Hemlock

In the United States and Canada, hemlock is typically used as a common name for any of the coniferous trees of the genus Tsuga of the pine family, Pinaceae, characterized by small cones and short, flat, needle-like leaves, with two white lines undernearth. This genus is found in North America and Asia. The term also refers to wood of these trees. Hemlock is also used as the common name for members of the Conium genus of the Apiaceae family, and in particular Conium maculatum (poison hemlock), a common European herb that contains the alkaloid coniine and was probably the state poison of Ancient Greece, and the purported poison used in the execution of Socrates . This is the more commonly understood meaning in a European and most historical contexts.

• Several other poisonous plants in the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) are sometimes called hemlock, including water hemlock or cowbane. Water hemlock comprise a small genus, Cicuta of highly poisonous flowering plants native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, mainly North America. Although water hemlock bears a superficial resemblance to poison hemlock (Conium genus)—and is a member of the same family—the species are distinct. Another plant with the name hemlock is hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe crocota), is a species in the related genus Oenanthe

Tsuga

Tsuga (from Japanese: ツガ, 栂; the name for Tsuga sieboldii ) is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. They are commonly referred to as Hemlocks, though they are unrelated to other plants with the same name. All of the species are evergreen trees that range in height from 20 to 60 metres tall and are found exclusively in relatively moist areas with little or no water stress. There are between 8 and 10 species within the genus depending on the authority, with 4 occurring in North America and 4 to 6 in East Asia. Many species are utilised in horticulture and numerous cultivars have been developed for use in the garden.

The wood obtained from hemlocks is important in the timber industry, especially for use as wood pulp. The populations of two eastern North American species, namely T. canadensis and T. caroliniana, are currently being rapidly reduced by a sap-sucking insect accidentally introduced from Asia called the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, or Adelges tsugae. While this bug does not seriously affect the hemlocks in its native range, nor the two western North American species, it is unchecked by both resistance and predators in the eastern United States. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of the crushed foliage to that of the unrelated herb poison hemlock; see hemlock for other senses of the word. Unlike the herb, the species of Tsuga are not poisonous.

Description

Tsugas are medium-size to large evergreen trees, ranging from 20 to 65 m tall, with a conical to irregular crown, with the latter occurring especially in some of the Asian species. The leading shoots generally droop. The bark is scaly and commonly deeply furrowed, with the colour ranging from grey to brown. The branches stem horizontally from the trunk and are usually arranged in flattened sprays that bend downward. Spur shoots, which are present in many gymnosperms, are absent to moderately developed. The young twigs as well as the distal portions of stem are flexuous and pendent. The stems are rough due to peglike projections that persist after the leaves fall.

The leaves are flattened to slightly angular and range in size from 8 to 40 mm in length and 1.5 to 3 mm in width. They are borne singly and are arranged either pectinately on the stem or rarely radially. Towards the base the leaves narrow abruptly to a petiole that is set on a forward-angled, twig-like projection. The petiole is twisted at the base so that it is almost parallel with the stem. Sheaths are absent. The apex is either notched, acute, or rounded. The undersides have two white stomatal bands (in T. mertensiana they are inconspicuous) separated by an elevated midvein. The upper surface of the leaves lack stomata, except for in the subgenus Hesperopeuce. They have one resin canal that is present beneath the single vascular bundle. When sprouting from seed, 4 to 6 cotyledons are present. The buds persist into winter and are ovoid or globose, usually rounded at the apex and not resinous.

The cones are borne on year-old twigs and are small, ranging in length from 15 to 35 mm long. In the subgenus Hesperopeuce they are larger at 35 to 70 mm in length. The pollen cones grow solitary from lateral buds, though sometimes they occur in clustered umbels from a single bud. They are ovoid, globose, or ellipsoid in shape and brown in colour. The pollen itself has a saccate, ring-like structure at its distal pole, and rarely this structure can be more or less doubly saccate. The seed cones are terminal or rarely lateral, occurring on second year branchlets. They occur solitary and are pendulous, though they are also erect in some species. They are ovoid-globose, oblong, or oblong-cylindric in shape and are sessile or at least very nearly so. Maturation occurs within the first year and the seeds are shed shortly thereafter, or they may persist for several years. The seed scales are thin, leathery and persistent. They vary in shape and lack an apophysis and an umbo. The bracts are included and small, and they rarely have a somewhat protruding apical cusp. The seeds are small, from 2 to 4 mm long, and winged, with the winge being 8 to 12 mm in length. They also contain small adaxial resin vesicles. They germinate epigeally.

Taxonomy

Another species, Bristlecone Hemlock, first described as Tsuga longibracteata, is now treated in a distinct genus Nothotsuga; it differs from Tsuga in the erect (not pendulous) cones with exserted bracts, and male cones clustered in umbels, in these features more closely allied to the genus Keteleeria.

Mountain Hemlock T. mertensiana is unusual in the genus in several respects. The leaves are less flattened and arranged all round the shoot, and have stomata above as well as below, giving the foliage a glaucous colour; and the cones are the longest in the genus, 35-70 mm long and cylindrical rather than ovoid. Some botanists treat it in a distinct genus as Hesperopeuce mertensiana, though it is more generally only considered distinct at the rank of subgenus.

Ecology

Mountain Hemlock foliage and cones

Western Hemlock Tsuga heterophylla is the largest species, reaching heights of 70 m. It is a particularly common timber tree in the Pacific Northwest of North America and is the state tree of Washington. The tree is also planted for timber in northwest Europe and other temperate areas with high rainfall and cool summers.

Two eastern North American speciesT. canadensis and T. caroliniana are under serious threat by a sap-sucking insect called the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae). This aphid was introduced accidentally from eastern Asia. Extensive mortality has occurred, particularly east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Asian species, and also the two west American hemlocks, are relatively resistant to this pest. Tsuga species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Autumnal Moth and The Engrailed, and older caterpillars of the Gypsy Moth.

Conium

Conium
Conium maculatum
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Apiales Family: Apiaceae Subfamily: Apioideae Genus: Conium L.
Species
Conium chaerophylloides (Thunb.) Sond. Conium maculatum L.

Poison hemlock redirects here. For other uses of "hemlock", see Hemlock.

Conium is a genus of two species of perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and the Mediterranean region (C. maculatum), and to southern Africa (C. chaerophylloides).

By far the most familiar species is Conium maculatum (Hemlock or Poison Hemlock), the most common of several species of hemlock noted for their toxicity. It is a herbaceous biennial plant which grows between 1.5–2.5 m tall, with a smooth green stem, usually spotted or streaked with red or purple on the lower half of the stem. The leaves are finely divided and lacy, overall triangular in shape, up to 50 cm long and 40 cm broad. The flowers are small, white, clustered in umbels up to 10–15 cm across. The plant is often mistaken for fennel, parsley or wild carrot although the characteristic stem hairs of the wild carrots are missing. The Conium root is fleshy, white and often unbranched and can be mistaken for parsnip. When crushed, the leaves and root emit a rank, unpleasant odour often compared to that of parsnips.

19th century illustration of Conium maculatum

Conium contains the alkaloids coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine, g-coniceïne and atropine. The most important and toxic of these is coniine. Coniine is a neurotoxin, which disrupts the workings of the central nervous system and is toxic to people and all classes of livestock.

Conium maculatum has been introduced and naturalised in many other areas, including much of Asia, North America and Australia. Poison hemlock is often found on poorly drained soils, particularly near streams, ditches, and other surface water.

A useful trick to determine whether a plant is poison hemlock rather than fennel, which it resembles, is to crush some leaves and smell the result. Fennel smells like anise or liquorice, whereas the smell of poison hemlock is often described as mouse-like or musty.^{[citation needed]} Considering the high toxicity of poison hemlock, if the plant cannot be identified it must be discarded.

Conium is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Silver-ground Carpet.

Poison hemlock flourishes in the spring, when most other forage is gone. All plant parts are poisonous but once the plant is dried, the poison is greatly reduced, however not gone completely. Hemlock is also known as "poison parsley" or "spotted parsley".

Poison hemlock is sometimes confused with water hemlocks in the related genus Cicuta, but are readily distinguished by the less finely divided leaves of the latter; the leaf veins of poison hemlock also run through the tips of the teeth, but those of the water hemlock run through the notches in between the teeth. The poison hemlock's root is long, white, and fleshy. It is unbranched and can usually be distinguished from the water hemlock's roots that are made up of several tubers.

Socrates

In ancient Greece, hemlock was used to poison condemned prisoners. The most famous victim of hemlock poisoning is the philosopher Socrates. After being condemned to death for impiety in 399 B.C.E., Socrates was given a potent solution of the hemlock plant. Plato described Socrates' death in the Phaedo :

"The man … laid his hands on him and after a while examined his feet and legs, then pinched his foot hard and asked if he felt it. He said ‘No’; then after that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And then again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. The chill had now reached the region about the groin, and uncovering his face, which had been covered, he said — and these were his last words — 'Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Pay it and do not neglect it.' 'That,' said Crito, 'shall be done; but see if you have anything else to say.' To this question he made no reply, but after a little while he moved; the attendant uncovered him; his eyes were fixed. And Crito when he saw it, closed his mouth and eyes."

Although many have questioned whether this is a factual account, careful attention to Plato's words, modern and ancient medicine, and other ancient Greek sources point to the above account being consistent with Conium poisoning.

Sometimes the characteristic red spots found on the stem and branches are referred to as "the blood of Socrates" in reference to his death.

Medicinal uses

Poison hemlock has been used as a sedative and for its antispasmodic properties. It was also used by Greek and Persian physicians for a variety of problems, such as arthritis. However, it wasn't always effective as the difference between a therapeutic and a toxic amount is very slight. Overdoses can produce paralysis and loss of speech being followed by depression of the respiratory function and then death.

Tsuga

Tsuga
Western Hemlock
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Pinophyta Class: Pinopsida Order: Pinales Family: Pinaceae Genus: Tsuga Carrière
Species
Tsuga canadensis  Eastern Hemlock Tsuga caroliniana  Carolina Hemlock Tsuga chinensis  Taiwan Hemlock Tsuga diversifolia  Northern Japanese Hemlock Tsuga dumosa  Himalayan Hemlock Tsuga forrestii  Forrest's Hemlock Tsuga heterophylla  Western Hemlock Tsuga mertensiana  Mountain Hemlock Tsuga sieboldii  Southern Japanese Hemlock Note: Some botanists treat T. forrestii as a variety of T. chinensis.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Gymnosperm Database: Tsuga description
• Arboretum de Villardebelle: photos of cones of all the species
• US Forest Service Hemlock Woolly Adelgid website

References and external links

• Germplasm Resources Information Network: Conium
• Flora Europaea: Conium

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