Difference between revisions of "Humanistic psychology" - New World Encyclopedia

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Revision as of 15:15, 21 February 2006


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Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

Overview of Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is directly related to his inner feelings and self-image. Humanistic psychologists explore how people are influenced by their self-perceptions and the personal meanings attached to their life experiences. They consider conscious choices, responses to internal needs, and current circumstances to be important in shaping human behavior. Humanistic Psychology is explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory. These matters are often summarized by the five postulates of Humanistic Psychology given by Bugental in the 1960's, mainly that; (1) Human beings cannot be reduced to components,(2) Human beings have in them a uniquely human context, (3) Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people, (4) Human beings have choices and responsibilities, and (5) Human beings are intentional, they seek meaning value and creativity (Bugental, 1964).

Humanistic psychologists usually prefer qualitative research methods which, broadly defined, means "any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification". This is part of the field's "human science" approach to psychology; an emphasis on the actual lived experience of persons (Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening, 2000).

The development of the field

The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist thought (see Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sartre). It is also sometimes understood within the concept of the three different forces of psychology; behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanism. The "First Force" grew out of Ivan Pavlov's work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of Watson and Skinner. This school was later called the science of behavior. Abraham Maslow later gave behaviorism the name "the first force". The "second force" came out of Freud's research of psychoanalysis, and the psychologies of Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein, Harry Stack Sullivan, and others. These theorists focused on the depth of the human psyche, which they stressed, must be combined with those of the conscious mind in order to produce a healthy human personality.

By the late 1950s, two meetings were held in Detroit among psychologists who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a more humanistic vision. Something that had everything to do with self, self-actualization, health, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning. It also aimed to create a complete description of what it is to be a human being, and investigated the uniquely human aspects of experience, such as love, hope and creativity. These psychologists, including Abraham Maslow and Clark Moustakas, believed this likely to become the central concerns of a new psychological movement, known as the "third force". Many believe the message of Humanistic Psychology is a response to the denigration of the human spirit that has so often been implied in the image of the person drawn by behavioral and social sciences. It reflects many of the values expressed by the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Renaissance Europeans, and others who have attempted to study those qualities that are unique to human life and that make possible such essentially human phenomena as love, self-consciousness, self-determination, personal freedom, greed, lust for power, cruelty, morality, art, philosophy, religion, literature, and science.

These preliminary meetings eventually led to other developments, among those the launch of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology in 1961. This was soon to be followed by the formation of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) in 1963 and subsequent graduate programs in Humanistic psychology at institutions of higher learning. 1971 saw the establishment of an exclusive division devoted to Humanistic Psychology within the borders of the American Psychological Association (APA). This section is called Division 32, and it publishes its own academic journal called The Humanistic Psychologist (Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening, 2000).

Counseling and therapy

Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counsellng and therapy, among these we find the categories mentioned by Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening (2000) and Rowan (2001):

  • Counseling: The existential psychology of Rollo May, person-centered or client-centered therapy (as originally developed by Carl Rogers), marital and family therapies.
  • Psychotherapy: The existential psychotherapy of Medard Boss, Gestalt therapy (originally developed by Fritz Perls), Experiential psychotherapy, Bodywork, Psychodrama, Primal integration, Psychosynthesis, Depth therapy, Transpersonal therapy.
  • Groupwork Encounter: The humanistic-existential group.

The aim of much humanistic therapy is to give a holistic description of the person. By using phenomenological, intersubjective and first-person categories, the humanistic psychologist hopes to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality (Rowan, 2001).

This aspect of holism links up with another aim of humanistic psychology, which is to seek an integration of the whole person, also called self-actualization. According to humanistic thinking each individual person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to point the individual in the direction of these resources. The therapist is, in some circumstances, closer to a guide, than to a clinician. However, in order to actualize hidden potentials the person might have to give up the safety of a particular stage of the personality in order to embrace a new, and more integrated stage. This is, by no accounts, a trivial process, and it might include confrontations with new life-choices, or existential concerns. Humanistic psychology views psychological instability and anxiety as normal parts of human life, and human development, which can be addressed in therapy (Rowan, 2001).

Humanistic psychology is not exclusively optimistic. It includes both the theories of such thinkers as Maslow and Rogers, who are basically optimistic, and the theories of such thinkers as Schneider, May and Bugental, who are not particularly optimistic (Rowan, 2001).

Humanistic Psychology Today

During the 1970s, 80s,and beyond, the ideas and values of humanistic psychology spread into many areas of society in the United States. Humanistic psychology is still represented by the Association for Humanistic Psychology, however it's influence has grown and it is also represented in a variety of APA divisions concerned wth psychotherapy and issues of social concern:

  • Transpersonal Psychology
  • New Age Thought
  • East-West Studies
  • Consciousness Movement
  • Noetic Sciences
  • Human Potential Movements
  • Holistic Health and Hospice
  • Organizational Development and Organization Transformation
  • Integral Psychology

Transpersonal psychology

Transpersonal psychology is a school of psychology that studies the transcendent, or spiritual dimensions of humanity. Among these factors we find such issues as self-development, peak experiences, mystical experiences and the possibility of development beyond traditional ego-boundaries. Thus the interest in human experiences which apparently are 'trans-personal,'or 'trans-egoic'. A short definition from the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology suggests that transpersonal psychology is concerned with the study of humanity’s highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness (Lajoie and Shapiro, 1992:91).

The field is considered by proponents to be the "fourth force"' in the field of psychology, the three other fields being psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and Humanistic psychology. According to transpersonal theory these other schools of psychology have failed to give weight to transpersonal or "transegoic" elements of human existence, such as religious conversion, altered states of consciousness and spirituality, in their academic reflection. Thus, transpersonal psychology strives to combine insights from modern psychology with insights from the world's contemplative traditions, both East and West. The transpersonal and spiritual dimensions of the psyche have traditionally not been a focus of interest for Western psychology, which has mainly focused on the prepersonal and personal aspects of the human psyche (Cowley & Derezotes, 1994; Miller, 1998).

The development of the field

Among the thinkers who are considered to have set the stage for transpersonal studies are William James, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Abraham Maslow, and Roberto Assagioli (Cowley & Derezotes, 1994; Miller, 1998; Davis, 2003). A major motivating factor behind the initiative to establish this school of psychology was Abraham Maslow's already published work regarding human peak experiences. Maslow's work grew out of the humanistic movement of the 1960's, and gradually the term "transpersonal" was associated with a distinct school of psychology within the humanistic movement.

In 1969, Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof and Anthony Sutich were the initiators behind the publication of the first issue of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, the leading academic journal in the field. This was soon to be followed by the founding of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP) in 1972. Past presidents of the association include Alyce Green, James Fadiman, Frances Vaughan, Arthur Hastings, Daniel Goleman, Robert Frager, Ronald Jue, Jeanne Achterberg and Dwight Judy. In the 1980s and 90s the field developed through the works of such authors as Stanislav Grof, Ken Wilber, Michael Washburn, Frances Vaughan, Roger Walsh, Stanley Krippner, Michael Murphy, Charles Tart, David Lukoff and Stuart Sovatsky. While Wilber has been considered an influential writer and theoretician in the field, he has since personally dissociated himself from the movement in favor of what he calls an integral approach.

Today transpersonal psychology also includes approaches to health, social sciences and practical arts. Transpersonal perspectives are also being applied to such diverse fields as psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, sociology, pharmacology, cross-cultural studies (Scotton, Chinen and Battista, 1996; Davis, 2003) and social work (Cowley & Derezotes, 1994). Currently, transpersonal psychology (especially of Jungian psychology of Carl Jung and his followers including James Hillman's Archetypal psychology) is integrated, at least to some extent, into many psychology departments in US and European Universities. Transpersonal therapies are also included in many therapeutic practices.

Institutions of higher learning that have adopted insights from Transpersonal psychology include The Institute of Transpersonal Psychology (US), John F. Kennedy University (US), California Institute of Integral Studies (US), Saybrook Institute (US), Naropa University (US) and Liverpool John Moores University (UK). The transpersonal approach is also a part of such organizations as The British Psychological Society, which maintains a separate section addressing the transpersonal perspective. There is also a strong connection between the transpersonal and the humanistic perspective. This is not surprising since transpersonal psychology started off within humanistic psychology (Aanstoos, Serlin & Greening, 2000).

By common consent, the following branches are considered to be transpersonal psychological schools: Jungian psychology, depth psychology (more recently rephrased as Archetypal psychology by James Hillman), psychosynthesis founded by Roberto Assagioli, and the theories of Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof, Ken Wilber, Michael Washburn and Charles Tart.

Research Interests

The transpersonal perspective spans many research interests. The following list is adapted from Scotton, Chinen and Battista (1996) and includes:

Contributions to the academic field

Although any model of human development can only be understood as an intellectual abstraction of reality, transpersonal psychology has made significant contributions to the understanding of human development and consciousness. While authors like Wilber and Battista tend to emphasize the understanding of development in the form of levels, where each superior level includes and integrates its junior dimensions, theorists like Washburn and Grof tend to emphasize the regressive nature of consciousness. Regressive in the sense that the individual has to integrate the deeper and prerational aspects of the psyche before it can re-enter the stream of development in a healthy fashion (Scotton, Chinen & Battista, 1996).

Transpersonal Psychology has brought clinical attention to a number of psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. Cowley & Derezotes (1994) notes that transpersonal theory has an understanding of spirituality as a dimension that is integral to human nature. That is, as an essential aspect of being. This understanding is somewhat different from the popular understanding of spirituality as a statement of belief, or as a measure of church attendance; features that could rather be seen as indications of the psychoreligious dimension. Psychoreligious problems have to do with possible psychological conflict resulting from a person's involvement with the beliefs and practices of an organized religious institution. Among these problems we find problematic experiences related to change in denomination or conversion, intensification of religious belief or practice, or a loss of faith.

Psychospiritual problems are experiences of a different category than religious problems. These problems have to do with a person's relationship to existential issues, and issues that are considered to transcend ordinary day-to-day reality. Many of these psychological difficulties are usually not discussed by mainstream psychology. Among these problems we find psychiatric complications related to Loss of faith, near-death experience, mystical experience, Kundalini opening, Shamanistic Initiatory Crisis (also called shamanic illness), psychic opening, past lives, possession states, meditation-related problems, and separation from a spiritual teacher. Complications that are considered to present problems of a combined religious and spiritual nature are issues related to serious illness and terminal illness (Lukoff et.al, 1998).

The term "Spiritual Emergence" was coined by Stanislav and Christina Grof (1989) in order to describe a gradual unfoldment and appearance of psycho-spiritial categories in a persons life. In cases where this spiritual unfoldment is intensified beyond the control of the individual it might lead to a state of "Spiritual Emergency". A Spiritual Emergency might cause significant disruptions in psychological, social and occupational functioning, and many of the psychospiritual problems described above might be characterized as spiritual emergencies (Lukoff et.al, 1998). Besides the psychospiritual categories mentioned by Turner et.al (1995) and Lukoff et.al (1998), Whitney (1998) has also made an argument in favor of understanding mania as a form of spiritual emergency.

Because of the nature of psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems, the transpersonal community made a proposal for a new diagnostic category entitled "religious or spiritual problem" at the beginning of the 1990s. This category was later included in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) under the heading "Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention", Code V62.89 (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Lu et.al, 1997). According to transpersonal theorists, the inclusion is part of the greater cultural sensitivity of the manual and could help promote enhanced understanding between the fields of psychiatry and religion/spirituality (Turner et.al, 1995; Sovatsky, 1998). The construct validity of the new category has been assessed by Milstein et.al (2000).

Integral psychology

Ken Wilber is the most visible and popular integral theorist in the world today. According to the integral philosophies of Ken Wilber and others, integral psychology would be a psychology that is inclusive or holistic rather than exclusivist or reductive. Multiple explanations of phenomena, rather than competing with each other for supremacy, are to be valued and integrated into a coherent overall view. Wilber is a holist—-he believes that reality does not consist merely of matter, or energy, or ideas, or processes. Instead, it consists of holons. Although you are made of parts (your nervous system, your skeletal system, etc.), you are also a part of your society, your nation-state, your planet. Ken Wilber researched and synthesized about 200 theorists of human development (ancient, modern, east, and west) that have worked toward an integral view. An integral view is one that incorporates and honors ancient and modern knowledge, spirituality and scientific research. From this vast research, Wilber created what he calls Integral Psychology. In his book of the same name, Integral Psychology, Wilber identifies an "integral stage of consciousness" which exhibits "...cognition of unity, holism, dynamic dialecticism, or universal integralism...". Wilber provides a very comprehensive understanding of human development through the application of the Four Quadrant approach, which encompasses the individual, cultural, social, spiritual and political realms. All four quadrants interact and thus all of them are required in order to understand the full scope of human development, motivation and growth.

  • Upper Left Quadrant (individual, subjective, intentional): emotional, mental and spiritual development.
  • Upper Right Quadrant (individual, objective, behavioral): physical body, neurological brain and states of consciousness.
  • Lower Right Quadrant (social, interobjective): systems, political and civic institutions.
  • Lower Left Quadrant (cultural, intersubjective): relationships with family, friends and community; moral development, and contribution to society.

In the Integral theory of Ken Wilber, AQAL stands for "All quadrants, all levels", and equally connotes "all lines, all states, all types". An account or theory is said to be AQAL, and thus integral (inclusive or comprehensive), if it accounts for or makes reference to all four quadrants and four major levels in Wilber's ontological scheme, described below.


Upper-Left

Quadrant (UL)
"I"
Interior-Individual
Intentional

e.g. Freud

Upper-Right

Quadrant (UR)
"It"
Exterior-Individual
Behavioral

e.g. B.F. Skinner

Lower-Left

Quadrant (LL)
"We"
Interior-Collective
Cultural

e.g. Gadamer

Lower-Right

Quadrant (LR)
"Its"
Exterior-Collective
Social

e.g. Marxism

Each holon has an interior perspective (an inside) and an exterior perspective (an outside). It also has an individual perspective and a collective (or plural) perspective. If you map these into quadrants, you have four quadrants, or dimensions.

To give an example of how this works, consider four schools of social science. Freudian psychoanalysis, which interprets people's interior experiences, is an account of the interior individual (or upper-left) quadrant. B. F. Skinner's behaviorism, which limits itself to the observation of the behavior of organisms, is an exterior individual (upper-right) account. Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics interprets the collective consciousness of a society, and is thus an interior plural (lower-left) perspective. Marxist economic theory examines the external behavior of a society (lower-right).

Thus all four pursuits—psychoanalysis, behaviorism, philosophical hermeneutics and Marxism—offer complementary, rather than contradictory, perspectives. It is possible for all to be correct and necessary for a complete account of human existence. Wilber has integrated these four areas of knowledge through an acknowledgment of the four fundamental dimensions of existence.


Integral psychology promotes health and wellness through attention to and development of all four quadrants of one's life. In addition, the development in one quadrant reinforces the effectiveness of the others. The more categories that are engaged, the more effective they all become because all are intimately related. This holistic approach and broad view of human development claims to contribute significantly to the unfolding of human potential. Wilber calls this approach "AQAL"—all quadrants, all levels, all lines, all states, all types—which is brought to bear on an astonishing variety of disciplines for personal, academic, and professional development. In addition to Integral Psychology, the integral approach in being applied to medicine, social services, ecology, finances, politics, business and others.

Other Integral Theorists

In the 1940s Indra Sen, a devotee of Sri Aurobindo and The Mother, established the field of Integral Psychology, based on Sri Aurobindo's teachings, although his book of the same name only appeared in 1986. Aurobindo's integral yoga involves transformation of the entire being, rather than, as in most other teachings, a single faculty such as the head or the heart or the body.

Bahman Shirazi of the California Institute of Integral Studies has defined Integral Psychology as "a psychological system concerned with exploring and understanding the totality of the human phenomenon....(which) at its breadth, covers the entire body-mind-psyche-spirit spectrum, while at its depth...encompasses the previously explored unconscious and the conscious dimensions of the psyche, as well as the supra-conscious dimension traditionally excluded from psychological inquiry". (Shirazi 2001).

Criticism and debate

Criticism of Humanistic psychology has come from several commentators. Among these we find sociologist Roy Wallis who has questioned the growing adaptation of spiritual values and concepts within Humanistic psychology (Rowan, 2001). Humanistic psychology has also been criticized for lacking an integrated, clearly defined theory. One of the commentators that have raised such objections is Leonard Geller who believes that Humanistic theory is incoherent because it tries to approach both biology and psychology in a way that, in his opinion, is illogical (Rowan, 2001).

Further, in their review of different approaches to positive psychology Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) notes that the early incarnations of Humanistic psychology lacked a cumulative empirical base, and that some directions encouraged self-centeredness. Rowan (2001) believes that these suspicions are understandable as long as a large amount of time is spent on discussing such issues as the self and self-actualization. However, according to mainstream humanistic thinkers Humanistic psychology must not be understood to promote such ideas as the narcissistic self, egotism or selfishness (Bohart & Greening, 2001; Rowan, 2001). The idea of the humanistic perspective is not to promote such narrow categories, but rather to identify a movement towards a fuller sense of self (Rowan, 2001). A

In their response to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) Bohart & Greening (2001) notes that, along with pieces on self-actualization and individual fulfillment, humanistic psychologists have also published a wide range of papers dealing with such topics as the promotion of international peace and understanding, the holocaust, the reduction of violence, and the promotion of social welfare and justice for all.

Criticisms of Transpersonal psychology

Criticisms of transpersonal psychology has come from several commentators. One of the earliest criticisms of the field was issued by the Humanistic psychologist Rollo May, who disputed the conceptual foundations of transpersonal psychology (Aanstos, Serling & Greening, 2000). May was particularly concerned about the low level of reflection on the dark side of human nature, and on human suffering, among the early transpersonal theorists. A similar critique was also put forward by Alexander (1980) who thought that Transpersonal Psychology, in light of the thinking of William James, represented a philosophy that failed to take evil adequately into account. This serious criticism has been absorbed by later Transpersonal theorists, who have been more willing to reflect on these important dimensions of human existence (Scotton, Chinen and Battista, 1996). Criticism has also come from the cognitive psychologist, and humanist, Albert Ellis (1989) who has questioned transpersonal psychology's scientific status and its relationship to religion and mysticism. This criticism has been answered by Wilber (1989) and Walsh (1989).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aanstoos, C. Serlin, I., & Greening, T. 2000. History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. In D. Dewsbury (Ed.), Unification through Division: Histories of the divisions of the American Psychological Association, Vol. V. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Bugental, J.F.T. 1964. The Third Force in Psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 19-25.
  • Alexander, Gary T. 1980. William James, the Sick Soul, and the Negative Dimensions of Consciousness: A Partial Critique of Transpersonal Psychology. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, XLVIII(2):191-206
  • American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 0890420254.
  • Bohart, Arthur C. & Greening, Thomas. 2001. Comment: Humanistic Psychology and Positive Psychology. American Psychologist. Jan, Vol 56(1) 81-82.* Chaudhuri, H. (1975). Psychology: Humanistic and transpersonal. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 15 (1), 7-15.
  • Chaudhuri, H. 1989. The Evolution of Integral Consciousness. Theosophical Pub House. ISBN 0835604942.
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  • Ellis, Albert. 1989. Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber. Journal of Counseling & Development, Feb 89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336.
  • Grof, Stanislav & Grof, Christina. 1989. Spiritual Emergency: When Personal Transformation Becomes a Crisis in New Consciousness Reader. Los Angeles: J.P Tarcher.
  • Lajoie, D. H. & Shapiro, S. I. 1992. Definitions of transpersonal psychology: The first twenty-three years. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 24.
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  • Sen, Indra. 1986. Integral Psychology: The Psychological System of Sri Aurobindo. Sri Aurobindo nternational Centre of Education. ASIN B0007BY850.
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