions of Vedantic thought are also derived from some of the earlier Aranyakas.
The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The sage Vyasa was one of the major proponents of this philosophy and author of the Brahma Sūtras based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman – the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self existent, immanent and transcedent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being - is central to most schools of Vedānta. The concept of God or Ishvara is also there, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in how they identify God with Brahman.
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretetions. Over a period of time, several scholars have interpreted the writings in Upanishads and other scriptures like Brahma Sutras according to their own understanding and the need of their time. There are a total of six important interpretations of these source texts, out of which, three (Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita) are prominent, both in India and abroad. These Vedantic schools of thought were founded by Shri Adi Shankara, Shri Ramanuja and Shri Madhvacharya, respectively. It should be noted, however, that the Indian pre-Shankara Buddhist writer Bhavya in the Madhyamakahrdaya Karika describes the Vedanta philosophy as "Bhedabheda." Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in India.
While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought, what with its representative syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought. Indeed, it is itself called an "upanishad" and thus, all major Vedantic teachers (like Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya) have taken it upon themselves to compose often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. In such a manner, Vedantists both old and new have implicitly attested to the Gita's importance to the development of Vedantic thought and practice.{[fact}}
Sub-schools of Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedānta is the most influential school of all, and many philosopers, both Indian and Western, have been influenced by it. It was propounded by Adi Sankara, a renowned Hindu philosopher, and his ParamaGuru Gaudapada, who described Ajativada. According to this school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusionary power of Brahman called Māyā causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul jīvātman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference (i.e. a-dvaita, "not-two"-ness). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (jñāna).
Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Ramanuja and says that the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes, including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.
Dvaita
Dvaita was propounded by Madhva. It identifies God with Brahman completely, and in turn with Vishnu or his incarnation Krishna. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocated Bhakti as the route to liberation. There is no concept of Māyā as an illusionary power behind the world.
Dvaitādvaita
Dvaitādvaita was propounded by Nimbārka, based upon an earlier school called Bhedābheda, which was taught by Bhāskara. According to this school, the jīvātman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. - jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another.
Shuddhadvaita
Shuddhadvaita propounded by Vallabha. This system also encouraged Bhakti as the only means of liberation to go to Goloka (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'). The world is said to be the sport (Leela) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda.
Achintya Bhedābheda
Achintya Bhedābheda propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal, 1486-1534). This doctrine of inconceivable one-ness and difference, is followed a.o. by the world-wide ISKCON movement.
While Adi Shankara propounded the Smārta denomination, all the other above-mentioned acharyas were strongly Vaishnavite in orientation. The Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Mimamsa (ie, purva-) have their epistemology in common.
Purnadvaita or Integral Advaita
Sri Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, has synthesized all the exant schools of Vedanta and given the most comprehensive resolution integrating cues from the Western metaphysics and modern science. He has also restored the umbilical cord of the Vedantic exegesis with the Vedas.
Modern Vedanta
The term "modern Vedanta" is sometimes used to describe the interpretation of Advaita Vedanta given by Swami Vivekananda of the Ramakrishna order of monks.[1] He stressed that:
- Although God is the absolute reality, the world has a relative reality. It should therefore not be completely ignored.
- Conditions of abject poverty should be removed; only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.
- All religions are striving in their way to reach the ultimate truth. Narrow sectarian bickering should therefore be abandoned, and religious tolerance should be practised — between different Hindu denominations, as well as Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, etc.
Vivekananda traveled to the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893, and became an influential figure in synthesising Eastern and Western thought. He played a major role in the spread of Vedanta to Western nations. His travel to the West was criticised by some orthodox Hindus. His proponents claim that he made Vedanta living, by understanding how it could be applied to the modern world, and by investing it with his own spirit.[2]For Vivekananda, Vedanta was not something dry or esoteric, but a living approach to the quest for self-knowledge.
In his interpretation of Advaita (as in Shankara's), there is still a place for Bhakti (devotion). Monks of the Ramakrishna order suggest that it is easier to begin meditation on a personal God with form and qualities, rather than the formless Absolute. Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman are viewed as obverse and reverse of the same coin.[3]
List of teachers
There have been many teachers of Vedanta in India and other countries over the centuries.
Influence in the West
The influential philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel refers to Indian thought reminiscent of Advaita-Vedanta in his introduction to his The Phenomenology of Spirit and in his Science of Logic. Arthur Schopenhauer was influenced by the Vedas and Upanishads; in his own words: "If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him." (The World as Will and Representation) Other western figures who have been influenced by or who commented on Vedanta are Max Müller, Aldous Huxley, Christopher Isherwood, Romain Rolland, Alan Watts, Eugene Wigner, Arnold Toynbee, Joseph Campbell, Hermann Hesse, and Will Durant.[citation needed]
Notes
- ↑ Ghanshyamdas Birla Alive in Krishna: Living Memories of the Vedic Quest (Patterns of World Spirituality) (New York: Paragon House, 1986) p. 37. ISBN 0-913-75765-9 According to Birla, Karma Kanda, as it was called, was then in the hands of the priests. This was part of the Vedas, but in the hands of the priests it had assumed an aspect entirely different from the one Vyasa (Krishna) had shown. Sacrificing animals and drinking the juice of the Soma creeper soon became very attractive to the priests and the real purpose of the yajnas, nishkama karma, was lost sight of. Along with the ascendancy of the priests there came into force the teachings of the Sankhyas which advocated Sanyasa. To rescue humanity from both these paths Krishna established the Bhagavata dharma.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Modern Physics and Vedanta by Swami Jitatmananda
- The Eye of Shiva. New York, William Morrow & Co. 1981. Amaury de Reincourt
- The Dancing Wu Li Masters by Gary Zukav
- The Philosophical Impact of Contemporary Physics by Milic Capek
- Mysticism and the New Physics Michael Talbot
- The Cosmic Code, Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature by Heinz R Pagels;
- Philosophical Aspects of Modern Science by C.E.M. Joad
- The Holographic Paradigm
- Causality and Chance in Modern Physics by David Bohm
- Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition by Huston Smith
- Theology After Vedanta by Francis X. Clooney
- Sankara and Indian Philosophy, by Natalia Isayeva
- A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy by Hajime Nakamura
- Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and "Vedanta Sutras of Narayana Guru" by Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya
- The Upanishads by Sri Aurobindo [4]. Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry. 1972.
| Indian philosophy | |
|---|---|
| Topics | Logic · Idealism · Monotheism · Atheism · Problem of evil |
| Āstika | Samkhya · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Yoga · Mimamsa · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita) |
| Nāstika | Carvaka · Jaina (Anekantavada) · Bauddha (Shunyata · Madhyamaka · Yogacara · Sautrantika · Svatantrika) |
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