Difference between revisions of "Kerala" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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{{Infobox Indian Jurisdiction
 
{{Infobox Indian Jurisdiction
 
|type                = state
 
|type                = state
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|leader_title_2      = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]]
 
|leader_title_2      = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]]
 
|leader_name_2        = [[V.S. Achuthanandan|V.S. Achuthanandan]]
 
|leader_name_2        = [[V.S. Achuthanandan|V.S. Achuthanandan]]
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|established_date    = [[November 1]], [[1956]]
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|established_date    = November 1, 1956  
 
|area_total          = 38863  
 
|area_total          = 38863  
 
|area_rank            = 21st  
 
|area_rank            = 21st  
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'''Kerala''' ({{IPAudio|Kerala.ogg|['keːɹəˌɭɐ]}}; [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]: [[Malayalam script|{{Kerala in Malayalam}}]]<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE MALAYALAM TEXT. If the "e" vowel looks like it's in the wrong place, your browser needs to be configured properly. See WP:COMPLEX for details.—><sup>[[WP:COMPLEX|<span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span>]]</sup>; ''{{Unicode|Kēraḷaṁ}}'') is a [[States and territories of India|state]] on the [[Malabar|Malabar Coast]] of southwestern [[India]]. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] respectively; to its west and south lie the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]], with the islands of [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Maldives]], respectively. Kerala nearly envelopes [[Mahé]], a coastal [[exclave]] of [[Pondicherry]]. Kerala is one of the four states of [[South India]].
 
'''Kerala''' ({{IPAudio|Kerala.ogg|['keːɹəˌɭɐ]}}; [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]: [[Malayalam script|{{Kerala in Malayalam}}]]<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE MALAYALAM TEXT. If the "e" vowel looks like it's in the wrong place, your browser needs to be configured properly. See WP:COMPLEX for details.—><sup>[[WP:COMPLEX|<span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span>]]</sup>; ''{{Unicode|Kēraḷaṁ}}'') is a [[States and territories of India|state]] on the [[Malabar|Malabar Coast]] of southwestern [[India]]. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] respectively; to its west and south lie the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]], with the islands of [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Maldives]], respectively. Kerala nearly envelopes [[Mahé]], a coastal [[exclave]] of [[Pondicherry]]. Kerala is one of the four states of [[South India]].
  
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First settled in the 10th century BCE by speakers of [[Proto-Dravidian|Proto-South Dravidian]], Kerala was influenced by the [[Mauryan Empire]]. Later, the [[Chera dynasty|Cheran kingdom]] and feudal [[Namboothiri]] [[Brahmin]]ical city-states became major powers in the region.<ref name="keralagovl">{{cite web
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First settled in the 10th century B.C.E. by speakers of [[Proto-Dravidian|Proto-South Dravidian]], Kerala was influenced by the [[Mauryan Empire]]. Later, the [[Chera dynasty|Cheran kingdom]] and feudal [[Namboothiri]] [[Brahmin]]ical city-states became major powers in the region.<ref name="keralagovl">{{cite web
 
| publisher=Government of Kerala
 
| publisher=Government of Kerala
 
| work=Official Website of the Government of Kerala
 
| work=Official Website of the Government of Kerala
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| title=Early history of Kerala
 
| title=Early history of Kerala
 
| accessdate=2007-05-16
 
| accessdate=2007-05-16
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}}</ref> Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. The [[States Reorganisation Act]] of [[November 1]], [[1956]], elevated Kerala to statehood. Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and [[Travancore]] were expanded upon by post-[[Independence of India|independence]] governments, making Kerala among the [[Third World]]'s longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions. However, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism, and unemployment rates rank among India's highest.<ref name="ksmha">{{cite web
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}}</ref> Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. The [[States Reorganisation Act]] of November 1, 1956, elevated Kerala to statehood. Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and [[Travancore]] were expanded upon by post-[[Independence of India|independence]] governments, making Kerala among the [[Third World]]'s longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions. However, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism, and unemployment rates rank among India's highest.<ref name="ksmha">{{cite web
 
| publisher=Government of Kerala
 
| publisher=Government of Kerala
 
| work=Kerala State Mental Health Authority
 
| work=Kerala State Mental Health Authority
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A survey conducted in 2005 by [[Transparency International]] ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/current_in_focus/india_study_2005 | title= India Corruption Study - 2005 | publisher=[[Transparency International]] | accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref>
 
A survey conducted in 2005 by [[Transparency International]] ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/current_in_focus/india_study_2005 | title= India Corruption Study - 2005 | publisher=[[Transparency International]] | accessdate=2007-05-29}}</ref>
  
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The etymology of ''Kerala'' is widely disputed, and is a matter of conjecture. The prevailing theory is that Kerala is an imperfect [[Malayalam]] portmanteau that fuses ''kera'' ('coconut palm tree') and ''alam'' ('land' or 'location' or 'abode of'). Another theory is that the name originated from the phrase ''chera alam'' (''Land of the Chera''). Natives of Kerala—''Keralites or [[Malayalee]]s''—thus refer to their land as ''Keralam''. [[Tourism in Kerala|Kerala's tourism industry]], among others, also use the phrase ''[[God's own country]]''.
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The etymology of ''Kerala'' is widely disputed, and is a matter of conjecture. The prevailing theory is that Kerala is an imperfect [[Malayalam]] portmanteau that fuses ''kera'' ('coconut palm tree') and ''alam'' ('land' or 'location' or 'abode of'). Another theory is that the name originated from the phrase ''chera alam'' ''(Land of the Chera)''. Natives of Kerala—''Keralites or [[Malayalee]]s''—thus refer to their land as ''Keralam''. [[Tourism in Kerala|Kerala's tourism industry]], among others, also use the phrase ''[[God's own country]]''.
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==
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Myths and legends persist concerning the origin of Kerala. One such myth is the creation of Kerala by Parasurama, a warrior sage. Parasurama was the incarnation of Maha Vishnu. He was the sixth of the ten avatars (incarnation) of Vishnu. The word Parasu means 'axe' in Sanskrit and therefore the name Parasurama means 'Ram with Axe'. The aim of his birth was to deliver the world from the arrogant oppression of the ruling caste, the Kshatriyas. He killed all the male Kshatriyas on earth and filled five lakes with their blood. After destroying the Kshatriya kings, he approached assembly of learned men to find a way of penitence for his sins. He was advised that, to save his soul from damnation, he must hand over the lands he had conquered to the Brahmins. He did as they advised and sat in meditation at Gokarnam. There, Varuna -the God of the Oceans and Bhumidevi - Goddess of Earth blessed him. From Gokarnam he reached Kanyakumari and threw his axe northward across the ocean. The place where the axe landed was Kerala. It was 160 katam (an old measure) of land lying between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari. Puranas say that it was Parasuram who planted the 64 Brahmin families in Kerala, whom he brought down from the north in order to expiate his slaughter of the Kshatriyas. According to the puranas, Kerala is also known as Parasurama Kshetram, ie., 'The Land of Parasurama',as the land was reclaimed from sea by him.
 
Myths and legends persist concerning the origin of Kerala. One such myth is the creation of Kerala by Parasurama, a warrior sage. Parasurama was the incarnation of Maha Vishnu. He was the sixth of the ten avatars (incarnation) of Vishnu. The word Parasu means 'axe' in Sanskrit and therefore the name Parasurama means 'Ram with Axe'. The aim of his birth was to deliver the world from the arrogant oppression of the ruling caste, the Kshatriyas. He killed all the male Kshatriyas on earth and filled five lakes with their blood. After destroying the Kshatriya kings, he approached assembly of learned men to find a way of penitence for his sins. He was advised that, to save his soul from damnation, he must hand over the lands he had conquered to the Brahmins. He did as they advised and sat in meditation at Gokarnam. There, Varuna -the God of the Oceans and Bhumidevi - Goddess of Earth blessed him. From Gokarnam he reached Kanyakumari and threw his axe northward across the ocean. The place where the axe landed was Kerala. It was 160 katam (an old measure) of land lying between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari. Puranas say that it was Parasuram who planted the 64 Brahmin families in Kerala, whom he brought down from the north in order to expiate his slaughter of the Kshatriyas. According to the puranas, Kerala is also known as Parasurama Kshetram, ie., 'The Land of Parasurama',as the land was reclaimed from sea by him.
  
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During [[Neolithic]] times, humans largely avoided Kerala's rainforests and wetlands. There is evidence of the emergence of prehistoric pottery and granite burial monuments in the 10th century BCE that resemble their counterparts in Western Europe and the rest of Asia. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language.<ref name="GOK_2005">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005}}.</ref> Thus, Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]] once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as [[Tamilakam]]. Kerala became a linguistically separate region by the early 14th century. The ancient [[Chera dynasty|Cherans]], whose [[mother tongue]] and court language was [[Tamil language|Tamil]], ruled Kerala from their capital at [[Vanchi (Indian Capital)|Vanchi]] and was the first major recorded kingdom. Allied with the [[Pallava]]s, they continually warred against the neighbouring [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms. A Keralite identity—distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] and associated with the second Chera empire—and the development of Malayalam evolved between the 8th and 14th centuries. In written records, Kerala was first mentioned in the [[Sanskrit]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''Aitareya Aranyaka''. Later, figures such as [[Katyayana]], [[Patanjali]], [[Pliny the Elder]], and the unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' displayed familiarity with Kerala.<ref name="Veliath007">Pliny's ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', Book 6, Chapter 26</ref>
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During [[Neolithic]] times, humans largely avoided Kerala's rainforests and wetlands. There is evidence of the emergence of prehistoric pottery and granite burial monuments in the 10th century B.C.E. that resemble their counterparts in Western Europe and the rest of Asia. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language.<ref name="GOK_2005">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005}}.</ref> Thus, Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]] once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as [[Tamilakam]]. Kerala became a linguistically separate region by the early 14th century. The ancient [[Chera dynasty|Cherans]], whose [[mother tongue]] and court language was [[Tamil language|Tamil]], ruled Kerala from their capital at [[Vanchi (Indian Capital)|Vanchi]] and was the first major recorded kingdom. Allied with the [[Pallava]]s, they continually warred against the neighbouring [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms. A Keralite identity—distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] and associated with the second Chera empire—and the development of Malayalam evolved between the 8th and 14th centuries. In written records, Kerala was first mentioned in the [[Sanskrit]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''Aitareya Aranyaka''. Later, figures such as [[Katyayana]], [[Patanjali]], [[Pliny the Elder]], and the unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' displayed familiarity with Kerala.<ref name="Veliath007">Pliny's ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', Book 6, Chapter 26</ref>
  
 
[[Image:Muniyara.jpg|thumb|right|''Muniyaras'' (Keralite dolmens or [[megalithic tomb]]s) in [[Marayoor]], erected by Neolithic tribesmen.]]
 
[[Image:Muniyara.jpg|thumb|right|''Muniyaras'' (Keralite dolmens or [[megalithic tomb]]s) in [[Marayoor]], erected by Neolithic tribesmen.]]
  
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The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="Veliath000">P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar's "History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 AD", Madras, 1929</ref> Many—especially Jews and Christians—also escaped persecution, establishing the [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Nasrani Mappila]]<ref name="Veliath002>The Indian Christians of St Thomas, Leslie Brown, page 171</ref> and [[Mappila|Muslim Mappila]] communities. According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref>De Beth Hillel, David (1832). ''Travels'' ([[Madras]] publication).</ref><ref>Lord, James Henry (1977). ''The Jews in India and the Far East''; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.</ref> The works of scholars and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] writings state that [[Thomas the Apostle]] visited [[Muziris]] in Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements.<ref name= "GPress">Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias Press LLC; ISBN</ref><ref> Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II.</ref> However, the first verifiable migration of [[Knanaya|Jewish-Nasrani]] families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in 345 CE.<ref>Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.Around 9th century Chera kingdom disappered and several small kingdoms/swaroopams formed under the leadership of Nair chieftens.</ref> [[Malik ibn Dinar|Muslim merchants]] (Malik ibn Dinar) settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in 1498, the Portuguese sought to control the lucrative [[spice trade|pepper trade]] by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.
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The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="Veliath000">P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar's "History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 C.E.," Madras, 1929</ref> Many—especially Jews and Christians—also escaped persecution, establishing the [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Nasrani Mappila]]<ref name="Veliath002>The Indian Christians of St Thomas, Leslie Brown, page 171</ref> and [[Mappila|Muslim Mappila]] communities. According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref>De Beth Hillel, David (1832). ''Travels'' ([[Madras]] publication).</ref><ref>Lord, James Henry (1977). ''The Jews in India and the Far East''; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.</ref> The works of scholars and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] writings state that [[Thomas the Apostle]] visited [[Muziris]] in Kerala in 52 C.E. to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements.<ref name= "GPress">Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias Press LLC; ISBN</ref><ref> Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas," The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II.</ref> However, the first verifiable migration of [[Knanaya|Jewish-Nasrani]] families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in 345 C.E.<ref>Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.Around 9th century Chera kingdom disappered and several small kingdoms/swaroopams formed under the leadership of Nair chieftens.</ref> [[Malik ibn Dinar|Muslim merchants]] (Malik ibn Dinar) settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in 1498, the Portuguese sought to control the lucrative [[spice trade|pepper trade]] by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.
  
 
Conflicts between the cities of [[Kozhikode]] (Calicut) and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] (Cochin) provided an opportunity for the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were ousted at the 1741 [[Battle of Colachel]] by [[Marthanda Varma]] of [[Travancore]] (Thiruvathaamkoor). [[Hyder Ali]], heading the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, [[Tipu Sultan]], Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding [[British East India Company]]; these resulted in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. He ultimately ceded [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Malabar and South Kanara became part of the [[Madras Presidency]].  
 
Conflicts between the cities of [[Kozhikode]] (Calicut) and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] (Cochin) provided an opportunity for the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were ousted at the 1741 [[Battle of Colachel]] by [[Marthanda Varma]] of [[Travancore]] (Thiruvathaamkoor). [[Hyder Ali]], heading the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, [[Tipu Sultan]], Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding [[British East India Company]]; these resulted in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. He ultimately ceded [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Malabar and South Kanara became part of the [[Madras Presidency]].  
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Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the [[British Raj]]—nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar revolt,<ref name="GOK_2002">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2002}}.</ref>  and heroes like[[Velayudan Thampi Dalava]] [[Pazhassi Raja]] and [[Kunjali Marakkar]] earned their place in history and folklore. Many actions, spurred by such leaders as [[Sree Narayana Guru]] and [[Chattampi Swamikal]], instead protested such conditions as [[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchability]]; notable was the 1924 ''[[Vaikom Satyagraham]]''. In 1936, [[Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma]] of Travancore issued the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples to all castes; [[Cochin]] and [[Malabar]] soon did likewise. The 1921 [[Moplah Rebellion]] involved Mappila Muslims battling Hindus and the British Raj.<ref>{{cite book |last=Qureshi |first=MN |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |year=1999 |pages=445–447 |isbn=9004105387}}</ref>
 
Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the [[British Raj]]—nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar revolt,<ref name="GOK_2002">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2002}}.</ref>  and heroes like[[Velayudan Thampi Dalava]] [[Pazhassi Raja]] and [[Kunjali Marakkar]] earned their place in history and folklore. Many actions, spurred by such leaders as [[Sree Narayana Guru]] and [[Chattampi Swamikal]], instead protested such conditions as [[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchability]]; notable was the 1924 ''[[Vaikom Satyagraham]]''. In 1936, [[Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma]] of Travancore issued the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples to all castes; [[Cochin]] and [[Malabar]] soon did likewise. The 1921 [[Moplah Rebellion]] involved Mappila Muslims battling Hindus and the British Raj.<ref>{{cite book |last=Qureshi |first=MN |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |year=1999 |pages=445–447 |isbn=9004105387}}</ref>
  
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After India's independence in 1947, [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]] on [[July 1]], [[1949]]. On [[January 1]], [[1950]] ([[Republic Day of India|Republic Day]]), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. Meanwhile, the Madras Presidency had become [[Madras State]] in 1947. Finally, the [[Government of India]]'s [[November 1]], [[1956]] [[States Reorganisation Act]] inaugurated the state of Kerala, incorporating Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the [[tehsil|taluk]] of [[Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]].<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref> A new legislative assembly was also created, for which elections were first held in 1957. These resulted in a communist-led government<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref>—one of the world's earliest<ref name="Jose_1998">Jose, D (1998), "[http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/mar/19ems.htm EMS Namboodiripad dead]", Rediff [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref>—headed by [[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. Subsequent social reforms favoured tenants and labourers.<ref name="Cheriyan_2004_22-23">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=22–23}}.</ref><ref name="Cheriyan_2004_43-44">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=43–44}}.</ref> This facilitated, among other things, improvements in living standards, education, and life expectancy.
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After India's independence in 1947, [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]] on July 1, 1949. On January 1, 1950 ([[Republic Day of India|Republic Day]]), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. Meanwhile, the Madras Presidency had become [[Madras State]] in 1947. Finally, the [[Government of India]]'s November 1, 1956 [[States Reorganisation Act]] inaugurated the state of Kerala, incorporating Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the [[tehsil|taluk]] of [[Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]].<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref> A new legislative assembly was also created, for which elections were first held in 1957. These resulted in a communist-led government<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref>—one of the world's earliest<ref name="Jose_1998">Jose, D (1998), "[http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/mar/19ems.htm EMS Namboodiripad dead]," Rediff [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref>—headed by [[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]]. Subsequent social reforms favoured tenants and labourers.<ref name="Cheriyan_2004_22-23">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=22–23}}.</ref><ref name="Cheriyan_2004_43-44">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=43–44}}.</ref> This facilitated, among other things, improvements in living standards, education, and life expectancy.
  
 
== Geography ==
 
== Geography ==
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Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the [[Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve]] in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species (1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought [[Herbalism|medicinal plant]]s.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_11">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=11}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref>  
 
Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the [[Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve]] in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species (1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought [[Herbalism|medicinal plant]]s.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_11">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=11}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref>  
  
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Its 9,400&nbsp;km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470&nbsp;km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100&nbsp;km² and 100&nbsp;km², respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100&nbsp;km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Two of the world’s [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]] and the [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad-Kol wetlands]]—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4&nbsp;km² of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]]. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004_6-7">{{Harvnb|Jayarajan|2004|pp=6–7}}.</ref> much of Kerala's forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]]. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of [[mammal]]s (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater [[fish]]es, 169 species of [[reptile]]s (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of [[amphibian]]s (86 endemic).<ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction (including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction).<ref name="GOK_2004f_142-145">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|pp=142–145}}.</ref>
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Its 9,400&nbsp;km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470&nbsp;km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100&nbsp;km² and 100&nbsp;km², respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] ''(shola)'' forests (highest elevations—100&nbsp;km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Two of the world’s [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]] and the [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad-Kol wetlands]]—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4&nbsp;km² of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]]. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004_6-7">{{Harvnb|Jayarajan|2004|pp=6–7}}.</ref> much of Kerala's forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]]. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of [[mammal]]s (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater [[fish]]es, 169 species of [[reptile]]s (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of [[amphibian]]s (86 endemic).<ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction (including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction).<ref name="GOK_2004f_142-145">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|pp=142–145}}.</ref>
  
 
[[Image:Giant-squirrel.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]] in [[Marayoor]], [[Idukki]].]]
 
[[Image:Giant-squirrel.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]] in [[Marayoor]], [[Idukki]].]]
  
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Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, ''sonokeling'' (Indian [[rosewood]]), ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'' (''[[Erythrina]]''), and ''[[Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild [[black pepper]], wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm genus)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic [[vetiver]] grass (''[[Vetiver|Vetiveria zizanioides]]'').<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Living among them are such fauna as [[Asian Elephant]], [[Bengal Tiger]], [[Leopard]] (''Panthera pardus''), [[Nilgiri Tahr]], [[Common Palm Civet]], and [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004_174-175">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Reptiles include the [[King Cobra|king cobra]], [[viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[crocodile]]. Kerala's birds are legion—[[Peafowl]], the [[Great Hornbill]], [[Indian Grey Hornbill]], [[Indian Cormorant]], and [[Jungle Myna]] are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as ''kadu'' ([[Catfish|stinging catfish]] and ''Choottachi'' (Orange chromide—''Etroplus maculatus''; valued as an [[aquarium]] specimen) are found.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_163-165">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=163–165}}.</ref>
+
Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, ''sonokeling'' (Indian [[rosewood]]), ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'' ''([[Erythrina]])'', and ''[[Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild [[black pepper]], wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm genus)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic [[vetiver]] grass ''(Vetiveria zizanioides)''.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Living among them are such fauna as [[Asian Elephant]], [[Bengal Tiger]], [[Leopard]] ''(Panthera pardus)'', [[Nilgiri Tahr]], [[Common Palm Civet]], and [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004_174-175">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Reptiles include the [[King Cobra|king cobra]], [[viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[crocodile]]. Kerala's birds are legion—[[Peafowl]], the [[Great Hornbill]], [[Indian Grey Hornbill]], [[Indian Cormorant]], and [[Jungle Myna]] are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as ''kadu'' ([[Catfish|stinging catfish]] and ''Choottachi'' (Orange chromide—''Etroplus maculatus''; valued as an [[aquarium]] specimen) are found.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_163-165">{{Harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=163–165}}.</ref>
  
 
== Subdivisions ==
 
== Subdivisions ==
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[[Image:High Court of Kerala.jpg|thumb|left|125px|The Kerala High Court in Ernakulam.]]
 
[[Image:High Court of Kerala.jpg|thumb|left|125px|The Kerala High Court in Ernakulam.]]
  
−
The [[judiciary]] comprises the [[Kerala High Court]] (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (''pro tempore'') justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court for the state; it also decides cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]]. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs.
+
The [[judiciary]] comprises the [[Kerala High Court]] (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional ''(pro tempore)'' justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court for the state; it also decides cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]]. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs.
  
−
The state's 2005&ndash;2006 budget was 219&nbsp;billion&nbsp;[[Indian Rupee|INR]].<ref>[http://www.kerala.gov.in/budget2005-6/a01.pdf Budget at a Glance]</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248&nbsp;million&nbsp;[[Indian Rupee|INR]] in 2005, up from 63,599&nbsp;million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809&nbsp;million&nbsp;INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847&nbsp;million&nbsp;INR revenues of 2000.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)]</ref> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf Memoranda from States: Kerala]</ref>
+
The state's 2005&ndash;2006 budget was 219&nbsp;billion&nbsp;[[Indian Rupee|INR]].<ref>[http://www.kerala.gov.in/budget2005-6/a01.pdf Budget at a Glance]</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248&nbsp;million&nbsp;INR in 2005, up from 63,599&nbsp;million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809&nbsp;million&nbsp;INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847&nbsp;million&nbsp;INR revenues of 2000.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)]</ref> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf Memoranda from States: Kerala]</ref>
  
 
== Politics ==
 
== Politics ==
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[[Image:Mist covered tea gardens.JPG|thumb|right|Tea gardens in eastern Kerala.]]
 
[[Image:Mist covered tea gardens.JPG|thumb|right|Tea gardens in eastern Kerala.]]
  
−
Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under [[welfare economy|welfare]] based [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] principles. Nevertheless, the state is increasingly [[Neoliberalism|liberalising]] its economy, thus moving to a more [[mixed economy]] with a greater role played by the [[free market]] and [[foreign direct investment]]. Kerala's nominal [[gross domestic product]] (as of 2004&ndash;2005) is an estimated 89451.99&nbsp;crore&nbsp;[[Indian rupee|INR]],<ref name="PTI_2006">Press Trust of India (2006), "[http://www.rediff.com/money/2006/feb/09ker.htm Kerala's GDP hits an all-time high]", Rediff [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref> while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004&ndash;2005 and 7.4% in 2003&ndash;2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> and 5.99%<ref name="GOK_2004_2">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=2}}.</ref> in the 1990s).<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref><!--Rapid expansion in services like banking, real estate, and tourism (13.8% growth in 2004&ndash;2005) outpaced growth in both agriculture (2.5% in 2004&ndash;2005) and the industrial sector (&minus;2% in 2004&ndash;2005).<ref name="PTI_2006"/>—> Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala.<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref> This is mitigated by [[remittance]]s sent home by overseas Keralites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/07/world/asia/07migrate.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=Jobs Abroad Support 'Model' State in India |date= |year=2007 |month=[[September 07]] |work=New York Times|accessdate=2007-09-07}}</ref> which contributes around 20% of state GDP.<ref name="Hari_Kannan_2002">Hari, KS & KP Kannan (2002), "Kerala's Gulf Connection: Emigration, Remittances and their Macro Economic Impact (Working Paper 328)", Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum).</ref> Kerala's per capita [[GDP]] of 11,819&nbsp;[[Indian rupee|INR]]<ref name="Raman_2005">{{Harvnb|Raman|2005}}.</ref> is significantly higher than the all India average,<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> although it still lies far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's [[Human Development Index]] and [[standard of living]] statistics are the nation's best.<ref name="Varma_2005">Varma, MS (2005), "[http://www.financialexpress.com/print.php?content_id=86925 Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap]", The Financial Express [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref> This apparent paradox—high human development and low economic development—is often dubbed the ''Kerala phenomenon'' or the ''[[Kerala model]]'' of development,<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Brenkert_2003_48">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=48}}.</ref> and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector.
+
Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under [[welfare economy|welfare]] based [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] principles. Nevertheless, the state is increasingly [[Neoliberalism|liberalising]] its economy, thus moving to a more [[mixed economy]] with a greater role played by the [[free market]] and [[foreign direct investment]]. Kerala's nominal [[gross domestic product]] (as of 2004&ndash;2005) is an estimated 89451.99&nbsp;crore&nbsp;[[Indian rupee|INR]],<ref name="PTI_2006">Press Trust of India (2006), "[http://www.rediff.com/money/2006/feb/09ker.htm Kerala's GDP hits an all-time high]," Rediff [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref> while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004&ndash;2005 and 7.4% in 2003&ndash;2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> and 5.99%<ref name="GOK_2004_2">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=2}}.</ref> in the 1990s).<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref><!--Rapid expansion in services like banking, real estate, and tourism (13.8% growth in 2004&ndash;2005) outpaced growth in both agriculture (2.5% in 2004&ndash;2005) and the industrial sector (&minus;2% in 2004&ndash;2005).<ref name="PTI_2006"/>—> Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala.<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref> This is mitigated by [[remittance]]s sent home by overseas Keralites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/07/world/asia/07migrate.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=Jobs Abroad Support 'Model' State in India |date= |year=2007 |month=September 07 |work=New York Times|accessdate=2007-09-07}}</ref> which contributes around 20% of state GDP.<ref name="Hari_Kannan_2002">Hari, KS & KP Kannan (2002), "Kerala's Gulf Connection: Emigration, Remittances and their Macro Economic Impact (Working Paper 328)," Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum).</ref> Kerala's per capita [[GDP]] of 11,819&nbsp;INR<ref name="Raman_2005">{{Harvnb|Raman|2005}}.</ref> is significantly higher than the all India average,<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> although it still lies far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's [[Human Development Index]] and [[standard of living]] statistics are the nation's best.<ref name="Varma_2005">Varma, MS (2005), "[http://www.financialexpress.com/print.php?content_id=86925 Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap]," The Financial Express [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref> This apparent paradox—high human development and low economic development—is often dubbed the ''Kerala phenomenon'' or the ''[[Kerala model]]'' of development,<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Brenkert_2003_48">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=48}}.</ref> and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector.
  
 
[[Image:SouthernIndia1b.jpg|thumb|left|Waterways bordering a farm in Kerala.]]
 
[[Image:SouthernIndia1b.jpg|thumb|left|Waterways bordering a farm in Kerala.]]
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[[Image:tpbhavaniview1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Technopark, Kerala|Technopark]], located in Thiruvananthapuram.]]
 
[[Image:tpbhavaniview1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Technopark, Kerala|Technopark]], located in Thiruvananthapuram.]]
  
−
Traditional industries manufacturing such items as [[coir]], handlooms, and [[handicraft]]s employ around ten&nbsp;lakh (one million) people. Around 1.8 lakh (180,000) small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites, while some 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. Meanwhile, a small mining sector (0.3% of GDP)<ref name="GOK_2004c_24">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=24}}.</ref> involves extraction of such materials as [[ilmenite]] (136,908.74&nbsp;tonnes in 1999&ndash;2000), [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005c}}.</ref> [[Home gardens]] and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other significant economic sectors are [[Tourism in Kerala|tourism]], manufacturing, and [[business process outsourcing]]. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%<ref name="Rajan_2005_4">{{Harvnb|Rajan|Zachariah|2005|p=4}}.</ref> and 20.77%,<ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> although [[underemployment]] of those classified as "employed", low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female [[labor force|participation rate]] are significant problems.<ref name="Nair_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Nair|2004|p=5}}.</ref><ref name="Nair_2004_13">{{Harvnb|Nair|2004|p=13}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> Estimates of the statewide [[Poverty line|poverty rate]] range from 12.71%<ref name="Dhar_2006">Dhar, A (2006), "260 million Indians still below poverty line", The Hindu [link accessed [[22 February]] [[2006]]].</ref> to as high as 36%.<ref name="GOK_2006">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2006|p=1}}.</ref>
+
Traditional industries manufacturing such items as [[coir]], handlooms, and [[handicraft]]s employ around ten&nbsp;lakh (one million) people. Around 1.8 lakh (180,000) small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites, while some 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. Meanwhile, a small mining sector (0.3% of GDP)<ref name="GOK_2004c_24">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=24}}.</ref> involves extraction of such materials as [[ilmenite]] (136,908.74&nbsp;tonnes in 1999&ndash;2000), [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005c}}.</ref> [[Home gardens]] and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other significant economic sectors are [[Tourism in Kerala|tourism]], manufacturing, and [[business process outsourcing]]. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%<ref name="Rajan_2005_4">{{Harvnb|Rajan|Zachariah|2005|p=4}}.</ref> and 20.77%,<ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> although [[underemployment]] of those classified as "employed," low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female [[labor force|participation rate]] are significant problems.<ref name="Nair_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Nair|2004|p=5}}.</ref><ref name="Nair_2004_13">{{Harvnb|Nair|2004|p=13}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> Estimates of the statewide [[Poverty line|poverty rate]] range from 12.71%<ref name="Dhar_2006">Dhar, A (2006), "260 million Indians still below poverty line," The Hindu [link accessed 22 February 2006].</ref> to as high as 36%.<ref name="GOK_2006">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2006|p=1}}.</ref>
  
 
== Tourism ==
 
== Tourism ==
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   | title=  Tourism beckons
 
   | title=  Tourism beckons
 
   | publisher=The Hindu
 
   | publisher=The Hindu
−
   | date=[[2004-05-11]]
+
   | date=2004-05-11
 
   | accessdate=2006-08-09
 
   | accessdate=2006-08-09
 
}}
 
}}
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Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India.<ref name="ORG_2001">{{Harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2001}}.</ref> Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,<ref name="GOK_2004c_26">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=26}}.</ref> and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.<ref name="GOK_2004c_27">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=27}}.</ref> Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991, adding 156&nbsp;lakh (15.6&nbsp;million) people to reach a total of 291&nbsp;lakh (29.1&nbsp;million) residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 320 lakh (32 million) by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref>
 
Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India.<ref name="ORG_2001">{{Harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2001}}.</ref> Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,<ref name="GOK_2004c_26">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=26}}.</ref> and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.<ref name="GOK_2004c_27">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=27}}.</ref> Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991, adding 156&nbsp;lakh (15.6&nbsp;million) people to reach a total of 291&nbsp;lakh (29.1&nbsp;million) residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 320 lakh (32 million) by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref>
  
−
Women compose 51.42% of the population.<ref name="Venkitakrishnan_Kurien_2003_26">{{Harvnb|Venkitakrishnan|Kurien|2003|p=26}}.</ref> Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).<ref name="ORG_India_2004">{{Harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2004}}.</ref> Remnants of a once substantial [[Cochin Jews|Cochin Jewish]] population also practice Judaism. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism. Nevertheless, there have been signs of increasing influences from religious extremist organisations including the [[Hindu Aikya Vedi]].<ref name="Ramakrishnan_2001">{{Harvnb|Ramakrishnan|2001}}.</ref><ref>Haviland, C (2003), "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2999683.stm Arrests follow India village massacre]", BBC News [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref>
+
Women compose 51.42% of the population.<ref name="Venkitakrishnan_Kurien_2003_26">{{Harvnb|Venkitakrishnan|Kurien|2003|p=26}}.</ref> Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).<ref name="ORG_India_2004">{{Harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2004}}.</ref> Remnants of a once substantial [[Cochin Jews|Cochin Jewish]] population also practice Judaism. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism. Nevertheless, there have been signs of increasing influences from religious extremist organisations including the [[Hindu Aikya Vedi]].<ref name="Ramakrishnan_2001">{{Harvnb|Ramakrishnan|2001}}.</ref><ref>Haviland, C (2003), "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2999683.stm Arrests follow India village massacre]," BBC News [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref>
  
 
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the [[Third World]].<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{Harvnb|McKibben|2006}}.</ref><ref name="Lindberg_2004_18-19">{{Harvnb|Lindberg|2004|pp=18–19}}.</ref> Certain Hindu communities (such as the Nairs), Travancore Ezhavas and the Muslims around [[Kannur]] used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''[[marumakkathayam]]'', which ended in the years after Indian independence. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.<ref name="GOK_2002b">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2002b}}.</ref> Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World.<ref name="GOK_2004r_366">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004r|p=366}}.</ref> Forces such as the patriarchy-enforced oppression of women threatens this status.<ref name="Lindberg_2004_1">{{Harvnb|Lindberg|2004|p=1}}.</ref>
 
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the [[Third World]].<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{Harvnb|McKibben|2006}}.</ref><ref name="Lindberg_2004_18-19">{{Harvnb|Lindberg|2004|pp=18–19}}.</ref> Certain Hindu communities (such as the Nairs), Travancore Ezhavas and the Muslims around [[Kannur]] used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''[[marumakkathayam]]'', which ended in the years after Indian independence. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.<ref name="GOK_2002b">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2002b}}.</ref> Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World.<ref name="GOK_2004r_366">{{Harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004r|p=366}}.</ref> Forces such as the patriarchy-enforced oppression of women threatens this status.<ref name="Lindberg_2004_1">{{Harvnb|Lindberg|2004|p=1}}.</ref>
  
−
Kerala's human development indices—elimination of poverty, primary level education, and health care—are among the best in India. Kerala's literacy rate (91%)<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref> and life expectancy (73 years)<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref> are now the highest in India. Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970&ndash;1971) to 19% (1993&ndash;1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8-9">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|pp=8–9}}.</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.<ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~rpds/downloads/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf Regional Poverty in India]</ref> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref name="UNESCO_2003_156">UNESCO (2003), "[http://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report]", UNESCO [link accessed 12 January 2006].</ref><ref name="Kutty_2000_103-104">Kutty, VR (2000), "[http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/1/103.pdf Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India]", Health Policy and Planning 15(1): 103–109 [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2006]]]. pp. 103–104.</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Varma_2005"/><ref name="Brenkert_2003_48">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=48}}.</ref>
+
Kerala's human development indices—elimination of poverty, primary level education, and health care—are among the best in India. Kerala's literacy rate (91%)<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref> and life expectancy (73 years)<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref> are now the highest in India. Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970&ndash;1971) to 19% (1993&ndash;1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8-9">{{Harvnb|Mohindra|2003|pp=8–9}}.</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.<ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~rpds/downloads/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf Regional Poverty in India]</ref> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref name="UNESCO_2003_156">UNESCO (2003), "[http://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report]," UNESCO [link accessed 12 January 2006].</ref><ref name="Kutty_2000_103-104">Kutty, VR (2000), "[http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/1/103.pdf Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India]," Health Policy and Planning 15(1): 103–109 [link accessed 25 February 2006]. pp. 103–104.</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Varma_2005"/><ref name="Brenkert_2003_48">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=48}}.</ref>
  
 
== Health ==
 
== Health ==
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[[Image:Kerala 15.jpg|thumb|right|Rural women processing coir threads.]]
 
[[Image:Kerala 15.jpg|thumb|right|Rural women processing coir threads.]]
  
−
Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim; [[UNICEF]] and the [[World Health Organization]] designating Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state". Representative of this condition, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Aside from ''[[ayurveda]]'' (both elite and popular forms),<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_13">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=13}}.</ref> ''[[siddha]]'', and ''[[unani]]'', many endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'',<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_17">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=17}}.</ref> and ''vishavaidyam'', are practiced. These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_5-6">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_15">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=15}}.</ref> and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of [[medical tourism|medical tourist]]s.
+
Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim; [[UNICEF]] and the [[World Health Organization]] designating Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state." Representative of this condition, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Aside from ''[[ayurveda]]'' (both elite and popular forms),<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_13">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=13}}.</ref> ''[[siddha]]'', and ''[[unani]]'', many endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'',<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_17">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=17}}.</ref> and ''vishavaidyam'', are practiced. These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_5-6">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_15">{{Harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=15}}.</ref> and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of [[medical tourism|medical tourist]]s.
  
 
[[Image:Lakeshore.JPG|thumb|left|125px|[[Lakeshore Hospital]] in Kochi.]]
 
[[Image:Lakeshore.JPG|thumb|left|125px|[[Lakeshore Hospital]] in Kochi.]]
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A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60<ref name="Varma_2005"/>) and low birthrate<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{Harvnb|McKibben|2006}}.</ref> (18 per 1,000)<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as Canada, Japan, and Norway.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref> In 1991, Kerala's [[Total fertility rate|TFR]] (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alagarajan M |month=December |year=2003 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/index/H18J4H5W37507H21.pdf |title=An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis |journal=Population Research and Policy Review}}</ref>
 
A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60<ref name="Varma_2005"/>) and low birthrate<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{Harvnb|McKibben|2006}}.</ref> (18 per 1,000)<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as Canada, Japan, and Norway.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref> In 1991, Kerala's [[Total fertility rate|TFR]] (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alagarajan M |month=December |year=2003 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/index/H18J4H5W37507H21.pdf |title=An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis |journal=Population Research and Policy Review}}</ref>
  
−
Kerala's [[sex ratio|female-to-male ratio]] (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref> The same is true of its [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] (estimated at 12<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref><ref name="Kutty_2004_6">Kutty, VR (2004), "[http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/57.pdf Why Low Birth Weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration]", Centre for Development Studies [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref> to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of low [[birth weight]] is substantially higher than that of [[First World]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Outbreaks of water-borne diseases, including diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid,<ref name="Roy_2004_5-6">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on some 30&nbsp;[[lakh]] (3&nbsp;million)<ref name="Roy_2004_6">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=6}}.</ref> water wells<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref> is another problem, which is worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref>
+
Kerala's [[sex ratio|female-to-male ratio]] (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{Harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref> The same is true of its [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] (estimated at 12<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{Harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref><ref name="Kutty_2004_6">Kutty, VR (2004), "[http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/57.pdf Why Low Birth Weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration]," Centre for Development Studies [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref> to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{Harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of low [[birth weight]] is substantially higher than that of [[First World]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Outbreaks of water-borne diseases, including diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid,<ref name="Roy_2004_5-6">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on some 30&nbsp;[[lakh]] (3&nbsp;million)<ref name="Roy_2004_6">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=6}}.</ref> water wells<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref> is another problem, which is worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{Harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref>
  
 
The life expectancy of the people of Kerala is 68 years as per 1991 census.
 
The life expectancy of the people of Kerala is 68 years as per 1991 census.
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{{main|Malayalam|Malayalam literature}}
 
{{main|Malayalam|Malayalam literature}}
  
−
[[Malayalam literature]] is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "[[Triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''), [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.
+
[[Malayalam literature]] is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "[[Triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" ''(Kavithrayam)'', [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.
  
 
In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] awardees like [[G Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], and [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] have added to Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], and [[Booker Prize]] winner [[Arundhati Roy]], whose 1996 semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] bestseller ''[[The God of Small Things]]'' is set in the [[Kottayam]] town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.
 
In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] awardees like [[G Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], and [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] have added to Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], and [[Booker Prize]] winner [[Arundhati Roy]], whose 1996 semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] bestseller ''[[The God of Small Things]]'' is set in the [[Kottayam]] town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.
Line 298: Line 298:
 
[[Doordarshan]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, and international channels via [[cable television]]. [[Manorama News]] (MM TV) and [[Asianet]] are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. [[All India Radio]], the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram 'A' Malayalam-language broadcaster. [[BSNL]], [[Reliance Infocomm]], [[Tata Indicom]], [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]] and [[Airtel]] compete to provide [[cell phone|cellular]] phone services. [[Broadband]] internet is available in selected towns and cities and is provided by the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies. [[Dial-up access]] is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.
 
[[Doordarshan]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, and international channels via [[cable television]]. [[Manorama News]] (MM TV) and [[Asianet]] are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. [[All India Radio]], the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram 'A' Malayalam-language broadcaster. [[BSNL]], [[Reliance Infocomm]], [[Tata Indicom]], [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]] and [[Airtel]] compete to provide [[cell phone|cellular]] phone services. [[Broadband]] internet is available in selected towns and cities and is provided by the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies. [[Dial-up access]] is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.
  
−
A substantial [[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam film]] industry effectively competes against both [[Bollywood]] and [[Hollywood]]. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons) and the Internet have affected Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions; 50% spend an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Ranjith_2004_20-21">Ranjith, KS (2004), "[http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/78.pdf Rural Libraries of Kerala]", Centre for Development Studies [link accessed [[25 February]] [[2007]]].</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref>
+
A substantial [[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam film]] industry effectively competes against both [[Bollywood]] and [[Hollywood]]. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons) and the Internet have affected Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions; 50% spend an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Ranjith_2004_20-21">Ranjith, KS (2004), "[http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/78.pdf Rural Libraries of Kerala]," Centre for Development Studies [link accessed 25 February 2007].</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{Harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref>
  
 
== Sports ==
 
== Sports ==
Line 306: Line 306:
 
[[Image:Maithari.jpg|right|thumb|A ''kalaripayattu'' trainer practicing ''[[meithari]]'' sequences.]]
 
[[Image:Maithari.jpg|right|thumb|A ''kalaripayattu'' trainer practicing ''[[meithari]]'' sequences.]]
  
−
Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include ''[[kalaripayattu]]''—''[[kalari]]'' ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and ''payattu'' ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes ''kalaripayattu'''s emergence to Parasurama. Other ritual arts include ''[[theyyam]]'' and ''[[poorakkali]]''. However, larger numbers of Keralites follow sports such as [[cricket]], ''[[kabaddi]]'', [[soccer]], and [[badminton]]. Dozens of large stadiums, including Kochi's [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Kochi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] and Thiruvananthapuram's Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium, attest to the mass appeal of such sports among Keralites.  
+
Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include ''[[kalaripayattu]]''—''[[kalari]]'' ("place," "threshing floor," or "battlefield") and ''payattu'' ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes ''kalaripayattu'''s emergence to Parasurama. Other ritual arts include ''[[theyyam]]'' and ''[[poorakkali]]''. However, larger numbers of Keralites follow sports such as [[cricket]], ''[[kabaddi]]'', [[soccer]], and [[badminton]]. Dozens of large stadiums, including Kochi's [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Kochi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] and Thiruvananthapuram's Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium, attest to the mass appeal of such sports among Keralites.  
  
 
[[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif‎|thumb|left|125px|A ''kalaripayattu'' practitioner.]]
 
[[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif‎|thumb|left|125px|A ''kalaripayattu'' practitioner.]]
Line 312: Line 312:
 
[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport in the state. Some notable football stars from Kerala include [[I. M. Vijayan]] and [[V. P. Sathyan]]. Several Keralite athletes have attained world-class status, including  [[Suresh Babu]], [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]], [[K. M. Beenamol]], and [[Anju Bobby George]]. [[Volleyball]], another popular sport, is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. [[Jimmy George]], born in [[Peravoor]], [[Kannur]], was arguably the most successful volleyball player ever to represent India.  At his prime he was regarded as among the world's ten best players.
 
[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport in the state. Some notable football stars from Kerala include [[I. M. Vijayan]] and [[V. P. Sathyan]]. Several Keralite athletes have attained world-class status, including  [[Suresh Babu]], [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]], [[K. M. Beenamol]], and [[Anju Bobby George]]. [[Volleyball]], another popular sport, is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. [[Jimmy George]], born in [[Peravoor]], [[Kannur]], was arguably the most successful volleyball player ever to represent India.  At his prime he was regarded as among the world's ten best players.
  
−
[[Cricket]], which is the most-followed sport in the rest of India and [[South Asia]], is less popular in Kerala. [[Shanthakumaran Sreesanth]], who was born in [[Kothamangalam]] and often referred to as simply "Sreesanth", is a controversial right-arm fast-medium-pace bowler and a right-handed tail-ender batsman whose actions were pivotal in sealing, among other games, the [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]. Among less successful Keralite cricketers is [[Tinu Yohannan]], son of [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] [[long jump]]er [[T. C. Yohannan]].
+
[[Cricket]], which is the most-followed sport in the rest of India and [[South Asia]], is less popular in Kerala. [[Shanthakumaran Sreesanth]], who was born in [[Kothamangalam]] and often referred to as simply "Sreesanth," is a controversial right-arm fast-medium-pace bowler and a right-handed tail-ender batsman whose actions were pivotal in sealing, among other games, the [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]. Among less successful Keralite cricketers is [[Tinu Yohannan]], son of [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] [[long jump]]er [[T. C. Yohannan]].
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
Line 339: Line 339:
 
  | Journal    = In National Geographic Survey Kerala comes under the section Paradise Found
 
  | Journal    = In National Geographic Survey Kerala comes under the section Paradise Found
 
  | URL        = http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/kerala.html
 
  | URL        = http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/kerala.html
−
  | Access-date = [[July 5]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = July 5, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 348: Line 348:
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/59.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/59.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 2]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 2, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 357: Line 357:
 
  | Journal    = Information & Public Relations Department—Thiruvananthapuram (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Information & Public Relations Department—Thiruvananthapuram (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/music/music1.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/music/music1.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 367: Line 367:
 
  | Pages      = 29–37
 
  | Pages      = 29–37
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/music/music4.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/music/music4.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 20]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 20, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 378: Line 378:
 
  | Journal    = Joint Global Change Research Institute
 
  | Journal    = Joint Global Change Research Institute
 
  | URL        = http://www.pnl.gov/globalchange/projects/vul/PNWD-3271.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.pnl.gov/globalchange/projects/vul/PNWD-3271.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 25]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 25, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 389: Line 389:
 
  | Journal    = Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci)
 
  | Journal    = Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci)
 
  | URL        = http://www.ias.ac.in/epsci/mar2002/Esb1439.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.ias.ac.in/epsci/mar2002/Esb1439.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 398: Line 398:
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/81.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/81.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[February 23]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = February 23, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 409: Line 409:
 
  | Issue      = V
 
  | Issue      = V
 
  | URL        = http://www.humanscape.org/Humanscape/new/may02/humanindex.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.humanscape.org/Humanscape/new/may02/humanindex.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[February 22]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = February 22, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 418: Line 418:
 
  | Journal    = Statistics for Planning 2001 (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Statistics for Planning 2001 (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/statistical/vitalstatistics/1.03.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/statistical/vitalstatistics/1.03.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 427: Line 427:
 
  | Journal    = Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 14]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 14, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 436: Line 436:
 
  | Journal    = Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/kathayam.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 29]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 29, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 445: Line 445:
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter1.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter1.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 15]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 15, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter3.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter3.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 15]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 15, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 463: Line 463:
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter6.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter6.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 15]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 15, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | Journal    = Department of Planning and Economic Affairs (Government of Kerala)
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter18.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/dept_planning/er/chapter18.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 25]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 25, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 481: Line 481:
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 490: Line 490:
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/knowkerala/generalfeatures.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/knowkerala/generalfeatures.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 18]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 18, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
Line 499: Line 499:
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/
−
  | Access-date = [[January 22]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 22, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Government of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/archive/111.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.kerala.gov.in/archive/111.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[February 22]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = February 22, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Publisher  = Travancore Government Press
 
  | Publisher  = Travancore Government Press
 
  | URL        = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=RdzaPW-kEvQC
 
  | URL        = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=RdzaPW-kEvQC
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = IWAI (Ministry of Shipping)
 
  | Journal    = IWAI (Ministry of Shipping)
 
  | URL        = http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html
 
  | URL        = http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html
−
  | Access-date = [[January 19]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 19, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf
 
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−
  | Access-date = [[February 23]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = February 23, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/83.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/83.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[February 23]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = February 23, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/66.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/66.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 13]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 13, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/63.pdf
 
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−
  | Access-date = [[March 2]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 2, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
</div>
 
</div>
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  | Journal    = 18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS)
 
  | Journal    = 18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS)
 
  | URL        = http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/16AnnaLindberg.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/16AnnaLindberg.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 23]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 23, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = DoubleTake
 
  | Journal    = DoubleTake
 
  | URL        = http://www.utne.com/web_special/web_specials_archives/articles/656-1.html
 
  | URL        = http://www.utne.com/web_special/web_specials_archives/articles/656-1.html
−
  | Access-date = [[January 19]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 19, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = National Geographic Traveller
 
  | Journal    = National Geographic Traveller
 
  | URL        = http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1028kerala.html
 
  | URL        = http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1028kerala.html
−
  | Access-date = [[January 18]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 18, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Université de Montréal Département de médecine sociale et prévention
 
  | Journal    = Université de Montréal Département de médecine sociale et prévention
 
  | URL        = http://www.cacis.umontreal.ca/Katia_rapport_final.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.cacis.umontreal.ca/Katia_rapport_final.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 14]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 14, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/72.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/72.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 22]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 22, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/data/chapter5.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/data/chapter5.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/data/table1.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/data/table1.pdf
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  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | Journal    = Census of India (2001)
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/literates1.html
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/literates1.html
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  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Census of India 2001
 
  | Journal    = Census of India 2001
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/
 
  | URL        = http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/
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  | Access-date = [[January 18]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 18, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/publication_n.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/publication_n.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | ID          = ISBN
 
  | ID          = ISBN
 
  | URL        = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=JmL9KqczbRYC
 
  | URL        = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=JmL9KqczbRYC
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Rediff
 
  | Journal    = Rediff
 
  | URL        = http://www.rediff.com/money/2006/feb/09ker.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.rediff.com/money/2006/feb/09ker.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[March 14]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 14, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 22]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 22, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala
 
  | Journal    = Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala
 
  | URL        = http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/publication_n.htm
 
  | URL        = http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/publication_n.htm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = BBC News
 
  | Journal    = BBC News
 
  | URL        = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1702270.stm
 
  | URL        = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1702270.stm
−
  | Access-date = [[January 28]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 28, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Christian Science Monitor
 
  | Journal    = Christian Science Monitor
 
  | URL        = http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0517/p12s01-legn.html
 
  | URL        = http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0517/p12s01-legn.html
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  | Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/56.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/56.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 2]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 2, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[January 13]], [[2006]]
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  | Access-date = January 13, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Year        = 1929
 
  | Year        = 1929
 
  | Publisher  = Madras
 
  | Publisher  = Madras
−
  | Title      = History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 AD
+
  | Title      = History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 C.E.
 
  | ID          = ISBN
 
  | ID          = ISBN
 
}}.
 
}}.
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies (Thiruvananthapuram)  
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies (Thiruvananthapuram)  
 
  | URL        = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 5]], [[2006]]
+
  | Access-date = March 5, 2006
 
}}.* {{Harvard reference
 
}}.* {{Harvard reference
 
  | Surname1    = Sunny
 
  | Surname1    = Sunny
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/55.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/55.pdf
−
  | Access-date = [[March 3]], [[2006]]
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  | Access-date = March 3, 2006
 
}}.
 
}}.
 
* {{Harvard reference
 
* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf
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  | Access-date = [[March 5]], [[2006]]
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  | Access-date = March 5, 2006
 
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* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = Political Economy for Environmental Planners
 
  | Journal    = Political Economy for Environmental Planners
 
  | URL        = http://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf
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  | Access-date = January 23, 2006
 
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  | Journal    = UNDP
 
  | Journal    = UNDP
 
  | URL        = http://www.undp.org.in/programme/undpini/factsheet/kerala.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://www.undp.org.in/programme/undpini/factsheet/kerala.pdf
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  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
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* {{Harvard reference
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  | Journal    = UNDP
 
  | Journal    = UNDP
 
  | URL        = http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg
 
  | URL        = http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg
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  | Access-date = January 12, 2006
 
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/80.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/80.pdf
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  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | Journal    = Centre for Development Studies
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/52.pdf
 
  | URL        = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/52.pdf
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  | Access-date = [[March 4]], [[2006]]
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Revision as of 15:16, 28 November 2007

  കേരളം? · Kēraḷaṁ
Kerala
India
Nickname: "God's Own Country"
Map indicating the location of Kerala
Thumbnail map of India with Kerala highlighted
Location of Kerala
 Thiruvananthapuram 
Coordinates: 8°28′N 76°57′E / 8.47, 76.95
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area 38,863 km² (15,005 sq mi)
Capital Thiruvananthapuram
Largest city Thiruvananthapuram
Largest metro Kochi urban agglomeration
District(s) 14
Population
• Density 		31,838,619 (12th) (2001)
• 819 /km² (2,121 /sq mi)
Language(s) Malayalam
Governor R. L. Bhatia
Chief Minister V.S. Achuthanandan
Established November 1, 1956
Legislature (seats) Unicameral (141‡)
ISO abbreviation IN-KL
Website: kerala.gov.in
Kerala Portal: Kerala  
‡ 140 elected, 1 nominated
Seal of Kerala

Coordinates: 8°28′N 76°57′E / 8.47, 76.95 Kerala (['keːɹəˌɭɐ] (help·info)

Malayalam
കേരളം?; Kēraḷaṁ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively; to its west and south lie the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, with the islands of Lakshadweep and the Maldives, respectively. Kerala nearly envelopes Mahé, a coastal exclave of Pondicherry. Kerala is one of the four states of South India.

First settled in the 10th century B.C.E. by speakers of Proto-South Dravidian, Kerala was influenced by the Mauryan Empire. Later, the Cheran kingdom and feudal Namboothiri Brahminical city-states became major powers in the region.[1] Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. The States Reorganisation Act of November 1, 1956, elevated Kerala to statehood. Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by Cochin and Travancore were expanded upon by post-independence governments, making Kerala among the Third World's longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions. However, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism, and unemployment rates rank among India's highest.[2] A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.[3]

The etymology of Kerala is widely disputed, and is a matter of conjecture. The prevailing theory is that Kerala is an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau that fuses kera ('coconut palm tree') and alam ('land' or 'location' or 'abode of'). Another theory is that the name originated from the phrase chera alam (Land of the Chera). Natives of Kerala—Keralites or Malayalees—thus refer to their land as Keralam. Kerala's tourism industry, among others, also use the phrase God's own country.

History

Myths and legends persist concerning the origin of Kerala. One such myth is the creation of Kerala by Parasurama, a warrior sage. Parasurama was the incarnation of Maha Vishnu. He was the sixth of the ten avatars (incarnation) of Vishnu. The word Parasu means 'axe' in Sanskrit and therefore the name Parasurama means 'Ram with Axe'. The aim of his birth was to deliver the world from the arrogant oppression of the ruling caste, the Kshatriyas. He killed all the male Kshatriyas on earth and filled five lakes with their blood. After destroying the Kshatriya kings, he approached assembly of learned men to find a way of penitence for his sins. He was advised that, to save his soul from damnation, he must hand over the lands he had conquered to the Brahmins. He did as they advised and sat in meditation at Gokarnam. There, Varuna -the God of the Oceans and Bhumidevi - Goddess of Earth blessed him. From Gokarnam he reached Kanyakumari and threw his axe northward across the ocean. The place where the axe landed was Kerala. It was 160 katam (an old measure) of land lying between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari. Puranas say that it was Parasuram who planted the 64 Brahmin families in Kerala, whom he brought down from the north in order to expiate his slaughter of the Kshatriyas. According to the puranas, Kerala is also known as Parasurama Kshetram, ie., 'The Land of Parasurama',as the land was reclaimed from sea by him.

During Neolithic times, humans largely avoided Kerala's rainforests and wetlands. There is evidence of the emergence of prehistoric pottery and granite burial monuments in the 10th century B.C.E. that resemble their counterparts in Western Europe and the rest of Asia. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language.[4] Thus, Kerala and Tamil Nadu once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as Tamilakam. Kerala became a linguistically separate region by the early 14th century. The ancient Cherans, whose mother tongue and court language was Tamil, ruled Kerala from their capital at Vanchi and was the first major recorded kingdom. Allied with the Pallavas, they continually warred against the neighbouring Chola and Pandya kingdoms. A Keralite identity—distinct from the Tamils and associated with the second Chera empire—and the development of Malayalam evolved between the 8th and 14th centuries. In written records, Kerala was first mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Aitareya Aranyaka. Later, figures such as Katyayana, Patanjali, Pliny the Elder, and the unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea displayed familiarity with Kerala.[5]

Muniyaras (Keralite dolmens or megalithic tombs) in Marayoor, erected by Neolithic tribesmen.

The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[6] Many—especially Jews and Christians—also escaped persecution, establishing the Nasrani Mappila[7] and Muslim Mappila communities. According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 B.C.E.[8][9] The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 C.E. to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements.[10][11] However, the first verifiable migration of Jewish-Nasrani families to Kerala is of the arrival of Knai Thoma in 345 C.E.[12] Muslim merchants (Malik ibn Dinar) settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in 1498, the Portuguese sought to control the lucrative pepper trade by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.

Conflicts between the cities of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) provided an opportunity for the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were ousted at the 1741 Battle of Colachel by Marthanda Varma of Travancore (Thiruvathaamkoor). Hyder Ali, heading the Mysore, conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, Tipu Sultan, Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company; these resulted in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. He ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Malabar and South Kanara became part of the Madras Presidency.

Memorial of Veera Pazhassi Raja (the "Lion of Kerala") in Mananthavady, Wayanad. Pazhassi Raja launched a guerilla war against the British in the late 18th century.

Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the British Raj—nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar revolt,[13] and heroes likeVelayudan Thampi Dalava Pazhassi Raja and Kunjali Marakkar earned their place in history and folklore. Many actions, spurred by such leaders as Sree Narayana Guru and Chattampi Swamikal, instead protested such conditions as untouchability; notable was the 1924 Vaikom Satyagraham. In 1936, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma of Travancore issued the Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples to all castes; Cochin and Malabar soon did likewise. The 1921 Moplah Rebellion involved Mappila Muslims battling Hindus and the British Raj.[14]

After India's independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin on July 1, 1949. On January 1, 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. Meanwhile, the Madras Presidency had become Madras State in 1947. Finally, the Government of India's November 1, 1956 States Reorganisation Act inaugurated the state of Kerala, incorporating Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[15] A new legislative assembly was also created, for which elections were first held in 1957. These resulted in a communist-led government[15]—one of the world's earliest[16]—headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Subsequent social reforms favoured tenants and labourers.[17][18] This facilitated, among other things, improvements in living standards, education, and life expectancy.

Geography

A temple pond in Palakkad.

Kerala’s 38,863 km² landmass (1.18% of India) is wedged between the Arabian Sea to the west and the Western Ghats—identified as one of the world's twenty-five biodiversity hotspots[19]—to the east. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 72°22',[20] Kerala is well within the humid equatorial tropics. Kerala’s coast runs for some 580 km (360 miles), while the state itself varies between 35 and 120 km (22–75 miles) in width. Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; as such, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity.[21] Geologically, pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.

Agroecological zones of Kerala.

Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats's rain shadow; it consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys. 41 of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. Here, the Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500 m (8200 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains composing central Kerala; rolling hills and valleys dominate.[20] Generally ranging between elevations of 250–1,000 m (820–3300 ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastyamalai and Anamalai.

A cheena vala (fishing net) in the Backwaters region of Kollam.

Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad—Kerala’s largest body of water—dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km² in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.[22] The most important of Kerala’s forty four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha (130 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Most of the remainder are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains.[20] These conditions result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500 km² of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. Kerala's rivers face many problems, including summer droughts, the building of large dams, sand mining, and pollution.

Climate

With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon.[23] In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state.

In summers, most of Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level and storm activity resulting from global warming.[24][25][26] Kerala’s maximum daily temperature averages 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.[20] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the highlands.[27]

Flora and fauna

Pambar river in the Marayoor region of northwestern Idukki district.

Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants.[28][29]

Its 9,400 km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[30] Two of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[31] much of Kerala's forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).[29] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction (including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction).[32]

A Grizzled Giant Squirrel in Marayoor, Idukki.

Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Indian rosewood), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides).[30] Living among them are such fauna as Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Leopard (Panthera pardus), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.[30][33] Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and crocodile. Kerala's birds are legion—Peafowl, the Great Hornbill, Indian Grey Hornbill, Indian Cormorant, and Jungle Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish and Choottachi (Orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus; valued as an aquarium specimen) are found.[34]

Subdivisions

Kerala's districts, shaded by population per km².

Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's three historical regions: Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), and Travancore (southern Kerala). Kerala's modern-day districts (listed in order from north to south) correspond to them as follows:

  • Malabar: Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad
  • Kochi: Thrissur, Ernakulam
  • Travancore: Kottayam, Idukki, Alappuzha, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram

Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) is the state capital and most populous city.[35] Kochi is the most populous urban agglomeration[36] and the major port city in Kerala. Kozhikode and Thrissur are the other major commercial centres of the state. The High Court of Kerala is at Ernakulam. Kerala's districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records.

Government

Like other Indian states and most Commonwealth countries, Kerala is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. There are three branches of government. The unicameral legislature, known as the legislative assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by assemblymen. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker. The Assembly is presided over by the Deputy Speaker whenever the Speaker is absent. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies. The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha, the Indian Parliament's upper house.

The Legislative Assembly Building in Trivandrum.

Like other Indian states, the constitutional head of state is the Governor of Kerala, who is appointed by the President of India. The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with most of the executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor; the appointments receive input from the Chief Minister.

The Kerala High Court in Ernakulam.

The judiciary comprises the Kerala High Court (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court for the state; it also decides cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.

The state's 2005–2006 budget was 219 billion INR.[37] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million INR in 2005, up from 63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847 million INR revenues of 2000.[38] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.[39]

Politics

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF—led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (LDF—led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))). At present, the LDF is the ruling coalition in government; V.S. Achuthanandan of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister of Kerala.

Strikes, protests, rallies, and marches are ubiquitous among Kerala's people. Pictured is a CPI(M) rally in Ernakulam.

Kerala is one of the few regions in the world where communist parties are democratically elected in a parliamentary democracy. Compared with most other Indians, Keralites are well versed and keen participants in the political process; many elections are decided by razor-thin margins of victory.

Economy

Tea gardens in eastern Kerala.

Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under welfare based democratic socialist principles. Nevertheless, the state is increasingly liberalising its economy, thus moving to a more mixed economy with a greater role played by the free market and foreign direct investment. Kerala's nominal gross domestic product (as of 2004–2005) is an estimated 89451.99 crore INR,[40] while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[41] and 5.99%[42] in the 1990s).[41] Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala.[43] This is mitigated by remittances sent home by overseas Keralites,[44] which contributes around 20% of state GDP.[45] Kerala's per capita GDP of 11,819 INR[46] is significantly higher than the all India average,[41] although it still lies far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's Human Development Index and standard of living statistics are the nation's best.[47] This apparent paradox—high human development and low economic development—is often dubbed the Kerala phenomenon or the Kerala model of development,[48][49] and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector.

Waterways bordering a farm in Kerala.

The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of statewide GDP in 2002–2003) along with the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GDP) dominate Kerala's economy.[42][50] Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.[51] Some 600 varieties[19] of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop[52]) are harvested from 3105.21 km² (a decline from 5883.4 km² in 1990[52]) of paddy fields; 688,859 tonnes are produced per annum.[51] Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,[53] or 57,000 tonnes[54]), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 10.50 lakh (1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 6.68 lakh (668,000) tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast, while an additional 113 fishing villages are spread throughout the hinterland.

The Technopark, located in Thiruvananthapuram.

Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around ten lakh (one million) people. Around 1.8 lakh (180,000) small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites, while some 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. Meanwhile, a small mining sector (0.3% of GDP)[50] involves extraction of such materials as ilmenite (136,908.74 tonnes in 1999–2000), kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[51] Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other significant economic sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%[55] and 20.77%,[56] although underemployment of those classified as "employed," low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female participation rate are significant problems.[57][58][56] Estimates of the statewide poverty rate range from 12.71%[59] to as high as 36%.[60]

Tourism

Kovalam beach, Trivandrum

Kerala, situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Named as one of the "ten paradises of the world" by the National Geographic Traveler magazine, Kerala is especially known for its ecotourism initiatives.[61] Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy.[62]

A procession held before the Kumarakom Boat Race.

Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a hitherto unknown destination, with most tourism circuits concentrated around the north of the country. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tag line God's Own Country, which was used in its tourism promotions, soon became synonymous with the state. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists–an increase of 23.68% in foreign tourist arrivals compared to the previous year, thus making it one of the fastest growing tourism destination in the world.[63]

Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at Kovalam, Cherai and Varkala; the hill stations of Munnar, Nelliampathi, Ponmudi and Wayanad; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at Periyar and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region, which comprises an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on Alleppey, Kumarakom, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace, are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances.During the summer months Thrissur pooram is conducted and it is attended by many tourists.

Transport

Trivandrum Central Railway Station.

Kerala has 145,704 kilometers (90,538.7 mi) of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about 4.62 kilometers (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an all India average of 2.59 kilometers (1.61 mi). Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density.

A bridge on the Marine Drive walkway in Kochi.

India's national highway network includes a Kerala wide total of 1,524 km, which is 2.6% of the national total. There are eight designated national highways in the state. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the 1,600 kilometers (994.2 mi) of roadways that compose the state highways system; it also oversees major district roads. Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47, and NH 17.

The state has major international airports at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, and Kozhikode that link the state with the rest of the nation and the world. The Cochin International Airport at Kochi is the first international airport in India to be built without Central Government funds. The backwaters traversing the state are an important mode of inland navigation. The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs throughout the state, connecting all major towns and cities except the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. Kerala's major railway stations are Trivandrum Central, Kollam Junction, Ernakulam Junction, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Shoranur Junction, and Palakkad. Kerla is well connected to Coimbatore and tirupur.


Demographics

Most Keralites, such as this fisherman, live in rural areas.

The 3.18 crore (31.8 million)[64] of Kerala’s compound population is predominantly of Malayali Dravidian ethnicity, while the rest is mostly made up of Indo-Aryan, Jewish, and Arab elements in both culture and ancestry (both of which are usually mixed). Kerala is also home to 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis (1.10% of the populace), who are mostly concentrated in the eastern districts.[65][66] Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Tamil and various Adivasi languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities.

A Malayali woman wearing a neryathu known as a set sari.

Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India.[67] Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,[68] and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.[69] Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991, adding 156 lakh (15.6 million) people to reach a total of 291 lakh (29.1 million) residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 320 lakh (32 million) by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[20]

Women compose 51.42% of the population.[70] Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).[71] Remnants of a once substantial Cochin Jewish population also practice Judaism. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism. Nevertheless, there have been signs of increasing influences from religious extremist organisations including the Hindu Aikya Vedi.[72][73]

Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Third World.[74][75] Certain Hindu communities (such as the Nairs), Travancore Ezhavas and the Muslims around Kannur used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, which ended in the years after Indian independence. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[76] Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World.[77] Forces such as the patriarchy-enforced oppression of women threatens this status.[78]

Kerala's human development indices—elimination of poverty, primary level education, and health care—are among the best in India. Kerala's literacy rate (91%)[79] and life expectancy (73 years)[79] are now the highest in India. Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.[80] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[81] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[82][83] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[47][49]

Health

Rural women processing coir threads.

Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim; UNICEF and the World Health Organization designating Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state." Representative of this condition, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.[84] Aside from ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[85] siddha, and unani, many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa,[86] and vishavaidyam, are practiced. These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[87] and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,[88] and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists.

Lakeshore Hospital in Kochi.

A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60[47]) and low birthrate[74] (18 per 1,000)[84] make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[48] In 1991, Kerala's TFR (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.[89]

Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.[79][90] The same is true of its sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate (estimated at 12[43][84] to 14[91] deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.[91] Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations.[84] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases, including diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid,[92] among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on some 30 lakh (3 million)[93] water wells[94] is another problem, which is worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.[94]

The life expectancy of the people of Kerala is 68 years as per 1991 census.

Education

The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.

Schools and colleges in Kerala are either run by the government or by private trusts and individuals. The schools are each affiliated with either the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the Kerala State Education Board. English is the medium of instruction in most private schools; though government run schools offer both English and Malayalam. After completing their secondary education, which involves ten years of schooling, students typically enroll at Higher Secondary School in one of the three streams—liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, the student can enroll in general or professional degree programmes.

Thiruvananthapuram is one of the state's major academic hubs; it hosts the University of Kerala. The city also has several professional education colleges, including fifteen engineering colleges, three medical colleges, three Ayurveda colleges, two colleges of homeopathy, six other medical colleges, and several law colleges.[95] Trivandrum Medical College, Kerala's premier health institute, is also one of the finest in the country. It is being upgraded to the status of an All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS). The College of Engineering, Trivandrum is one of the prominent engineering institutions in the country. The Asian School of Business and IIITM-K are two of the other premier management study institutions in the city, both situated inside Technopark. The Indian Institute of Space Technology, the unique and first of its kind in India, is situated in the state capital.

Kochi is another major educational hub. The Cochin University of Science and Technology (also known as "Cochin University") is situated in the city. Most of the city's colleges offering tertiary education are affiliated either with the Mahatma Gandhi University or Cochin University. Other national educational institutes in Kochi include the Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training, the National University of Advanced Legal Studies, the National Institute of Oceanography and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

Kottayam also acts as a main educational hub; the district has attained near-universal literecy. Mahatma Gandhi University, CMS College(the first institution to start English education in Southern India), Medical College, Kottayam, and the Labour India Educational Research Center are some of the important educational institutions in the district.

Kozhikode hosts two of the premier institutions in the country; the Indian Institute of Management, IIMK and the National Institute of Technology, NITC.

Kerala's literacy rate of 91% is the highest among all states in India. Female literacy of Kerala is 88% and Male literacy is 94% as per 2001 census.


Culture

A formation of gold-caparisoned elephants at the Thrissur Pooram. Poorams are Hindu temple-centered festivals popular among both Keralites and tourists.

Kerala's culture is a blend of Dravidian and Aryan influences, deriving from both a greater Tamil-heritage region known as Tamilakam and southern coastal Karnataka. Later, Kerala's culture was elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[96] Native performing arts include koodiyattom, kathakali – from katha ("story") and kali ("performance") – and its offshoot Kerala natanam, koothu (akin to stand-up comedy), mohiniaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), thullal, padayani, and theyyam.

A close-up of a kathakali artist.

Other forms of art are more religious or tribal in nature. These include chavittu nadakom, oppana (originally from Malabar), which combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalisations. However, many of these art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among most ordinary Keralites. These people look to more contemporary art and performance styles, including those employing mimicry and parody.

Kerala's music also has ancient roots. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[97][98] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal music. The popular music of Kerala is dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.

A mohiniaattam performance.

Kerala has its own Malayalam calendar, which is used to plan agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's cuisine is typically served as a sadhya on green banana leaves. Such dishes as idli, payasam, pulisherry, puttucuddla, puzhukku, rasam, and sambar are typical. Keralites—both men and women alike—traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles.

Language

Malayalam literature is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.

In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, and M. T. Vasudevan Nair have added to Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.

Media

Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala; they are printed in nine major languages.[99] The principal languages of publication are Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers include Mathrubhumi, Malayala Manorama, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi, and Desabhimani. Among major Malayalam periodicals are India Today Malayalam, Chithrabhumi, Kanyaka, and Bhashaposhini.

Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English, and international channels via cable television. Manorama News (MM TV) and Asianet are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram 'A' Malayalam-language broadcaster. BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Indicom, Hutch and Airtel compete to provide cellular phone services. Broadband internet is available in selected towns and cities and is provided by the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers.

A substantial Malayalam film industry effectively competes against both Bollywood and Hollywood. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons) and the Internet have affected Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions; 50% spend an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[100][90]

Sports

A kalaripayattu trainer practicing meithari sequences.

Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include kalaripayattu—kalari ("place," "threshing floor," or "battlefield") and payattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes kalaripayattu's emergence to Parasurama. Other ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali. However, larger numbers of Keralites follow sports such as cricket, kabaddi, soccer, and badminton. Dozens of large stadiums, including Kochi's Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium and Thiruvananthapuram's Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium, attest to the mass appeal of such sports among Keralites.

A kalaripayattu practitioner.

Football is the most popular sport in the state. Some notable football stars from Kerala include I. M. Vijayan and V. P. Sathyan. Several Keralite athletes have attained world-class status, including Suresh Babu, P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson, K. M. Beenamol, and Anju Bobby George. Volleyball, another popular sport, is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George, born in Peravoor, Kannur, was arguably the most successful volleyball player ever to represent India. At his prime he was regarded as among the world's ten best players.

Cricket, which is the most-followed sport in the rest of India and South Asia, is less popular in Kerala. Shanthakumaran Sreesanth, who was born in Kothamangalam and often referred to as simply "Sreesanth," is a controversial right-arm fast-medium-pace bowler and a right-handed tail-ender batsman whose actions were pivotal in sealing, among other games, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. Among less successful Keralite cricketers is Tinu Yohannan, son of Olympic long jumper T. C. Yohannan.

See also

Topics in Kerala — see also: Portal:Kerala
History
Tamilakam · Chera · Kerala school · Battle of Kulachal · Anglo-Mysore Wars · Vaikom Satyagraham · Perumpadapu Swaroopam
Economy and Politics
Chief Ministers · Governors · Legislative Assembly · Kerala Model · Left Democratic Front · Panchayat elections · State Government Organizations · Politicians
Geography
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve · Annamalai Hills · Backwaters · Districts · Eravikulam National Park · Flora and fauna · Malabar Coast · Marayoor · Nelliampathi Mountains · Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve · Nilgiri Hills · Palakkad Gap · Protected areas of Kerala · Vembanad Lake
Demographics
Namboothiris · Samanthas · Nairs · Adivasis · Syrian Catholic · Latin Catholic · Cochin Jews · Dravidians · Ezhavas · Mappilas · Notable Keralites · Saint Thomas Christians · Scheduled Tribes of Kerala · Syrian Malabar Nasrani
Culture
Arts · Chenda · Cuisine · Duff muttu · Kalarippayattu · Kathakali · Kolkali · Koodiyattam · Kuthu ratheeb · Malayalam calendar · Malayalam · Mappila paattukal · Mohiniaattam · Music · Onam · Oppana · Ottamthullal · Panchari melam · Panchavadyam · Pooram · Sopanam · Thayambaka · Theyyam · Triumvirate of poets · Vallamkali · Vishu · Sarpam Thullal ·Mappila Malayalam ·Judeo-Malayalam

Citations

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Portal Kerala Portal
  1. ↑ Early history of Kerala. Official Website of the Government of Kerala. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2007-05-16.
  2. ↑ The extent of problem of Mental Health in the State. Kerala State Mental Health Authority. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2007-05-16.
  3. ↑ India Corruption Study - 2005. Transparency International. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
  4. ↑ Government of Kerala 2005.
  5. ↑ Pliny's Naturalis Historia, Book 6, Chapter 26
  6. ↑ P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar's "History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 C.E.," Madras, 1929
  7. ↑ The Indian Christians of St Thomas, Leslie Brown, page 171
  8. ↑ De Beth Hillel, David (1832). Travels (Madras publication).
  9. ↑ Lord, James Henry (1977). The Jews in India and the Far East; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.
  10. ↑ Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias Press LLC; ISBN
  11. ↑ Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas," The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II.
  12. ↑ Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.Around 9th century Chera kingdom disappered and several small kingdoms/swaroopams formed under the leadership of Nair chieftens.
  13. ↑ Government of Kerala 2002.
  14. ↑ Qureshi, MN (1999). Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924, 445–447. ISBN 9004105387. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24.
  16. ↑ Jose, D (1998), "EMS Namboodiripad dead," Rediff [link accessed 25 February 2007].
  17. ↑ Cheriyan 2004, pp. 22–23.
  18. ↑ Cheriyan 2004, pp. 43–44.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Sreedharan 2004, p. 5.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Government of Kerala 2005b.
  21. ↑ United Nations Development Programme 2002
  22. ↑ Inland Waterways Authority of India 2005.
  23. ↑ Chacko & Renuka 2002, p. 80.
  24. ↑ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 46.
  25. ↑ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 26.
  26. ↑ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 52.
  27. ↑ Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 65.
  28. ↑ Sreedharan 2004, p. 11.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Government of Kerala 2004f, p. 141.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Sreedharan 2004, p. 12.
  31. ↑ Jayarajan 2004, pp. 6–7.
  32. ↑ Government of Kerala 2004f, pp. 142–145.
  33. ↑ Sreedharan 2004, pp. 174–175.
  34. ↑ Sreedharan 2004, p. 163–165.
  35. ↑ "World Gazetteer:India - largest cities (per geographical entity")
  36. ↑ "World Gazetteer: India - largest cities (per geographical entity")
  37. ↑ Budget at a Glance
  38. ↑ Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)
  39. ↑ Memoranda from States: Kerala
  40. ↑ Press Trust of India (2006), "Kerala's GDP hits an all-time high," Rediff [link accessed 25 February 2007].
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Mohindra 2003, p. 8.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Government of Kerala 2004, p. 2.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 49.
  44. ↑ Jobs Abroad Support 'Model' State in India. New York Times (September 07 2007). Retrieved 2007-09-07.
  45. ↑ Hari, KS & KP Kannan (2002), "Kerala's Gulf Connection: Emigration, Remittances and their Macro Economic Impact (Working Paper 328)," Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum).
  46. ↑ Raman 2005.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Varma, MS (2005), "Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap," The Financial Express [link accessed 25 February 2007].
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Tharamangalam 2005, p. 1.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Brenkert & Malone 2003, p. 48.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 24.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Government of Kerala 2005c.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Balachandran 2004, p. 5.
  53. ↑ Joy 2004, p. 13.
  54. ↑ Joy 2004, pp. 6–7.
  55. ↑ Rajan & Zachariah 2005, p. 4.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Government of Kerala 2004, p. 4.
  57. ↑ Nair 2004, p. 5.
  58. ↑ Nair 2004, p. 13.
  59. ↑ Dhar, A (2006), "260 million Indians still below poverty line," The Hindu [link accessed 22 February 2006].
  60. ↑ Government of Kerala 2006, p. 1.
  61. ↑ "Tourism beckons", The Hindu, 2004-05-11. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
  62. ↑ Tourist statistics for Kerala. Tourism Statistics. Kerala Tourism Development Corporation. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
  63. ↑ Keralatourism.org - Tourist Statistics 2006
  64. ↑ Office of the Registrar General 2001b.
  65. ↑ Kalathil 2004, p. 10.
  66. ↑ Kalathil 2004, p. 12.
  67. ↑ Office of the Registrar General 2001.
  68. ↑ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 26.
  69. ↑ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 27.
  70. ↑ Venkitakrishnan & Kurien 2003, p. 26.
  71. ↑ Office of the Registrar General 2004.
  72. ↑ Ramakrishnan 2001.
  73. ↑ Haviland, C (2003), "Arrests follow India village massacre," BBC News [link accessed 25 February 2007].
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 McKibben 2006.
  75. ↑ Lindberg 2004, pp. 18–19.
  76. ↑ Government of Kerala 2002b.
  77. ↑ Government of Kerala 2004r, p. 366.
  78. ↑ Lindberg 2004, p. 1.
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 United Nations Development Programme 2001, p. 1.
  80. ↑ Mohindra 2003, pp. 8–9.
  81. ↑ Regional Poverty in India
  82. ↑ UNESCO (2003), "EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report," UNESCO [link accessed 12 January 2006].
  83. ↑ Kutty, VR (2000), "Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India," Health Policy and Planning 15(1): 103–109 [link accessed 25 February 2006]. pp. 103–104.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 Kutty, VR (2004), "Why Low Birth Weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration," Centre for Development Studies [link accessed 25 February 2007].
  85. ↑ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 13.
  86. ↑ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 17.
  87. ↑ Unnikrishnan 2004, pp. 5–6.
  88. ↑ Unnikrishnan 2004, p. 15.
  89. ↑ Alagarajan M (December 2003). An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis. Population Research and Policy Review.
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Tharamangalam 2005, p. 2.
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Krishnaswami 2004, p. 5.
  92. ↑ Roy 2004, pp. 5–6.
  93. ↑ Roy 2004, p. 6.
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 Roy 2004, p. 7.
  95. ↑ Technical Education in Kerala - Department of Technical education. Professional Colleges in Thiruvananthapuram. Kerala Government. Retrieved 2006-08-25.
  96. ↑ Bhagyalekshmy 2004, pp. 6–7.
  97. ↑ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 29.
  98. ↑ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 32.
  99. ↑ General Review. Registrar of Newspapers for India. Retrieved 2006-09-01.
  100. ↑ Ranjith, KS (2004), "Rural Libraries of Kerala," Centre for Development Studies [link accessed 25 February 2007].

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