Theism

The term Theism (from the Greek theos, or "god") refers to two important concepts in the classification of religion. Specifically, theism is the view that all finite things are dependent in some way on one supreme reality which is typically spoken of in anthropomorphic terms. Here, a God with decidedly human qualities is seen as transcendent monarch of the world, yet is also immanent within it. This view of divinity is also known as classical theism. More generally, theism refers to a wide variety of philosophical or religious beliefs which assert the existence of one or more personal deities. The term is attested in English from 1678, and was probably coined to contrast with atheism, a term that is attested from ca. 1587 (see atheism).

Classical Theism

Classical theism can be identified by a number of features. First, it involves a god who is active within the human world rather than detached from it. Second, theism places primacy on the value of experience of god, either through symbolism, literature, or mysticism. Thirdly, god is conceived of in human terms and often comes to wordly fruition in the form of a human incarnation. Finally, god is usually described as morally perfect.

God as Immanent

The belief system of classical theism is often placed in direct counterpoint to the views of deism. While deism typically asserts that a deity created nature but does not interact with it, theism holds that god not only created the world but also interacts in it, as well. While deism emphasizes the deity's transcendence over humanity, classical theism stresses the immanent nature of god in the world. For the Deist, god exists as a mystery apart from the everyday world, whereas for the relationship between god and the world, and therein god and humanity, is far more involved. Theism should also be juxtaposed with pantheism, the doctrine which identifies god with the universe itself. Rather, theism considers the physical world to be essentially different than its Creator, the Ultimate being, and human life is in no way an interation of the life of god. With such dualism in mind, theism should not be confused with monism, the religious or philosophical principle which regards everything in the universe as a part or manifestation of some ultimate principle or being.

God Who is Experienced

An oft-cited difficulty with theism involves the question of how a being whose essence is beyond the scope of man can ever be said to be experienced and "known." Since god is, by nature, transcendent, critics point out that god must then exist beyond human comprehension, rendering any human statement about the nature of god highly suspect. Classical theists answer this charge by denying any claim to understand the mystery that is god in his true essence. Rather, they simply concede that the existence of a god is inevitable given the finite, contingent nature of everything else within the living world. This line of reasoning is certainly anomolous, as in everyday life the existence of most things is delineated through sensory description of the given object or event's qualities. For the theists, however, god is the exception to this rule: intuition as to the being of god can be claimed without committing to anything about his nature beyond the perfection or infinite nature typically ascribed to Him. In addition, theists typically believe that this god can be met or encountered in some way or another. Typically, such things as "love" or "faithfulness" can be affirmed of God in ways which reflect his involvement in his creation.

While this may yield only remote relation between god and humanity, most theism is further supplemented by some sort of doctrine concerning divine revelation. That is, god is described as taking initiative in communicating with humanity, usually through sacred writings or images. Deep faith is placed in the idea that god "spoke" to prophets in the past in order to write and compile the scriptures, and also in the idea that god somehow inspires divine imagery. Furthermore, religious experiences are often given primacy in theistic systems. This can include experiences of the paranomral variety, such as the perception of voices or the sight of divine images or symbolism, all of which transcend the scope of natural phenomena. Religious experience can also include more subtle experiences, such as everyday occurances which can be interpreted of teaching some moral or aphorism congruent with the purview of God, and as such provide a formative experience for the experiencer. Thus, human beings may come to know god simply by way of the impact he has withing everyday occurances. Because of the importance placed on this type of experience, religious language, imagery and symbolism becomes of the utmost importance in theistic circles. As a consequence, much ritualistic art as well as religious academic endeavour is spurred in order to delineate the most adequate direction for such symbolic religious experience, rather than allowing it to develop haphazardly on its own within individuals.

God as Morally Perfect

The theist God is often described as representing or embodying the ultimate in moral perfection. Simply put, God is eternally good. For example, in the Zoroastrian tradition, Ahura Mazda represents all the powers of good in the world, existing in direct counter point to Angra Mainyu, the god of all things evil. This idea was adopted within the Abrahamic tradition, where God the Father, or Allah, representing all goodness, is placed in direct counterpoint to Satan or Lucifer, the fallen angel who exists in hell and represents the wicked. The coexistence of good and evil creates a difficult philosophical quandary which has persisted in theist theology: if God is only good, then how can evil exist within His creation? The existence of such entities as Satan has been crucial in mitigating the effects of such a problem. Regardless, Human moral perfection is often taken to be the most important link between humans and divinity, oftentimes representing the means by which to measure divine involvement in the world. Thus, those human beings of the most highly cultivated morality, such as prophets and saints serve an important function as embodied transmitters of the divine message.

God in Human Image and Incarnation

Another general motif in theism is that God is Himself in some way like the human beings he has created. Even the choice to refer to god by the male terminology reflects this proclivity among theist religions to construe God in anthropomorphic terms. Typically, the theist god is conceptualized as having a human form, usually that of a man, as in the case of Judaism and Christianity, where it is put forth in the creation story in Genesis that "God created man in his own image" (1.27, KJV). Furthermore, this god commonly takes on various human emotions. For example, in the Hebrew tradition, God is frequently swept up into anger with the Isrealites for their misappropriations of his commandments, while at other times exuding a sense of warmth and compassion for His people. A common criticism of theism notes this fact that human beings have limited their conceptual image of the infinite, divine being to their own earthly form. This type of God, it is claimed by such ethnologists as E.B. Tylor and James Frazer, is merely the penultimate extension of so-called "primitive" human beliefs such as animism which project souls and personalities onto natural objects and phenomena.

Because of the importance of immanence, moral perfection and anthropomorphism as cornerstone traits in their conception of god, the tangible entrance of God into the physical world sometimes becomes a key feature for theist belief systems. In the case of Christianity and Vaishnavite Hinduism, this comes to a head in the doctrine of incarnation: that God can manifest himself directly in the living world in a purified form. For Christians, the embodiment of god is Jesus; for Vaishnavites, it is Krishna. These gods participate in the human world as humans themselves for the general purpose of aiding humanity and proving their love to all people.

Examples of Classical Theism

Zoroastrianism

An early example of theism can be found in Zoroastrianism, the religion of the ancient Persians which still exists in small circles today. The supreme deity, Ahura Mazda, represents one of the first deities in human history to be described as inherently good and all-encompassing. Despite Ahura Mazda's transcendent properties, he is able to put into effect his will by way of six angels, or Amesha Spentas. These beings also represent indispensible moral principles. Since Ahura Mazda is capable of creating only good things, evil is said to come into existence by way of a lesser spirit, Angra Manyu. Angra Manyu, it should be noted, is actually the offspring of Ahura Mazda, along with Spenta Manyu, the spirit responsible for evil. This type of familial lineage marks the anthropomorphism by which Ahura Mazda was sometimes described.

Ancient Greek

The pattern for later iterations of theism was laid out, in the very least a philosophical sense, by Plato. Plato spoke of god mainly in mythical terms, stressing his goodness in such works as Timaeus, and his caring nature in the lives of men, as in the Phaedo. However, in his later works, most notably the tenth book of The Laws, he used the analogy of circular motion (specifically the notion of a fixed center which is unmoving and a peripheral object which is in constant motion) to argue that things can be in flux while also remaining constant. Such was the analouge for the action of god; a being who could interact with the human world without changing itself. God, according to Plato, has designed the world on the pattern of Forms, the perfected iterations of any given object, and above all a notion of the "Good" which is beyond thought and is therefore transcendent. This transcendence, in concert witht the personalize, mythical deities described in Plato's earlier work, could be interpreted as theistic in scope. His combination of supremely perfect transcedence along with god's ability to change the living world, provided the groundwork for later theistic thought.

Islam

Islam followed in the footsteps of its Abrahamic predecessors. It too centres on a personalized deity, Allah, the same god talked about by Moses and Jesus. Despite a generally accepted sentiment that God transcends shape and form, several passages in the Qur'an describe Allah using anthropomorphic language, claiming that He can see and hear, among other things. Intense debate in Islamic theological scholarship over such passages has arrived at the conclusion that God does see and hear, however, he does so in a manner far superior to comparable human sensations. Like these other faiths, God is one, indivisible, and is in all things, yet is also completely separate from humanity. In a seeming paradox, while god is present in everything, Islam tends to represent every human action as the action of god within the given human, hence identifying humanity with god. While such an idea is accepted in some circles of the mystical Sufis, mainstream Islam denies such charges vehemently. Instead, Allah is typically described in highly transcendent terms, while revealing Himself to humanity through prophets such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, and most importantly Mohammed, who recorded the Quran its sacred book. Unlike Christianity, Islam rejects the notion of incarnation in the form of a person. While the Christian god is manifest on earth in the form of the Son Jesus Christ, Islam marks god's manifestation in the Quran, instead. For Muslims, the Quran represents the direct revelation of Allah's wisdom.

Variations of Theism

Theism also refers to a wide range of beliefs which assert the existence of one or more deities. Views about the existence of deities are commonly divided into these categories:

• Polytheism: The belief that there is more than one deity. Several terms must be differentiated here. First, Polytheism proper is the belief there is a pantheon of distinct deities, all of which are to be worshipped. Within polytheism proper there are hard and soft varieties. Hard polytheism views the gods as being distinct and separate beings, while soft polytheism views the gods as being subsumed into a greater whole. Animism refers to the belief there are immense amount of deities and spirits within all things, which are to be placated and worshipped. Monolatry, in contrast, refers to the belief that there may be more than one deity, but only one should be worshipped.
• Henotheism: The belief that there may be more than one deity, but one is supreme.
• Kathenotheism: The belief that there is more than one deity, but only one deity at a time should be worshipped. Each is supreme in turn.
• Monotheism: The belief that there is only one deity. There are two major types of monotheism indentifed 1) Inclusive monotheism, the belief that there is only one deity, and that all other claimed deities are just different names for it and 2) Exclusive monotheism refers to the belief that there is only one deity, and that all other claimed deities are false and distinct from it, either invented, demonic, or simply incorrect. The Hindu denomination of Smartism serves as an example of inclusive monotheism. Most Abrahamic religions, and the Hindu denomination of Vaishnavism, serve as examples of exclusive monotheism.
• Pantheism: The belief that the universe is entirely contained within an all-encompassing, immanent deity.
• Panentheism: The belief that the universe is entirely contained within a deity that is greater than just the universe, both immanent and transcendent.

Theism is also implicated in a number of terms which refer to disbelief or doubt in the existence of God:

• Nontheism: The absence of clearly identified belief in any deity. Nontheisticreligions include Taoism and Zen buddhism.
• Antitheism: A direct opposition to theism, or else the view that theism is destructive.
• Atheism refers to belief that there is no divinity. This includes both strong atheism, the belief that no deity exists and Weak atheism, an absence of belief in the existence of deities.
• Agnosticism: The belief that the existence of God or gods is unknown and/or inherently unknowable. This includes Strong agnosticism, the view that the question of the existence of deities is inherently unknowable or meaningless, and Weak agnosticism, which states that the question of the existence of deities is currently unknown, but not inherently unknowable.

It should be noted that these belief labels are often not as rigid in the literature and in practice as this classification scheme may suggest. For instance, classical Christianity asserts the existence of "lesser" deities such as angels and demons, causing some to argue that the belief system is properly a form of henotheistic polytheism. Most Christians, however, would resist being labeled as polytheists. Finally, it should be noted that a distinction can be made between belief in the existence of deities, and beliefs about their characteristics, or the belief in a deity as the summum bonum: see eutheism and dystheism.

See also

• Agnosticism
• Antitheism
• Atheism
• Existence of God
• Freethought
• Nontheism
• Omnitheism
• Open theism
• Panentheism
• Pantheism
• Pandeism
• Philosophical theism
• Transcendentalism
• Transtheism

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• "Systems of Religious and Spiritual Belief." The New Encyclopedia Britannica: Volume 26 Macropaedia. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2002. 530-577.
• Plato. The Laws. Trevor J. Saunders, trans. Toronto: Penguin Publishers, 1970.
• Plato. Timaeus. Donald J. Zeyl, trans. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000.

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