Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism (理學 Pinyin: Lǐxué) is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty. The term should not be mistaken for New Confucianism which is an effort to apply Confucianism to the 21st century.

Background and Overview

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Neo-Confucianism was a response by the Confucians to the dominance of the Taoists and Buddhists. Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi recognized that the Confucian system of the time did not include a thoroughgoing metaphysical system and so devised one. There were many competing views within the Neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Taoist thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the Book of Changes (I Ching) as well as other yin yang theories associated with the Taiji symbol (Taijitu). A well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan "The three teachings are one!"

While Neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many Neo-Confucianists claimed to strongly oppose Buddhism and Taoism. One of Han Yu's most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist relics. Zhu Xi in particular, wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist, and included some extremely heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism.

Zhu Xi's formulation of the Neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that the Way (Tao) of Heaven (Tian) is expressed in principle or li (理, py lǐ), but that it is sheathed in matter or qi (氣, py qì). In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and shi (事, Pinyin shì). In the Neo-Confucian formulation, li in itself is pure and perfect, but with the addition of qi, base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the Neo-Confucians argued (following Mencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one's li. However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, Neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea of karma.

Different Neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed in gewu (格物, géwù), the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea that li lies within the world. Wang Yangming (Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential Neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that if li is in all things, and li is in one's heart, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so was jingzuo (靜坐, jìngzuò), 'quiet sitting', a practice that strongly resembles zuochan or Chan (Zen) meditation.

The importance of li in Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its name, literally "The study of Li."

Neo-Confucianism became the accepted state philosophy by the Ming, and continued in this way through the Qing dynasty and, in some ways, up to modernity. Many classical studies associated with Chinese culture – music, theatre, art, traditional Chinese medicine, martial arts such as Taijiquan – as well as the traditional teaching methods (pedagogy) of such disciplines – have strong foundations in Neo-Confucian ethics.

However, in the 19th century there was a reaction against Neo-Confucianism. This view was called the Evidential School or Han Learning and argued that Neo-Confucianism had caused the teachings of Confucianism to be hopelessly contaminated with Buddhist thinking. This school also criticized Neo-Confucianism for being detached from reality with empty philosophical speculation that was unconnected with reality.

In the 20th century, the May Fourth movement, Communism and other political modernizing movements tried to eradicate the cultural influence of Confucianism in China, and initially managed to repress its public expression with some degree of success, yet the recent liberalizations on the Mainland have led to some reassertion of its place in Chinese daily life. It also continues to hold a strong influence with overseas Chinese and in Taiwan. Neo-Confucianism also arguably lives on in many aspects of Chinese life, such as reverence for one's elders and the examination system.

The Confucian canon as it exists today was essentially compiled by Zhu Xi. Zhu codified the canon of Four Books (The Great Learning, The Analects of Confucius, Mencius, and Doctrine of the Mean) which in the subsequent Yuan and Ming Dynasties were made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.

List of Major Figures

Neo-Confucianism, despite its ties with Chinese governmental orthodoxy, was not a rigid or doctrinaire religio-philosophical tradition. As such, its development is a far more organic affair, characterized by an ever-increasing body of sources and perspectives - each of which, in turn, becomes the fodder for future discussion and incorporation. However, the unifying feature of these thinkers is their adherence to classical cultural materials as normative sources of human ethics and practice.

Because of the organic development of the tradition, it is not possible to construct a linear timeline of orthodoxies. Instead, each formative thinker will be listed below and their contributions will be (briefly) summarized.

China

• Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (798-??) - the precursors of the Neo-Confucian movement, they are best known for their staunch defense of Confucianism in the face of Buddhist and Daoist opposition. Also, their materials and methods became standard in the development of the Neo-Confucian school - specifically, their emphasis on the importance of Mencius as the authentic transmitter of the Confucian Dao and their extensive use of the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean and the Book of Changes as normative sources (Chan, 450). In that they studied and wrote together, their contributions are often seen as being coterminous.

• Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) - a classical Confucian gentleman (junzi) more than a Neo-Confucian scholar, Ouyang is best known for his political involvement and his masterful composition of poetry and prose.

• Shao Yong (1011–1077) - an autodidact who composed a vast and intricate numerological system based on materials derived from the Confucian classics (especially the Book of Changes). This system aimed to explore the fundamental basis of reality, while also examining the intricacies of human nature (see Birdwhistell).

• Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) - an erudite philosopher, metaphysician and ethicist, he is seen by many as the first genuinely Neo-Confucian thinker. He is credited with developing a truly Confucian cosmology through his synthesis of the Daoist creation account with the one found in the Book of Changes. His groundbreaking Taijitu Shuo (Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate) is thought to have set "the parameters in which the yinyang theory was to be assimilated metaphysically and systematically into Confucian thought and practice" (Wang, 307. See also: Chan, 460).

• Zhang Zai (1020–1078) - an innovative philosopher, he is mainly known in the West for his innovative cosmology (which identified "qi with the Great Ultimate iteself" (Chang, 495). However, his theories of qi had a strong, though less studied, behavioral component, based on the relationship between proper ritual action (li) and the harmonious action of qi in the body (Chow, 201-202). This emphasis is considered to have had a strong impact on the development and direction of Zhu Xi's thought.

• Cheng Hao (1032-1085) - one of the influential Cheng brothers, he was primarily known for his learned exposition of the role of li in human and cosmic affairs. Additionally, he provided the locus for later Confucian idealism by stressing that "principle [li] and mind are one" and advocating quietistic meditation (Chan, 522).

• Cheng Yi (1033-1107) - like his brother Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi was instrumental (and most historically relevant) for his systematization of the concept of li. His personal contribution was to look in the empirical or rational world for li and to see them as part of the ever-unfolding cosmic process. Indeed, "Cheng Yi said it unmistakably: 'Nature is principle; the so-called principle is nothing but nature'" (Yong, 457). This stress on the externality (or at least empiricality) of li found full expression in Zhu Xi's doctrine of "investigating things" (ge wu).

• Su Shi aka Su Dongpo (1037–1101) - a great Confucian classicist, he (unlike many other Neo-Confucians at the time) eschewed the search for a discursive metaphysical model of reality, in favor of developing a heuristic ethical system that better described the vagaries of material existence. Intriguingly, he used the classical Confucian corpus as the nexus for his ethical project (Berthrong, 94-97).

• Zhu Xi (1130–1200) - the grand synthesizer of the Neo-Confucian tradition, he is famed for his unification of Zhou Dunyi's theory of the supreme ultimate, Zhang Zai's conception of qi and the Cheng brother's understanding of principle (li) into a single, holistic metaphysical and cosmological system. Also, he was instrumental in the decisive formation of the Confucian canon (defined as the Four Books and the Five Classics). His critical editions of the Four Books became the textbooks for the imperial examination system in 1313, where they remained the orthodox standard of Neo-Confucian learning until the beginning of the twentieth century.

• Lu Xiangshan aka Lu Jiuyuan (1139–1193) - a vocal critic of Zhu Xi, he argued that the "investigation of things" (ge wu) was less important than delving into one's own heart-and-mind (xin). To that end, "Lu was reported to have [said] that even the Confucian classics were merely footnotes to his own mind-heart, strengthening the conviction of the priority of moral cultivation of the mind-heart over any external form of hermeneutic art" (Berthrong, 112). For leading Neo-Confucian thought in this direction, the idealistic stream (as distinct from the School of Principle (li xue)) is often called the "Lu-Wang School" (where Wang refers to Wang Yang-ming (discussed below)).

• Wang Yangming aka Wang Shouren (1472-1529) - the primary critic of Zhu Xi's system, Wang argued for an idealistic cosmos by identifying the Supreme Ultimate (source and ground of the universe) with the Original Mind (which is the foundation of the human heart-and-mind (xin)). Wang's theories led to the development of the School of Mind (xin xue), which briefly rivalled the School of Principle (li xue) that was dominant at the time.

Korea

• Yi Saek (李穡, 1328–1396) - an influential scholar, Yi Saek (also known as Mokeun) was largely responsible for bringing Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism to Korea, establishing a Confucian academy in Goryeo after concluding his studies in China (See [[1]]).

• Jeong Mongju (鄭夢周, 1337–1392)
• Gang Hoebaek (姜淮伯, 1357–1402)
• Heo Eung (許應, died 1411)
• Jeong Chong (鄭摠, 1358–1397),
• Jeong Dojeon (鄭道傳, 1348–1398)
• Jo Gwangjo (趙光祖, 1482–1519)
• Yi Hwang (李滉, 1501–1570)
• Yi I (李珥, 1536–1584)

Japan

• Fujiwara Seika (1561–1619)
• Hayashi Razan (1583–1657)
• Nakai Tōju (1608–1648)
• Yamazaki Ansai (1619–1682)
• Kumazawa Banzan (1619–1691)
• Kinoshita Jun'an (1621–1698)
• Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685)
• Itō Jinsai (1627–1705)
• Kaibara Ekken (aka Ekiken) (1630–1714) - a critic of Zhu Xi's East Asian advocates, Kaibara argued for the unity of li and qi. However, he was less interested in abstruse metaphysics than in the concrete role of qi "as the basis of human morality, as expressed in his avid interest in medicine, botany, and biology" (Chung, 255).
• Satō Naokata (1650?–1719)
• Asami Keisai (1652–1712)
• Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725)
• Muro Kyūsō (1658–1734)
• Miyake Sekian (1665–1730)
• Ogyū Sorai (1666–1728)
• Amenomori Hōshū (1668–1755)
• Itō Tōgai (1670–1736)
• Matsumiya Kanzan (1686–1780)
• Goi Ranshū (1697–1762)
• Nakai Chikuzan (1730–1804)
• Ōshio Heihachirō (1793–1837)
• Yamada Hōkoku (1805–1877)

References

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• Berthrong, John H. Transformations of the Confucian Way. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998. ISBN: 0813328047.
• Birdwhistell, Anne. Transition to Neo-Confucianism: Shao Yung on Knowledge and Symbols of Reality. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989. ISBN: 0804715505.
• Chang, Carsun. Wang Yang-Ming: The Idealist Philosopher of 16th Century China. New York: St. John's University Press, 1962.
• Chow, Kai-wing. "Ritual, Cosmology and Ontology: Chang Tsai's Moral Philosophy and Neo-Confucian Ethics." Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43 (2), April 93. 201-229.
• Chung, Chai-sik. "Between Principle and Situation: Contrasting Styles in the Japanese and Korean Traditions of Moral Culture." Philosophy East & West. Vol. 56 (2), April 2006. 253-280.
• Wang, Robin. "Zhou Dunyi's Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate Explained (Taijitu shuo): A Construction of the Confucian Metaphysics." Journal of the History of Ideas. Vol. 66 (3), July 2005. 307-323.
• Yong Huang. "Cheng Brothers’ Neo-Confucian Virtue Ethics: The Identity of Virtue and Nature." Journal of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 30 (3/4), September 2003. 451-468.

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