University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge

Latin: Universitas Cantabrigiensis
Motto	Hinc lucem et pocula sacra Literal translation: “From here, light and sacred draughts”. Non-literal: “From the University, we receive enlightenment and precious knowledge”.
Established	1209
Type	Public
Location	Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, United Kingdom
Website	http://www.cam.ac.uk

The University of Cambridge (or Cambridge University), is located in Cambridge, England, and is considered to be the second-oldest University in the English-speaking world. Founded in 1209, The University of Cambridge evolved out of an association of scholars that had escaped to the town of Cambridge from nearby Oxford after a dispute with local townsmen. The University of Cambridge and equally renown University of Oxford are often jointly referred to by the portmanteau term Oxbridge, and maintain a long history of academic and athletic rivalry.

As a leading European University, Cambridge is a member of the Coimbra Group, the League of European Research Universities, the International Alliance of Research Universities, and the Russell Group, a network of large, research oriented British Universities.

General Information

Left to Right: The Senate House, Gonville & Caius College and the University Church (Great St Mary's) from King’s Parade

Cambridge University is comprised of a number of institutions, with its main functions divided between the central departments of the University and the University Colleges. In general, each department is responsible for performing research and providing centralized lectures to Cambridge students. University Colleges are responsible for the general welfare and domestic management of all students and some University staff. The colleges also provide the majority of small group teaching for undergraduates, known as tutorial supervisions. The thirty-one colleges are predominately independent of the university itself and enjoy considerable autonomy. Colleges can decide which students to admit and appoint their own 'senior members', or faculty.

The University Chancellor, a title held for life, is a mainly symbolic position, while the position of Vice-Chancellor is considered to be the University's Chief Academic Executive. Cambridge University is governed entirely by internal members, with no outside representation in its governing bodies. Ultimate authority lies with the Regent House, the University's principle governing body of which all current Cambridge academic staff are members. The University Senate, Cambridge's primary governing body until 1926, is responsible for appointing the University Chancellor.

Reputation

The University of Cambridge is considered one of the most academically selective institutions within the United Kingdom. Each year, Cambridge consistently tops the League Tables of British Universities, a system which ranks the top Universities within Great Britain. In 2001, according to England’s Research Assessment Exercise, Cambridge was named the top University in Great Britain. In 2005, a British study showed Cambridge to graduate substantially more PhD recipients per year than any other British University. In 2006, a Thomson Scientific study revealed Cambridge to have the highest research paper output of any British University. Cambridge was also named the top producer of research in 10 out of 21 major British fields of research.

International rankings produced in 2005 by the Times Higher Education Supplement and Shanghai Jiao Tong University listed Cambridge among the top three Universities world wide. The Times also listed Cambridge first in the field of natural sciences, second in the field of biomedicine and third in arts & humanities.

Historically, Cambridge University has produced a significant portion of Britain’s most prominent scientists, writers and politicians. Affiliates of Cambridge University have been awarded a total of eighty-one Nobel Prizes, the most of any University in the world. Seventy of these awardees attended Cambridge as either a graduate or undergraduate student.

The University of Cambridge has produced especially distinguished graduates in the field of math and science. This list includes Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, William Harvey, Paul Dirac, J. J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, James Clerk Maxwell, Francis Crick, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, and Fred Sanger.

Cambridge University is also closely linked with the development of high-tech business clusters in and around the Cambridge area. This area is often referred to as Silicon Fen. In 2004, Silicon Fen was reported as the second largest venture capital market in the world after the United States’ Silicon Valley. 2006 estimates reported that Silicon Fen housed more than 250 active startup companies directly linked with the University, estimated to be worth atotal of $6 billion in U.S. dollars.

Endowment

In 2005, Cambridge University’s total endowment was estimated at £3.1 billion, arguably the highest endowment in Europe exceeding even that of Oxford University whose endowment was estimated between £2.4bn and £2.9bn at the time. The share of Cambridge’s endowment directly tied to the University itself is believed to exceed more than £1 billion, though Cambridge continues to rely, in large, upon government funding. In comparison with American universities, the University of Cambridge’s estimated endowment often ranks between 6th and 7th highest on an international scale.

History

In the early thirteenth century, the legendary Roger of Wendover included in his contemporaneous writings that the origins of Cambridge University revolved around a crime committed by two students attending the nearby University of Oxford. In 1209, two Oxford scholars were convicted of a single manslaughter and were hanged by town authorities. In protest over the hangings, the University of Oxford went into voluntary suspension, and scholars began migrating to a number of other institutions which included the pre-existing school at Cambridge (Cambridge had been recorded as a “school” rather than University when John Grim held the office of Master there in 1201). The transfering scholars from the University of Oxford established Cambridge as a University in 1209.

In 1233, Pope Gregory IX confirmed Cambridge’s University status in a decree awarding a form of legal protection to the University Chancellor and all attending scholars. In 1290, Cambridge’s status was recognized by papal bull under Pope Nicholas IV and the visitation of esteemed lecturers and researchers to the University had begun

The Colleges

Cambridge’s colleges were originally an incidental feature of the University and began as endowed fellowships of scholars. Institutions without endowments were known as hostels.

In 1284, Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse which would become the University of Cambridge’s first college. Though the majority of colleges were founded between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a number of colleges were established at much later dates. Robinson College, one of Cambridge’s most recent colleges, was established in the late 1970’s.

In their early existences, Cambridge colleges were founded so that their students were taught to pray for the souls of their founders. For this reason, many of Cambridge’s colleges were associated with chapels or abbeys.

A change in the colleges’ focus would occur in 1536 with the dissolution of the monasteries. King Henry VIII ordered Cambridge University to disband its faculty of Canon Law and to cease the teaching of “scholastic philosophy”. In response, university colleges would direct their curricula toward mathematics, the classics, and the Bible.

Clare College (left) and King’s College Chapel (centre), seen from The Backs

Mathematics

From the time of Sir Isaac Newton in the late 17th century, until the middle of the 19th century, Cambridge University maintained a strong emphasis in the field of mathematics. Study of this subject was compulsory for graduation, and students were required to take an exam to acquire a Bachelor of Arts degree in this field. This exam is still taken today and is known as a Tripos. After completing the exam, students earning first-class honors are awarded the title of wrangler. This exam has defined some of the most famous scholars in British mathematics, including James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and Lord Rayleigh, though some accomplished students, such as G. H. Hardy, disliked the system and felt that people were too interested in accumulating exam marks and not enough interested in the subject itself.

Although diversified in its research and teaching interests, Cambridge today maintains its strength in mathematics. The Isaac Newton Institute, a division of the university, is widely regarded as the United Kingdom’s most accredited research institute for mathematics and theoretical physics. Cambridge alumni have won eight Fields Medals and one Abel Prize in the field of mathematics. The University also awards a special Certificate of Advanced Studies in Mathematics to scholars of the highest achievement in this field.

Women’s Education

When founded, all students of the University of Cambridge were male. Girton College, founded by Emily Davies in 1869, was the first college to admit women. Newnham College would follow in 1872. During the late nineteenth century, women were allowed to study courses, sit examinations and have their results recorded, though they were refused the status of full university members. In the twentieth century women could be awarded a partial degree, known as a titular degree, but were excluded from the governing of the University. Attempts to make women full members of the university would not succeed until 1947. The integration of men’s colleges to include women occurred between 1960 and 1988, though the majority of women’s colleges held the view that until the gender ratio problem was completely solved, they would not reduce the number of women’s places available by admitting men to their colleges. In the 2004 academic year, Cambridge University’s student gender ratio which included post-graduates, was recorded at 52% male and 48% female.

Research and Teaching

Cambridge University includes research departments and teaching faculties in most academic disciplines. Though the University’s academic strength is often considered to lay within its sciences, Cambridge is also renown for a number of humanity and social science faculties. Academic staff, and some graduate students, prepare undergraduate students by both lecture and personal tutorials where a strict teacher-student ratio of between one-to-one and one-to-three is maintained. This pedagogical system is considered unique to the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, though similar practices of a different scale can be found worldwide.

Though the colleges are responsible for student supervision, accommodations, and most extra-curricula activities, all academic research and lectures are conducted by University Departments. During the 1990’s, Cambridge constructed a substantial number of new specialized research laboratories on several University sites around the city. Expansion of Cambridge University academic and extracurricular facilities is often ongoing.

Admission

Historically, undergraduate admission to Cambridge colleges depended on knowledge of Latin and Ancient Greek, subjects taught principally in the United Kingdom at fee-paying schools, called public schools. This resulted in a student body predominantly drawn from members of the British social elite.

The admission process changed in the 1960s. Successful applicants are expected to be predicted at least 3 A-grade A-level qualifications relevant to their chosen undergraduate course, or equivalent overseas qualifications. College Fellows also evaluate candidates on unexamined factors such as potential for original thinking and creativity as expressed in extra-curricular activities and at interview [1]. In a few cases, candidates may be offered an unconditional place.

In recent years, admissions tutors in certain subjects have required applicants to sit the more difficult STEP papers in addition to achieving top grades in their A-levels or International Baccalaureate diplomas. For example, Peterhouse requires 1 and 2 or better in STEP as well as A grades at A-levels including A-level Mathematics and Further Mathematics in order to be considered for entry for the Mathematical Tripos. Between one-half and two-thirds of those who apply with the correct grades are given offers of a place.

Public debate in the United Kingdom continues over whether admissions processes at Oxford and Cambridge are entirely merit based and fair, whether enough students from state schools are encouraged to apply to Cambridge, and whether these students succeed in gaining entry. Almost half of all successful applicants come from public schools. However, the average qualifications for successful applicants from state schools are poorer than the average qualification of successful applicants from private schools. The lack of state school applicants to Cambridge and Oxford has had a negative impact on Oxbridge’s reputation for many years, and the University has encouraged pupils from state schools to apply for Cambridge to help redress the imbalance. Critics counter that excessive government pressure to increase state school admissions constitute inappropriate social engineering [2] [3].

Graduate admission is first decided by the faculty or department relating to the applicant’s subject. This effectively guarantees admission to a college (probably but not necessarily the applicant’s preferred choice).

Athletics and Other Extracurricular Activities

Cambridge maintains a long tradition of student participation in sports and recreation. Rowing is a particularly popular sport at Cambridge, and there are competitions between colleges (notably the bumps races) and against Oxford (the Boat Race). There are also Varsity matches against Oxford in many other sports, ranging from rugby and cricket, to chess and tiddlywinks. Athletes representing the university in certain sports entitle them to apply for a Cambridge Blue at the discretion of the Blues Committee, consisting of the captains of the thirteen most prestigious sports. There are also the self-described “unashamedly elite” Hawks’ Club, whose membership is usually restricted to Cambridge Full Blues and Half Blues.

The Cambridge Union serves as a focus for debating. Drama societies notably include the Amateur Dramatic Club (ADC) and the comedy club Footlights, which are known for producing well-known showbusiness personalities. Student newspapers include the long-established Varsity and its younger rival, The Cambridge Student. The student-run radio station, CUR1350, promotes broadcast journalism.

Myths, Legends and Traditions

The Mathematical Bridge over the river Cam (at Queens’ College)

There are a number of popular myths associated with Cambridge University and its history.

One famous myth relates to Queens’ College’s so-called Mathematical Bridge (pictured right). Supposedly constructed by Sir Isaac Newton, it reportedly held itself together without any bolts or screws. Legend has it inquisitive students took it apart and were then unable to reassemble it without bolts. However, the bridge was erected 22 years after Newton’s death. This myth may have arisen from the fact that earlier versions of the bridge used iron pins and screws at the joints, whereas the current bridge uses more visible nuts and bolts.

Another famous myth involves the Clare Bridge of Clare College. Spherical stone ornaments adorn this bridge. One of these has a quarter sphere wedge removed from the back. This is a feature pointed out on almost all tours over the bridge. Legend has it that the bridge’s builder was not paid in full due to the college’s dissatisfaction with its construction. The builder thus took revenge and committed a small act of petty vandalism. Though lacking evidence, this legend is commonly accepted.

A discontinued tradition is that of the wooden spoon, the ‘prize’ awarded to the student with the lowest passing grade in the final examinations of the Mathematical Tripos. The last of these spoons was awarded in 1909 to Cuthbert Lempriere Holthouse, an oarsman of the Lady Margaret Boat Club of St John’s College. It was over one metre in length and had an oar blade for a handle. Since 1909, results were published alphabetically within class rather than score order. This made it harder to ascertain who the winner of the spoon was (unless there was only one person in the third class), and so the practice was abandoned.

On the other hand, the legend of the Austin Seven delivery van that ended up on the apex of the Senate House is no myth at all. The Caius College website recounts in detail how this vehicle “went up in the world”. [4]

Miscellaneous

St Johns College New Court and Chapel seen from The Backs

Building on its reputation for enterprise, science and technology, Cambridge has a partnership with MIT in the United States, the Cambridge-MIT Institute.

In 2000, Bill Gates of Microsoft donated US$210 million through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to endow the Gates Scholarships for students from outside the UK seeking postgraduate study at Cambridge. The University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, which taught the world’s first computing course in 1953, is housed in a building partly funded by Gates and named after his grandfather, William Gates.

After the founding in 1636 of the first institute of higher education in the Americas, Harvard College in Newtowne, Massachusetts, the town adopted the new name of “Cambridge” in 1638 to promote its reputation as an academic centre. The first president (Henry Dunster), the first benefactor (John Harvard), and the first schoolmaster (Nathaniel Eaton) of Harvard were all Cambridge University alumni, as was the then ruling (and first) governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, John Winthrop. In 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university [5].

In the Meiji Era (1868-1912), several Japanese students studied at the university.[6].

In Japan, there is a Cambridge and Oxford Society[7], a rare example of the name Cambridge coming before Oxford when the two universities are referred to together — traditionally, the order used when referring to both universities is “Oxford and Cambridge”, the order in which they were founded. The probable reason for this inversion is that the Cambridge Club was founded first in Japan, and it also had more members than its Oxford counterpart when they amalgamated in 1905.

The University’s publishing arm, the Cambridge University Press, is the oldest printer and publisher in the world.

Each Christmas Eve, BBC television and radio broadcasts The Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols by the Choir of King’s College Chapel. This has been a national Christmas tradition since it was first transmitted in 1928.

University Colleges

View over Trinity College, Gonville and Caius, Trinity Hall and Clare College towards King’s College Chapel, seen from St John’s College chapel. On the left, just in front of Kings College chapel, is the University Senate House

The University of Cambridge currently has 31 colleges, three of which, New Hall, Newnham College and Lucy Cavendish College, admit only women. The remaining 28 are coed, with Magdalene College being the last all-male college to admit women in 1988. Two colleges, Clare Hall and Darwin College, admit only postgraduates, while the following four admit mainly graduate students: Hughes Hall, Lucy Cavendish College, St. Edmund's College, and Wolfson College. The other 25 colleges admit primarily undergraduate students, though allow for the admittance of some postgraduate students pursuing certain courses of study or research. Although some colleges emphasize the pursuit of a particular subject, such as Churchill College which has a formalized bias towards the sciences and engineering, the majority of Cambridge’s colleges admit students studying a broad array of subjects. It is noteworthy that costs to students (mainly room and board) vary considerably from college to college. This may be of increasing significance to potential applicants as Government grants have proven to decline annually.

There are several historical colleges which no longer exist, such as King's Hall (founded in 1317) and Michaelhouse which were combined together by Henry VIII of England to establish Trinity College, Cambridge's largest College, in 1546. Additionally Gonville Hall, originally founded in 1348, was again re-founded in 1557 as Cambridge's Gonville and Caius College.

There are also several theological colleges in Cambridge, such as Westminster College and Ridley Hall, that are loosely affiliated with the university through the Cambridge Theological Federation.

Academic Dress

Academic dress worn for a graduation ceremony

The University of Cambridge has a long tradition of academic dress worn most often on formal occasions. In their first week at Cambridge, many undergraduates will seek to buy or borrow a formal gown when officially enrolling, or matriculating, at the University. Those enrolled at the more traditional colleges most often choose to purchase a gown as the number of occasions on which it is worn quickly repays the investment. Gowns are often ‘recycled’ between generations, as graduate students seek to upgrade their gowns at the start of the academic year.

Gowns are most often worn to Chapel and to Formal Hall, a formal dinner held nightly in some colleges, or once a term in others. Various College events also demand academic dress. For example, the Trinity College statute prefers students to wear academic dress when appearing before senior members, or faculty, on particular occasions; such as appearing before a disciplinary committee. Gowns are also worn, with a hood, to graduation ceremonies, though there exist rules regarding which type of gown or hood a graduating student should wear. However, the general extent to which formal dress applies varies greatly according to college, as some colleges dispense with it even for Formal Hall.

When wearing academic dress, a person wears both the gown and the hood of the highest degree he or she has already received from the University of Cambridge. Anyone who does not hold a Cambridge degree, such as an undergraduate student or graduate student of another university, wears a gown according to his or her status in Cambridge. In addition, he or she wears the hood of the highest degree of which he or she is to receive. The gowns used by Cambridge are divided into four groups: the undergraduate gown, the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) gown, the Master of Arts (M.A.) gown and the doctoral gown. Hoods are worn on the back of the open-fronted gowns as an indicator of academic status and vary by color according to degree. A form of black cap known as a mortarboard, or square, may be worn or carried and are often a part of required dress for graduates.

Student Dress

All undergraduate gowns resemble knee-length versions of the B.A. gown, but many colleges at Cambridge have gowns that differ slightly from the main pattern. The standard gown is black, and most colleges' gowns include minor variations such as sleeve decoration. The most distinct differences are the blue color of the undergraduate gowns of Trinity and Caius and the blue facings of Selwyn.

The two most common graduate gowns in Cambridge are the B.A. gown and the M.A. gown. Like the University of Oxford, all undergraduates at Cambridge traditionally graduate with a Bachelor of Arts degree after three years, though graduates can obtain a master's degree after a further year of study and graduate with both degrees at once.

Official Dress

The Chancellor

On ceremonial occasions, the Chancellor of the University wears a black silk gown with train, decorated by a gold lace. This gown is similar to that of the Lord Chancellor's.

University officials dressed for a degree (graduation) ceremony

The Vice-Chancellor

The Vice-Chancellor, when conferring degrees, wears a scarlet cope trimmed with white fur, as shown in the image.

Proctors

The Proctors of Cambridge University are formally responsible for the discipline of junior members of the University. In addition, they have various ceremonial and administrative roles, which they are, in practice, mainly occupied with.

Historically, University Proctors could be seen patrolling the campus after dark with the university police, or bulldogs. These traditions have since ceased, though the Proctors are still responsible for disciplinary actions thoughout the Colleges. On ceremonial occasions, Proctors wear the academic dress of a Master of Arts adorned with a distinctive 'ruff' at the neckline, while Proctor Constables wear top hats and cloaks.

Other officials

Other officials, such as the Esquire Bedell or Orator, wear the academic dress appropriate to their degree during ceremonial occasions.

Formal Hall

Formal Hall, or a formal dinner, involves dining in the collegiate manner served by servants, whilst wearing academic dress if at an academic college, and is typically lit by candles. It is normally preceded (and sometimes followed) by a Grace, which in older institutions may often be in Latin and is frequently peculiar to the institution in question. There may be one or more after dinner speakers at the end of the dinner or even between courses if it is a special occasion.

A formal dinner at St Johns College, Cambridge.

Student Organizations

• Cambridge University Amateur Dramatic Club
• Cambridge Apostles
• Cambridge Student Liberal Democrats
• The Cambridge Union Society
• Cambridge University Association Football League
• Cambridge University Conservative Association
• Cambridge University Cricket Club
• Cambridge University Labour Club
• Cambridge University Rugby Union Football Club
• Cambridge University Student Alliances
• Cambridge University Student Radio Station CUR1350
• The Varsity Newspaper
• The Cambridge Student Newspaper

Selected Notable Members

Douglas Adams (St John’s) Charles Babbage (Trinity, Peterhouse) Sir Francis Bacon (Trinity) Sir William Lawrence Bragg (Trinity) Subhash Chandra Bose (Fitzwilliam) Lord Byron (Trinity) James Chadwick (Gonville & Caius) Charles, Prince of Wales (Trinity) John Cleese (Downing) Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Jesus) Francis Crick (Gonville & Caius) Oliver Cromwell (Sidney Sussex) Charles Darwin (Christ’s) Paul Dirac (St John’s) Desiderius Erasmus (Queens’) Rosalind Franklin (Newnham) Germaine Greer (Newnham) William Harvey (Gonville & Caius) Stephen Hawking (Trinity Hall, Gonville & Caius) Ted Hughes (Pembroke) Allama Mohammad Iqbal (Trinity) Jinyong (Louis Cha) (St John’s) Lord Kelvin (Peterhouse) John Maynard Keynes (King’s) Kim Dae-Jung (Clare Hall) C. S. Lewis (Magdalene)

Christopher Marlowe (Corpus Christi) James Clerk Maxwell (Peterhouse, Trinity) Ian McKellen (St Catharine’s) A. A. Milne (Trinity) John Milton (Christ’s) Vladimir Nabokov (Trinity) Jawaharlal Nehru (Trinity) Isaac Newton (Trinity) Sylvia Plath (Newnham) Salman Rushdie (King’s) Bertrand Russell (Trinity) Ernest Rutherford (Trinity) Fred Sanger (St John’s) Siegfried Sassoon (Clare) Simon Schama (Christ’s) Amartya Sen (Trinity) Manmohan Singh (St. John’s) Alfred, Lord Tennyson (Trinity) J.J. Thomson (Trinity) Emma Thompson (Newnham) Alan Turing (King’s) James D. Watson (Clare) William Wilberforce (St John’s) Maurice Wilkins (St John’s) Ludwig Wittgenstein (Trinity) William Wordsworth (St John’s)

Organizations and Institutions Associated with the University

• Alumni website
• Babraham Institute
• Cambridge Assessment
• Cambridge Network
• Cambridge Science Park
• Cambridge Stem Cell Initiative
• Cambridge University Library
• Cambridge University Press
• Cambridge University Students’ Union
• Franco-British Student Alliance
• Graduate Union of Cambridge University
• Gurdon Institute of Cancer and Developmental Biology
• Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences
• League of European Research Universities
• The Naked Scientists
• New Museums Site
• Phoenix
• West Cambridge
• Westminster Quarters

Cambridge Literature

• A Concise History of the University of Cambridge, by Elisabeth Leedham-Green, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521439787, ISBN 9780521439787.

• Teaching and Learning in 19th century Cambridge, by J. Smith and C. Stray (editors), Boydell Press, 2001 ISBN 0851157831.

• The Architectural History of the University of Cambridge and of the Colleges of Cambridge and Eton, by Robert Willis, Edited by John Willis Clark. Three volume set, Cambridge University Press, 1988 ISBN 0521358515.

• The Cambridge Apostles: A History of Cambridge University’s Elite Intellectual Secret Society, by Richard Deacon, Cassell, 1985 ISBN 0947728139.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Note 1: [8] - The list of Cambridge’s 81 Nobel Prize winners, from the University of Cambridge website.
• Note 2: [9] - A list of universities with the most Nobel Prize winner affiliations. The University of Chicago has the second most with 78 (30 of which were won by former students).
• Note 3: [10] - A 2005 ranking from The Times Higher Education Supplement of the world’s research universities, with Cambridge ranked 3rd, behind Harvard and MIT.
• Note 4: [11] - A 2005 ranking from the Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University of the world’s research universities, with Cambridge ranked 2nd, behind Harvard.

External links

• University of Cambridge official website
• A Short History of the University – from the official website
• Cambridge expansion plans
• talks.cam.ac.uk – Cambridge University talks-listing service
• Varsity – a student newspaper
• The Cambridge Student (TCS) – a student newspaper
• BlueSci – student science magazine
• Cambridge Alumni Magazine
• Gown – the graduate magazine
• CUR1350 – the student-run radio station
• Tompkins Table - unofficial ranking of Cambridge colleges
• Cambridge University jargon
• Cambridge Online – a comprehensive city guide and directory with thousands of pages of local information contributed by Cambridge residents
• Computing-Info - Information for prospective students about computing and networking policies at the University and within the colleges

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