Vaishnavism

File:Vishnu.jpg

Vishnu as worshipped in the form of Satya Narayana

Vaishnavism (Sanskrit for "belonging to Vishnu") is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism, and is distinguished from other schools by its primary worship of Vishnu and his associated avatars as the supreme divinity. It is mainly monotheistic in its philosophy, whilst incorporating some panentheistic ideas. Its beliefs and practices, are based largely on Vedic and Puranic texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Isha Upanishad, and the Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas. Practice in Vaishnavism is also informed by bhakti, an intense form of devotionalism to a personal god, and its history is largely linked to the development of this type of religiosity in India. The followers of Vaishnavism are referred to as 'Vaishnava(s)', sometimes 'Vaishnavites' in English.

With approxiamately 550 million adherents, Vaishnavism is the most prominent faction within Hinduism. In fact, recent statistics suggest that Vaishnavas make up approximately 70% of the total of all followers of Hinduism with the vast majority of these followers situated in India. In the past fifty years, the Gaudiya Vaishnava branch has increased the worldwide distribution of the tradition, largely through the activities of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).

History

Vasudevism, Krishnaism and early Vaishnavism

Unlike Shaivism, the other great monotheistic school, Vaishnavism cannot be traced back to a Vedic origin, since the Vishnu who is mentioned in the Vedas bears little resemblance to the god who is so widely worshipped today. Rather, the historical development of Vaishnavism is inextricably linked with that of bhakti, a religious sensibility focused upon devotion which originated among indigenous Indian cults and was largely suppressed by mainstream Vedic religion. By the time of the Upanishads (eighth to sixth centuries B.C.E.), however, the authority of Vedism began to decline, making way for the uprising of these non-Vedic cults. Around this time there developed a bhakti cult centred around Vasudeva, a hero of the Vrsni tribe, which seems to mark the first stirrings of Vaishnavism. Another important precursor to Vaishnavism was the cult of another deified hero, that is, Krishna, religious leader of the Yadavas. This may very well be the same character who is presented in the Chandogya Upanishad by the name of Devakiputra Krishna; this figure is the pupil of the great sage Ghora Angirasa, who bestows upon him the teachings which would become Krishna's own in the Bhagavadgita: that life is a sacrifice. Another non-Vedic religious group which would come to wield great impact on Vaishnavism is the cult of Gopala-Krishna, which developed among the cowherding Abhira people. This group attempted to cultivate sensuous love for Krishna parallel to that which was experienced by the mythological gopis, the cowherding girls who enjoyed many an amourous encounter with the god.

During the seventh to fourth centuries B.C.E., philosophical stagnation within the Vedic tradition engendered the growth of Jainism and Buddhism, and so attempts were made to revivify Vedism. Having already garnered its own heterodox following, the growing Krishnite movement oppurtunistically made attempts to reconnect with its Vedic roots. Hence, the tradition appropriated the Vedic diety Vishnu, who, although insignificant in the Rg Veda, had been identified as the supreme godhead in the Aitareya Brahmana. The belief that Vishnu took on physical incarnation for purposes of restoring dharma was already long since established by this time, and so Krishna came to be identified as one of these incarnations.

Meanwhile, the Vrshis and Yadavas came into closer association, and as a result Krishna and Vasudeva came to be identified with one another as early as the fourth century B.C.E. This truly syncretistic diety was given the moniker Bhagavan Vasudeva-Krishna, and the names Vasudeva and Krishna were used interchangably to refer to the same diety. Elements of the Gopala-Krishna cult were also subsumed within the growing religion dedicated to Bhagavan Vasudeva-Krishna. Together, Vasudevism and Krishnaism seem to have also synthesized elements of devotional cults dedicated to Arjuna, hero of the Mahabharata, as well as those of Balarama, who is portrayed in the great epic as Krishna's brother.

The synthesis of these various elements of Vasudevism, Krishnaism and ultimately Vaishnavism proper is most obvious in the Bhagavadgita. This text affirms the identification of Vasudeva and Krishna in its the tenth chapter (v. 37), where Lord Krishna claims his identity with Vasudeva. Krishna's status as an incarnation of the supreme god Vishnu is also well-established at numerous instances in text, perhaps no more lucidly than in verses 4.6-7, when Krishna states:

Though (I am) unborn, and My self (is) imperishable, though (I am) the lord of all creatures, yet establishing Myself in My own nature, I come into (empiric) being through my power (maya).

Whenever there is a decline of righteousness and a rise of unrighteousness, O Bharata (Arjuna), then I send forth (reincarnate) Myself.

The Narayana Cult

Early Vaishnavism strengthened its connection to the Vedic tradition with the absorption of the Narayana cult, which originated in the north Indian region of Badari. Narayana is considered the founder of the Pancaratras, a form of Tantric Vaishnavism and one of the two earliest Vaishnava sects along with the Bhagavatas, the name given to worshippers of Vasudeva/Krishna. Pancharatas worshipped Narayana, and believed in the notion of vyuhas, a doctrine comparable to that of the avataras in which the highest Self, the individual self, mind and egoism are all considered emanations (rather than incarnations) of God.

The Bhakti Movement

While Vaishnavism seems to have been largely ignored or rejected by the kingdoms of the Vakatakas and Bharasivas in the second and third centuries CE, by the time of the Guptas (fourth to seventh centuries CE), it had been adopted as the religion of the kingdoms. During this time Vaishava literature in its Puranic and the Tantric forms flourished. By the time the Gupta dynasty had been dissolved, Vaishnavism became Balkanized into numerous sects and subsects, every one of which popularized distinct variations of bhakti, consonant with the rise of that movement which was building in South India. The Bhakti had become crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity with the writings of the the sixty-three Nayanars and the twelve Alvars, nurtured the incipient bhakti movement in South India under the Pallavas and Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries C.E. Of these two foundational groups, the Alvars were explicitly Vaishnavite, devoting the majority of their writings to Vishnu and his incarnations. Their poems in praise of Vishnu in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira (Divya Prabandha), and are still recited in temple rituals today. The path of devotion as expounded by these mystics would later be incorporated into the Visistadvaita and Dvaita philosophical systems of Ramanuja and Madhva respectively, both of which held Vishnu as the supreme personal divine. Whilst all the saints are held in great reverence, Aandaal (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special place among the Vaishnava saints. Not only is she the only female Vaishnava saint, but her hymns are also among the best expressions of bridal mysticism in the South Asian tradition.

In the period between the 14-17th centuries, the bhakti movement swept through Northern India due to the efforts of a loosely associated group of Vaishnavite teachers or 'Sants', including Caitanya, Vallabha, Mirabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Tukaram and several other mystics. Their teachings cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, along with the traditionally subtle complexities of philosophy in favour of the simple expression of their overwhelming love for God. Particularly influential was Caitanya's sankirtana teaching, which favoured devotional songs directed toward Krishna over theological rumination, and Tulsidas' Hindi adaptation of the Rama story, the Ramacharitmanas. The late Bhakti movement also bore witness to the proliferation of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in a number of other ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces. The Bhakti movement in what is now Karnataka resulted in a burst of poetic Kannada literature in praise of Lord Vishnu. Some of its leaders include Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, whose contributions were essential to Carnatic music. The later Carnatic Trinity is also no doubt a product of this long Bhakti Movement. The Bhakti movement began to spread to the North during the late medieval ages when North India was under Muslim domination. Unlike in the South where devotion was centred on both Shiva and Vishnu (in all his forms), the Northern devotional movement was more or less centred on Rama and Krishna (as well as the latter's spouses, Radha and Rukmini), both of whom were incarnations of Vishnu. Although initially considered unorthodox as it rebelled against caste distinctions and disregarded Brahmanic rituals, Vaishnavism in the course of time became 'orthodox' due to its immense popularity among the masses (and even royal patronage), and continues to be one of the most important modes of religious expression in modern India. Due to the efforts of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabupadha and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness which he founded, Vaishnvaism has spread beyond India and can be found throughout the globe.

Temple dedicated to the worship of Vishnu as Venkateswara.

Theology

Vishnu: The Supreme

The principal belief of Vaishnavism is the recognition of Vishnu (also known as Narayana) as the supreme diety. This principle is also distrubutive to the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu as listed within the Puranas, especially Krishna and Rama, but excludes all other personalities referred to as gods in the Vedas or similar texts (i.e Ganesh, Surya or Durga and so forth0, which are instead classified as 'demi-gods' or devas. Shiva, the other major male diety to whom monotheistic devotion is given in the Hindu pantheon is also viewed as subservient to Vishnu, although it is understood within the tradition that he is also above the category of an ordinary living being (jiva) Some Vaishnava schools also identify the God of the Abrahamic religions with Vishnu since the names are "generic terms" , although it is not an essential tenet of Vaishnava belief since it falls outside of the scope of Vedic evidence.

Bhakti Worship

Any Hindu religious movements in which the main spiritual practice involves the development of deep loving devotion to God is classified under the heading of the Bhakti movement. These movements are usually monotheistic in their overarching purview, and generally involve worship of Shiva or Shakti if not Vishnu. Although Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hindusim such as reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems in order to escape the cycle of rebirth, the great majority of emphasis is placed upon on personal devotion to Vishnu. In practice, this involves the singing of Vishnu's name's (bhajan) and the performance of deity worship (puja).

The three features of the Supreme as described in the Bhagavata Purana—Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan—are viewed as the Universal Vishnu, Vishnu within the heart, and Vishnu the personality respectively. Thus, Vaishnava devotees will most always see themselves as at least partially if not fully distinct from Lord Vishnu during their acts of worship. Unlike other schools of Hinduism such as those based in Advaita Vedanta, whose primary goal is liberation (moksha) via union with the Supreme Brahman, the ultimate goal of Vaishnava practice lies in the eternal life of bliss (ananda) in service to Vishnu or one of his many avatars in the heavenly realm of 'Vaikuntha'. Vaikuntha transcends all fetters of the material world, and therefore lies beyond all temporal illusion (or maya).

Initiation

Membership within a group of followers and under the tutelage of a guru is indispensible in Vaishnava worship. Vaishnavas commonly follow a process of initiation (diksha), given by a guru, under whom they are trained in order to understand Vaishnava practices. At the time of initiation the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which they will then repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa. The system of receiving initiation and training from a spiritual master is based on injunctions throughout scriptures held as sacred within the Vaishnava traditions:

"Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the truth".(Bhagavad Gita)

This process is absolutely essential for proper devotion:

"One who is initiated into the Vaishnava mantra and who is devoted to worshiping Lord Vishnu is a Vaishnava. One who is devoid of these practices is not a Vaishnava."(Padma Purana)

Scriptures

While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage philosophical and metaphorical interpretations of the Vedas, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary. Indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) is secondary, as it stated by Jiva Goswami: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations." . Vaishnava traditions also consider the writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradya (see below) as authoritive interpretations of scripture.

Epics

The most important text in the broad corpus of Vaishnava scripture is the Mahabharata, India's "Great Epic" which centres upon the life of Krishna and details the story of a dynastic war between two sets of cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Krishna is aligned with the former, who embody righteousness. The Mahabharata includes such fundamental texts as the Narayaniya and the Harivamsa, and most importantly portion individually known as the Bhagavad Gita. The philosophical and religious highlight of the work, the Gita details a conversation between Arjuna and Krishna prior to the final conflict on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. The Gita, though influential in most every philosophical system of Hinduism, is of particular importance to Vaishnavas because it is believed to be an accurate record of the very words spoken by Krishna himself. Vaishnavas regard Krishna either as the foremost avatar of Vishnu, or, in the case of the Gaudiya school, as the source of all avatars, including Vishnu himself Because it summarizes virtually every major Vaishnava teaching, the Bhagavad Gita is the most widely studied as a theological textbook of Vaishnavism.

The Ramayana describes the story of Vishnu as Rama or Ramachandra, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', who rules based upon the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita (herself an incarnation of Lakshmi, his brother Lakshman and servant Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of proper Vaishnava morality, devotion and comportment. Meanwhile, Ravana, the evil king of Lanka who plays antagonist to Rama, is considered the exemplar of anti-Vaishnava.

The two great Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are essential to Vaishnava philosophy and culture, since they recount key events in the earthly lives of two of Vishnu's most important incarnations, Rama and Krishna, respectively. As a result of their influence, both works are often re-enacted in part as dramas by followers of Vaishnavism, especially on festival days concerning each of the specific avatars. In fact, television versions of both the Ramayana and Mahabharata are among the most popular broadcasts ever shown on Indian stations.

Puranas

Of the eighteen Puranas, six are identified as specifically Vaishnava in scope. They are the Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma and Varaha Puranas. The Bhagavata Purana is by far the most important among these for followers of Vaishnavism. It is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements. This text marks the first appearance of the devotionalism in Sanskrit literature, particular that dedicated to Vishnu. In fact, the text seems to have been heavily influenced by the works of Alvars, with some portions of the text appearing to be direct translations from the original Tamil into Sanskrit. All of the famous Vaishnava sects which followed, most notably the four sampradayas (see below) provided commentaries upon this text, marking Bhagavatism as a participant within the Sanskritic, Vedic tradition.

Upanishads

Of the 108 Upanishads of the Muktika, 13 are considered Vaishnava Upanishads. These are the Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Vāsudeva, Avyakta, Tārasāra, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa and Kali-Santarana Upanishads.

Divya Prabandha

The Nalayira Divya Prabandha is a divine collection of 4,000 verses composed before 8th century AD, by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The content of the songs involves the praise of Sriman Narayana and his various forms, and were purportedly sung by the Alvars at sacred shrines known as Divya Desams. The work represents the first attempt at canonization of the works of the twelve Vaishnava poet saints, and is still popular today in South India. Throughout this region, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered to be equal to the Vedas, and has been awarded the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service.

Orders and Lineages

Vaishnavas are typically divided into two major (though not mutually exclusive) sects: Bhagavata Vaishnavism and Pancharata Vaishnavism.

Bhagavatas

Bhagavats (from the Sanskrit "having shares") usually refers to Vaishnavite bhaktas, or followers of bhakti who are dedicated specifically to Vishnu. Together this terms refers to diverse groups of practicioners who do not have a specific set of ritual, but share the characteristic emphasis upon the cultivation of a personal relationship with the godhead. Historically, Bhagavatas seem to follow from the tradition of Vasudeva-Krishna-Vishnu worship, with early inscriptional references dating back to 115 B.C.E. Within Bhagavatism there are four main disciplic lineages (or sampradayas), follow subtly different philosophical systems regarding the relationship between the soul (jiva) and God (Vishnu), although each of which traces its roots back to a specific Vedic personality. Within the Bhagavata fold are also included such Vaishnava revivalists as Caitanya Mahaprabhu and Ramanandi.

Four Sampradayas

The Four Sampradayas include the:

• Srisampradaya, also known as Srivaishnavism, represents one of the most important extant Vaishnaiva traditions, and is prominent in India today. The tradition was espoused most notably by the mystic saint Ramanuja (1017 – 1137), who perfected the philosophy of Yamunacharya, Nathamuni's grandson. Ramanuja propounded a system of Vishishtadvaita or "qualified nondualism", which connects the self to Brahman as in Advaita, but as an incomplete part rather than a full equivalent. The soul is characterized by its own independent reality and as such, remains subordinate to the supreme cosmic principal, the qualities of which it can to experience as a result of their devotion. Vishnu bestows moksha upon the devotee by his grace, though it is through Vishnu's consort Sri (Lakshmi) that plays a key role in the bestowal of this grace. She serves as a mediatrix between god and human, using her compassion in order to win Vishnu's forgiveness for the devotee. By the fourteenth century, the Srivaishnava tradition had bifurcated into two branches, the northern Vadagali group which was based upon the Sanskritic tradition, and the Tengali group, which maintains a balance of Sanskrit and Tamil traditions. These branches have been labelled the "school of the monkey" (Markatanyaya) and "school of the cat" (Marjanyaya) respectively because of their contrasted conceptualizations of faith and grace. The Vadagali group believes that one must cling to god much like an infant monkey clings to it's mother — that is, by putting forth effort to receive god's grace. The Tengali, meanwhile, believe that one must put forth no effort to acquire god's grace — like a kitten, they must rely entirely on the mother-cat to pick them up and carry them to safety.

• Rudrasampradaya which was reputedly founded by Visnusvamin, a thirteenth century philosopher and saint. Although his commentaries on the Brahmasutra and Bhagavadgita are no longer extant, he is said to have been a dualist, teaching that loneliness was the sole factor which impelled Brahma to create the universe. It was Vallabhacharya (1479-1531) who gave Visnuvamin's teachings new life, expounding the philosophy of Shuddhadvaita ("pure nondualism"). This philosophy represented a correction of Sankara's Advaita since it held that maya, the power of illusion, is not seperate from Brahman bur rather is a necessary part of it. Individuals are lost in the folly of ego, and it is by God's grace alone that one can obtain release from this bondage, thereby attaining Krishna's heaven. This heaven is far above the so-called "heavens" of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, for Krishna is himself the eternal Brahman, according to Vallabhacharya. Vallabha decried rote ritualism, and instead claimed that all spiritual actions should be characterized by a sense of playful effortlessness. This inspired teh raslila performances which were associated with the Vallabhacaris.

• Brahmasampradaya, which was founded by Madhvacharya (1238-1317) and was based solely upon the Bhagavata Purana. Apparently, a formal Brahmasampradaya which descended from a line of Vishnu-worshipping Smarta Brahmans predated Madhva's school in western Karnataka, and probably influenced his thought. Madhva's position was thoroughly dualistic (and therefore dubbed Dvaita), in that he asserted an irreconcilable differentiation between the individual soul the ultimate Godhead, who he held to be Vishnu. A practicioner's goal should not be union with the divine, but rather participation in the divine. Great leaders of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement in Karnataka like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Raghavendra Swami, and many others as distant as the Bengali Caitanya Mahaprabhu were influenced by Madhva's Dvaita teachings.

• Sanakadisampradaya, which was founded by Nimbarka, a Telegu brahman who inhabited Vrndavan during what was probably the thirteenth century. Nimbarka expanded upon Shankara, Ramanuja and Madhva by way of his dvaitadvaita doctrine, the teaching of "duality in unity". Here Difference refers to the existence of soul and matter as separate but dependent upon God, while “non-difference” refers to the fact that it is impossible for soul and matter to exist independently of God. Central to the soteriological aspects of Nimbarka's teachings was the concept of prapatti or "surrender", which the first step toward rectifying one's relationship with God. The devotee can only fully surrender to the grace of god, thus doing way with the notion of personal efficacy. With this fundamental surrender in place, the Bhagavan will then grant the devotee direct perception of his glory. Sanakadisampradaya's popularity was exclusive to an area surroundeing Mathura as well as Agra and Bengal, it did manage to wield some influence, particularly on Caitanya.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism

• Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534) in India in the 16th Century. 'Gaudiya' refers to Gauda-desh (present day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning the worship of Vishnu. Its philosophical basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana, as well as other Puranic scriptures and Upanishads such as the Isha Upanishad.

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God. Most popularly this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as 'Hare', 'Krishna' and 'Rama', (most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna mantra) which is known as kirtan. The movement is sometimes referred to as the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya sampradaya referring to its traditional origins in the disciplic succession of spiritual masters (gurus) believed to originate from Brahma. It classifies itself as a monotheistic tradition, seeing the many forms of Vishnu as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God.

The Ramanandi movement

• The Ramanandi movement, begun by Ramananda. The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda. Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century. He taught that Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his sacred name. Ramananda's ashram in Varanasi became a powerful centre of religious influence, from which his ideas spread far and wide among all classes of Indians. One of the reasons for his great popularity was that he renounced Sanskrit and used the language of the people for the composition of his hymns. This paved the way for the modern tendency in northern India to write literary texts in local languages.

Mahapuruxiya Dharma

• Mahapuruxiya Dharma, espoused by Sankardeva. Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1568) named his religion ek sarana naam dharma and propagated it in Assam. An example of dasa bhakti, in this form there was no place for Radha. The most important symbol of this religion is the naamghor or prayer hall, which dot Assam's landscape. This form of worship is very strong in Assam today, and much of the traditions are maintained by the monasteries called Satras.

Symbols

File:Prabhupada 03.jpg

The yellow forehead marking known as tilak is the symbol of Gaudiya Vaishnavas.

The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of Tilak which depict the siddhanta of their particular lineage:

In the Vallabha, Rudra-sampradaya the tilak worn is generally a single vertical red line. This line represents Yamuna devi. The form of Krishna worshiped in the Vallabha line is Sri Nathji or Govardhana. The consort of the Govardhana hill is the river Yamuna. Their process of surrender goes through Yamuna devi.

The Madhva sampradaya mark two vertical lines representing Krishna's 'lotus feet'. In between a vertical black line is made from the daily coal of the yajna-kunda (fire sacrifice). In their sampradaya, the process of worship involves 'nitya-homa', or daily fire sacrifices to Narayana or Krishna. The remnant coal of the puja (worship) is used each day to mark the forehead. Underneath the black line, a yellow or red dot is added to indicate either Lakshmi or Radharani. Those who did not perform daily fire sacrifice wear the simple two line tilak only.

In the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya the tilak is usually made out of mud from Vrindavan. The main tilak is basically identical to the Madhva tilak. The slight difference arose due to the emphasis on the chanting (japa and kirtan) in the Gaudiya tradition. In Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's line, chanting is given as the essential devotional (bhakti) activity to be performed in Kali yuga in preference to fire sacrifices. As such, the black line made from the ash of the fire sacrifice is not included. The second difference arose due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's process of approaching Krishna. In the Gaudiya line devotees do not approach Radha and Krishna directly, but always indirectly through their servant. To indicate this, the red dot representing Radha is replaced with a tulsi leaf offered at the base of Krishna's feet. In Gaudiya belief only through the mercy of Tulsi Devi (or another pure devotee) can pure devotion to Radha & Krishna or Krishna & Balarama be awakened.

Members of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form tilak with two lines representing the feet of Narayana, with a red line in the middle which representing Lakshmidevi. Because the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya begins with Lakshmi, and because they approach Narayana through Lakshmi, their tilak reflects this process of surrender. A variant to this is found within the Ramanandi sect, begun by Ramananda, who wear a similar tilak design but in reference to Sita and Rama (whom their devotion is focused upon) rather than Lakshmi and Narayana.

In Nimbarka Sampradaya, the tilak is made of Gopi-Chandana (the clay from Gopi Kunda lake in Dwarka, Gujarat), as described in the Vasudeva Upanishad. It starts at the bridge of the nose and continues as two vertical lines to the top of the forehead. This is said to represent the temple of God. Within these lines, between the eyebrows is a black dot, made from the slate found in Barsana, Uttar Pradesh, the sacred birthplace of Radha. This is said to represent God as Radha and Krishna together. This tilak personifies the tenets of the Sampradaya, that God is Radha and Krishna together, none else. It is supposed to have been first given to Nimbarka at the time of his initiation to the Sage, Narada. The tilak is first given to an initiate by their guru at the time of initiation, and after this, daily the devotee will remember his guru before he adorns the tilaka on his head.

Academic study

Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.

Founded in 1992 by Steven J. Rosen the Journal of Vaishnava Studies (JVS) is an academic journal of Hindu studies, and Vaishnava studies in particular. Dedicated to scholarly research associated with all Vishnu-related traditions. The course has received praise from Indological entities for bringing Vaishnava studies into the Western academic environment. In the year 2002 the Journal affiliated with Christopher-Newport University, in Virginia.

Notes

1. Schouten, pages 11-26
2. Karavelane Kareikkalammeiyar, oeuvres editees et traduites, institut francais d'indologie, Pondicherry (1956)
3. Jagadeesan, N The Life and Mission of Karaikkal Ammaiyar Bhattacharya, N.N. [ed] Medieval Bhakti Movements in India Munishiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, (1989), pages 149-161

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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• Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6

• Hardy, Friedhelm. Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India. ISBN 0-19-564916-8

• Kaushal, Molly (editor). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8

• Mackenzie, Brown. The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7

• Majumdar, R. C. and Pusalker, A. D. (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)

• Moghe, S. G. (editor). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9

• Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 

• Pargiter, F.E. 1922. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London. Oxford University Press.

• Shulman, David Dean. Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6

• Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. 

• Thurston Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Vols I-V). Cosmo Publication, Delhi.

External links

• Vaishnavism (Heart of Hinduism)
• Hinduism & Vaishnavism (veda.harekrsna.cz)
• Who is Vishnu? Vaishnava FAQ (dvaita.org)
• Ramanuja and Srivaishnavism (srivaishnavan.com)
• The Basic Premises of Vaishnavism (krishna.com)
• An Overview of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Tradition (gaudiya.com)
• Online library of articles on Vaishnavism and the Ramanuja Sampradaya (sadagopan.org)
• Path of Devotion
• International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
• Krishna.com All about Krishna. Info, books, MP3s, images, radio...
• The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)
• Waves of Devotion - Dhanurdhara Swami's Companion to A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's Nectar of Devotion (Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu)
• Pure Bhakti.com
• The Puranas (bharatadesam.com)
• Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam Full text of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
• The Vishnu Purana Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com
• Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dallapiccola
• A comprehensive translation of Naalayira (4000) Divya Prabhandham
• Hymns of the Azhwars

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