Difference between revisions of "Abraham" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Abraham''' ('''אַבְרָהָם''' "Father/Leader of many", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avraham''', [[Latin]] '''Abrahamus''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾAḇrāhām'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''ابراهيم''' '''Ibrāhīm''') is the [[patriarch]] of [[Judaism]], recognized by [[Christianity]], and a very important [[prophet]] in [[Islam]]. The story of his life is told in the [[Book of Genesis]] and in the [[Quran]].
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[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 024.png|thumb|275px|God said to '''Abraham''': "Look up at the heavens and count the stars—if indeed you can count them…. So shall your offspring be" (Gen. 15:5)]]
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'''Abraham''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] '''אַבְרָהָם''' '''Avraham''' "Father/Leader of many," [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''ابراهيم''' '''Ibrāhīm''') was the original [[patriarch]] of [[Judaism]], recognized as the "father of [[faith]]" by [[Christianity]], and an extremely important [[prophet]] in [[Islam]]. The story of his life is told in the [[Genesis|Book of Genesis]] and in the [[Qur'an]]. In both scriptures, Abraham is characterized as having exemplary faith, a living relationship with the personal God who directs his life.
  
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Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "[[Abrahamic religion]]s", because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. In the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Qur'an]], Abraham is described as a patriarch blessed by God (the Jewish people called him "Father Abraham"), and [[promise]]d great things, father of the People of Israel through his son [[Isaac]]; the Qur'an further claims Ishmael as the father of the [[Arab]]s. In Islam, Abraham is considered to be one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus]].  
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Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "Abrahamic religions" because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. The [[Hebrew Bible]] describes Abraham as the first patriarch of the [[Israelites]]. He is the one to whom God gave the blessing of descendants "like the sands of the sea" and the promise of a nation that would keep the ways and commandments of God. Abraham's journeys through the land of [[Canaan]] mark out the territory that would later become the land of [[Israel]]. In the [[Qur'an]] Abraham is a prophet blessed by God, and it is he who established the [[Ka'bah]] in [[Mecca]] as a holy sanctuary. His son [[Ishmael]] is said to be the father of the [[Arab]]s. Both Judaism and Islam credit Abraham with being the first [[monotheism|monotheist]], who, living amidst a [[polytheism|polytheistic]] culture, had the revolutionary insight that there is but one God, the Creator of the universe. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up [[Isaac]] is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus of Nazareth]].
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His original name was '''Abram''' ('''אַבְרָם'''—'''Avram'''—"Exalted father/leader"), which was changed to Abraham in later life at God's command. The [[historicity]] of Abraham is debated by modern scholarship, and it is difficult to provide definite dates. Traditionally, he is said to have lived between 2166 and 1991 B.C.E..  
  
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His original name was '''Abram''' ('''אַבְרָם''' "High/Exalted father/leader", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾAḇrām'''); he was the foremost of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]. Later in life he went by the name Abraham. There is no contemporary mention of his life, and no source earlier than ''Genesis'' mentions him, so it is difficult to know if he was a historical figure. If he was, he probably lived between [[2166 B.C.E.]] and [[1991 B.C.E.]].
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==The Life of Abraham==
  
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[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]]
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===Childhood in Mesopotamia===
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[[Image:Mesopotamia-Map.png|thumb|250px|Map showing Abram's birthplace of Ur, near the mouth of the [[Euphrates]]]]
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According to the Book of [[Genesis]], Abram's father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]]. This is traditionally identified with an ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]]; however, [[Josephus]], Islamic tradition and [[Maimonides]] each posit that Ur was in Northern Mesopotamia (identifying it with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). Terah is said to have migrated with his family to [[Haran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]] River.
  
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==Abraham in Judaism==
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The [[Bible]] does not say anything of his early life. There is a story in the [[Midrash]],<ref>Genesis Rabbah 38</ref> that his father [[Terah]] owned a store that sold [[idolatry|idols]]. As early as the age of three, Abram started to question their authenticity. This culminated in an incident when Abram destroyed some of these idols. He was then brought to the king, [[Nimrod]], and he and his brother Haran were sentenced to death unless they recanted their position. Abram was then thrown into a [[fire]]. According to the [[Book of Jubilees]], when Abram exited unscathed, his brother Haran also refused to recant, and was also thrown into the fire. However, because Haran did not truly believe, he died.
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The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]).
 
  
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His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]], popularly identified only since 1927 (thanks to Sir Charles Wooley) with the ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] which was under the rule of the Chaldeans &mdash; although Josephus, Islamic tradition and Jewish authorities like Maimonides all concur that [[Ur-Of-The-Khaldis]] was in Northern Mesopotamia (Identified with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). This is in keeping with the local tradition that Abraham was born in Urfa; or with the nearby [[Urkesh]], which others identify with "Ur of the Chaldees". They also say "Chaldees" refers to a group of gods called [[Khaldis]]. Abram migrated to [[Harran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]]. Thence, after a short stay, he, his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]], [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] (the son of Abram's brother [[Haran]]), and all their followers, departed for [[Canaan]]. There are two possible Ur cities not far from Haran; Ura and Urfa, a northern Ur also being mentioned in tablets at [[Ugarit]], [[Nuzi]], and [[Ebla]]. These possibly refer to Ur, URA, and Urau (See ''BAR'' January 2000, page 16). Moreover, the names of Abram's forefathers [[Peleg]], [[Serug]], [[Nahor]], and Terah, all appear as names of cities in the region of Haran (''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', page 373). [[Yahweh]] called Abram to go to "the land I will show you", and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree (compare Gen. 25:4, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:26, [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9:6) received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed (descendant or descendants). Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate the [[theophany]], he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. 12:1-9).
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The [[Qur'an]] confirms this tradition about Abram. His father (named Azar in Arabic) was an idol-maker, and Abram broke his idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him (Q 37:83-98).
  
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Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built an altar.
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Abram's confrontation with the idolaters suggests that it was in Mesopotamia that he first became a committed [[monotheism|monotheist]]. According to the Qur'an, Abram enjoyed observing the heavens, and considered whether the stars, the moon and the sun could be gods. But since these all disappeared in the alternation of night and day, they could not be worthy of worship. He concluded that there must be one Lord who is the Creator of all these (Q 6:75-79).
  
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In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], Abram appears prominently in a passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein, the city shall be preserved (18:16-33).
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===Journey to Canaan===
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According to the Bible, one day God called Abram, "Go from your country... to the land I will show you" (Gen. 12:1). God promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) "a great nation" (Gen. 12:2). One can surmise that it was not easy for Abram and his family to leave their settled life and journey to a strange land. As it says in the [[New Testament]], "By faith Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out to a place which he was to receive as an inheritance; and he went out, not knowing where he was to god" (Heb. 11:8). He dutifully obeyed, taking with him his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]] (later Sarah), his nephew [[Lot]], and their household. Together they journeyed to the land of [[Canaan]].
  
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Driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (26:11, 41:57, 42:1), Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the [[Pharaoh]], who took her into the royal [[harem]] and enriched Abram with herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[plague]]s" Abram and Sarai left Egypt.
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Abram journeyed to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree there received a new promise that the land would be given to his descendants. Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate God's appearance to him, he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon the name of [[Yahweh]] (Gen. 12:1-9).<ref>According to the [[documentary hypothesis]], several sources are woven together in this story. Abram calls upon God's true name only in the "J" verses of Genesis, while in the "E" verses he used the word Elohim, El-Shaddai, etc. to refer to God.</ref> After this, he moved south, to the [[Negev]].
  
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There is a parallel text describing a similar event at [[Gerar]] with the [[Philistine]] king [[Abimelech]].
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===Life as a Sojourner===
  
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As Sarai was infertile, God's promise that Abram's seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment. His sole heir was his servant, who was over his household, a certain [[Eliezer of Damascus]] (15:2). Abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh. The passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn (see [[Genesis]] 15).
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The Bible depicts Abram as a "sojourner" or "stranger" (Hebrew: ''gēr''). Throughout his life, Abram journeyed from place to place, living the semi-[[nomad]]ic life of a pastoralist who drove his herds of sheep and goats to where there was available pasture. He and pastoralists like him had a precarious relationship with the settlements and cities in the area: cities had markets where he could trade wool and skins, but they also could be hostile to these strangers in their midst. The stories of Abram's sojourning depict him as leading his family through many difficulties, living by his wits and his [[faith]].
  
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Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]], who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of [[Hannah]], [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 1:6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (16:1-14).  Hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count, and she returns. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's [[firstborn]] (and [[Islam]]ic doctrine holds that he was the rightful [[heir]]). Hagar and Ishmael were eventually driven permanently away from Abram by Sarah (chapter 21).
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[[File:The parting of Lot from Abraham.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Lot parts ways with Abram]]  
  
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The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well. The covenant of circumcision (unlike the earlier promise) was two-sided and conditional: if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant, Yahweh would be their God and give them the land.
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For example, once he was driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (12:10). Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety. He therefore instructed Sarai to act as his sister. The [[pharaoh]] then took her into the royal [[harem]] and showed his gratitude to Abram with gifts of herds and servants. Later, Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[plague]]s." The king then realized that Sarai was Abram's wife and sent them from his land greatly enriched.  
  
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The promise of a son to Sarah made Abraham "laugh," which became the name of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarah herself "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (18:1-15) and, when the child is born, cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me" (21:6).
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In Genesis 20, Abram and Sarai again pose as brother and sister, this time in the [[Philistine]] city of Gerar.<ref>Archaeologists believe the reference to Gerar as a Philistine city here is an anachronism, as the Philistines did not arrive in the area until much later.</ref> The storyline is quite similar to the episode in Egypt, leading some scholars to suppose a doublet of what was originally a [[Abraham#Historical Criticism|single event]]. This time the king, Abimelech, is warned in a dream that Sarai is actually Abram's wife after God had caused the women of the city to cease bearing children. The text makes it clear that the king did not have sexual relations with Sarai. While the modern sensibility might criticize Abraham for endangering his wife on these occasions, the Bible recognizes the precariousness of his situation, which opens opportunities for God's grace.
  
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In Genesis 18, Abraham pleads with God not to destroy [[Sodom]], and God agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it, or 45, or 30, 20, even 10 righteous people. (Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] had been living in Sodom.)
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Abram then returned to the Negev, and wandered with his herds until settling again Bethel and Ai. There he stayed for several years, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice of land. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, stayed in the hilly terrain to the west. He moved south to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built yet another [[altar]]. Scholars believe the references to various altars established by the Patriarchs provide origin stories for later sacred altars used by the Israelites. Ironically, these altars were declared illegitimate by later biblical writers—a result of [[Hezekiah]]'s reform in the eighth century, which established that sacrifices could only be offered at the [[Temple of Jerusalem]].
  
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Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an [[angel]] as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (22). Then he returned to [[Beersheba]]. The [[near sacrifice of Isaac]] is one of the most challenging, and perhaps [[ethic]]ally troublesome, parts of the Bible. 
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===Blessing by Melchizedek===
  
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According to Josephus, Isaac is 25 years old at the time of the sacrifice or ''Akedah'', while the [[Talmud]]ic sages teach that Isaac is 37. In either case, Isaac is a fully grown man, old enough to prevent the elderly Abraham (who is 125 or 137 years old) from tying him up had he wanted to resist.  
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After about eight years, a war developed among the kings of the region's several cities. When Sodom fell, Lot was taken captive. Abram heard of Lot's ill-fortune and came to his rescue with a force of 318 armed men. He liberated Lot and the other captives from Sodom and recovered the spoils taken by Lot's captors.  
  
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The primary interest of the narrative now turns to Isaac. To his "only son" (22:2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside [[Canaan]]; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to [[Isaac]] and his descendants (25:1-6). See also: [[Midianites]], [[Sheba]].
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[[File:Melchizedek Blesses Abram (Dalziels' Bible Gallery) MET DP835806.jpg|thumb|250px|Melchizedek blesses Abram in the name of Elyon El, "God Most High"]]
  
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Sarah died at an old age, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near [[Hebron]], which Abraham had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from [[Ephron the Hittite]] (Genesis 23). Here Abraham himself was buried.  Centuries later the tomb became a place of [[pilgrimage]] and [[Muslim]]s later built an [[Islam]]ic [[mosque]] inside the site.
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After this victory, Abram received the thanks of the king of Sodom and was honored with a sacramental meal of bread and wine by the mysterious [[Melchizedek]], king of Salem (Jerusalem), identified as a "priest of God Most High ([[El|El Elyon]])." In exchange, Abram offered Melchizedek a tenth "of everything" (14:20). This event was the origin of the [[tithe]] in the Jewish and Christian tradition.
  
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Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as their first Patriarch, and having a son (Isaac), who in turn begat [[Jacob]], and from there the [[Israelite|Twelve Tribes]]. To father the nation, God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. God promised the land of Israel to his children, and that is the first claim of the Jews to Israel.
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===Abram's covenant offering===
  
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Judaism ascribes a special trait to each Patriarch. Abraham's was kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait.
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Abram then received another revelation from [[Yahweh]], who promised that his descendants will be as numerous as "the stars of heaven." Since he was childless, this seemed like an impossible hope, yet the Bible records that Abram responded faithfully: "He believed the Lord, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness" (Gen. 15:6). [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] later quoted Abram's profession of faith (Rom. 4:3) as exemplary for Christians who live by faith, not by works.
  
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Jewish tradition teaches the origins of Abraham's [[monotheism]]. His father Terah owned a store that sold idols. Abraham, at the age of three, started to question their authenticity. This culminated in Abraham destroying some idols.
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However, Abram balked when God told him that he would also take possession of the land of [[Canaan]]. "How can I know that I will gain possession of it?" he demands (Gen. 15:8). God instructed him to prepare a sacrifice of "a heifer, a goat and a ram, each three years old, along with a dove and a young pigeon" for a special [[covenant]] ceremony. In covenant ceremonies of this type, all the animals are cut in half and the parties to the covenant walk between the pieces (Gen. 15:17; Jer. 34:18).  
  
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Abraham was then brought to the king, and sentenced to death, along with his brother Haran, unless they recanted their position. Abraham did not, and was thrown into a fire. When Abraham exited unscathed, Haran also would not recant, and was thrown into the fire. Haran, who did not truly believe, died in the fire. This is hinted at in Genesis 11:28.
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Abram prepared this offering, cutting the animals in half, but not the birds. Birds of prey descended on the sacrifice, and Abram had to drive them away. Then a "dread darkness" fell on him, and he fell asleep. God appeared to him again with dire news:
  
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Abraham then went to the city of Haran with his father and brother. His father died there. God spoke to Abraham for the first time, and told him of great things He would give him if he would leave Haran. Abraham did. He was seventy-five during this time.
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<blockquote>Know for certain that your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated for four hundred years, but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they will come out with great possessions. (Gen. 15:13-14)</blockquote>
  
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Abraham started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the [[Sefer Yetzirah]].
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This prophesies that Abram's descendants would endure slavery in Egypt. Most exegetes regard it as a glimpse of a future already fore-ordained; however there is a hint that this future may have had something to do with Abram's failure to cut the birds and allowing "birds of prey"—a symbol of Satan—to pollute the sacrifice.
  
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== Abraham in Christianity ==
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===The birth of Ishmael===
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Abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises of God(Gen. 12:2-7, 13:14-17, 15, 17, 18:17-19, 22:17-18, 24:7). In the [[New Testament]] Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of [[faith]] (see e.g., [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11), and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of [[salvation]] by faith (in e.g. [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 3).
 
  
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Authors of the New Testament cite Abraham to support belief in the [[resurrection]] of the dead. "But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the book of [[Moses]], in the [[burning bush]] passage, how God spoke to him, saying, "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?" He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 12:26-27) "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (''Hebrews'' 11:17-19)
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As Sarai was infertile, she gave her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]] to Abram to bear a child in her stead. When Hagar became pregnant, she presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness, abused Hagar and forced her to flee (16:1-14). However an angel appeared to Hagar and commanded her to return and submit to Sarai, promising Hagar that her descendants will be too numerous to count. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's firstborn. Abraham [[circumcision|circumcised]] Ishmael on the same day that he circumcised Isaac (Gen. 17:23-27).
  
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The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in ''Genesis'' 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. This promise was fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to the Jews.
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After Sarai gave birth to [[Isaac]], trouble arose when Hagar's son Ishmael, now a teenager, acted inappropriately toward the much younger Isaac at a feast held to celebrate Isaac's weaning. Fearful that the much older Ishmael would supplant Isaac as the son of the promise, Sarai demanded that Abram banish both [[Hagar]] and Ishmael, and God commanded him to follow her advice. The handmaid and her son were consequently exiled to the wilderness, where they nearly died of thirst before being rescued by God (Gen. 21:8-21).
  
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The Roman [[Catholic Church]] calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] called ''Roman Canon'', recited during [[Mass]].
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In the Islamic tradition, Abraham (Ibrahim) continues to have a close relationship with Ismail (Ishmael) throughout his life. Together, they traveled throughout Arabia, most notably to [[Mecca]]. There Ibrahim and his son Ismail reportedly rebuilt the [[Ka'bah]], the sacred structure at the center of the Muslim pilgrimage, the [[hajj]].
  
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Christian tradition sees Abraham as a figure of God, and Abraham's attempt to offer up [[Isaac]] is a foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of his Son, [[Jesus]] (Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19). Just as Isaac carried wood for the sacrifice up the mountain and willingly submitted to being offered, so Jesus carried his [[Cross]] up the hill and allowed himself to be [[crucified]].
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===The birth of Isaac===
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In Genesis 18, Abram and Sarai provide hospitality for three visitors, who are traditionally regarded as angels, although one is addressed as "Yahweh"—God. Their promise of a son to Sarai made Abram "laugh," which would later figure in the naming of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarai herself also "laughed" at the idea (18:1-15). The following spring Sarai finally became pregnant; she gave birth to [[Isaac]], which means "laughter" (Gen. 21:1-7).
  
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==Abraham in Islam==
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Genesis 17 describes the covenant of [[circumcision]]. Abram was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarai specifically. God's covenant with Abram was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael, too would be blessed to become a great nation. It was at this time that Abram's name was changed to Abraham and Sarai was given the name [[Sarah]].
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Abraham (called Ibrahim in Islam) is very important to Islam, both in his own right as prophet and as the father of the prophet [[Ismail]] (Ishmael), his firstborn son, who is considered the ''Father of the Arabs''. Abraham is considered one of the first and most important prophets of Islam, and is commonly termed '''Khalil Ullah''', Friend of God. (Islam regards most of the [[Old Testament]] "patriarchs" as [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] of God, and hence as Muslims.)  While most Muslims believe that [[Adam]], the first man, was the first Muslim, they universally agree that Abraham was a prophet of God.  
 
  
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One must accept him as a prophet to be a true believer in Islam. The direction in which Muslims face when praying is towards a structure Prophet Ibrahim built with his son Ismail, which is the [[Kabaa]] of the Holy Mosque in [[Mecca]]. Abraham also takes an important role in the one of the [[Pillars of Islam]], the [[Hajj]], which is a pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque. A part of the Hajj is a commemoration of the sacrifice of the wife of Abraham, Hagar, for her son Ismail, when Abraham had settled his wife and son in the valley of Mecca by God's order to pioneer a civilization. (It was from this civilization that the final prophet of Islam, [[Muhammad]], was later born)
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In the biblical tradition, the line of succession runs from Abraham through Isaac to [[Jacob]], the father of the Twelve Tribes. The God of the Israelites is therefore called the God of "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob." In the [[Islam|Muslim]] view, God's promise runs from Abraham to Ishmael as the father of the [[Arab]] peoples, yet Islam also considers Isaac ([[Ishaq]] in Arabic) as a prophet.
  
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Muslims have a specific ''dua'' that (in some traditions) they recite daily which asks God to bless both Abraham and [[Muhammad]]. Islamic prayer, [[Salat]], that occurs five times a day, also includes several parts that ask God for his blessings upon Abraham. According to Islamic tradition, he is buried in [[Hebron]]. In the [[Masjid al Haram]] in [[Mecca]], there is an area known as the "station of Ibrahim" (''Maqam Ibrahim'' &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605;), which bears an impression of his footprints.
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As the father of both [[Isaac]] and [[Ishmael]], Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hence these are called the "Abrahamic religions." Isaac's son [[Esau]] is regarded as the father of the [[Edom|Edomites]]. Ishmael's 12 sons became prominent Arab princes. Moreover, Abraham's nephew Lot is portrayed as the father of the [[Moab|Moabites]] and [[Ammon|Ammonites]].
  
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There are numerous references to Abraham in the [[Qur'an]]. According to Quran, Abraham is the spritual father of all the believers.  He is mentioned as an upright person who was neither a polytheist nor a Christian or a Jew (Quran 3:67). An example is like the one below:
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===Sodom and Gomorrah===
  
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<blockquote>
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Informed of God's plan to destroy the great city of [[Sodom]], Abraham pleaded with God not to destroy the city, where Lot currently lived. God agreed that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it. Abraham bargained God down to 45, then 30, 20, even ten righteous people. Abraham's plea for Sodom and Gomorrah showed his compassionate heart of concern that innocent people not perish with the guilty. He bargained with God and even challenged him: "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?" (Gen. 18:25). Judaism praises this level of intimacy with God, where a believer is not limited to accepting whatever God wills but may challenge God to do a greater thing.  
−
O , ye who believe! Bow down and prostrate yourselves , and worship your Lord , and do good , that haply ye may prosper And strive for Allah with the endeavor which is His right . He hath chosen you and hath not laid upon you in religion any hardship ; the faith of your father Abraham ( is yours ) . He hath named you Muslims of old time and in this ( Scripture ) , that the messenger may be a witness against you , and that ye may be witnesses against mankind . So establish worship , pay the poor due , and hold fast to Allah . He is your Protecting Friend . A blessed Patron and a blessed Helper. (Qur'an 22.78)
 
−
</blockquote>
 
  
−
According to the Qur'an, Abraham reached the conclusion that anything subject to disappearance could not be worthy of worship, and thus became a [[monotheist]] ([[Al-An'am|Quran 6]]:76-83). As in Jewish belief, Abraham's father (named Azar in Islam) was an idol-maker, and Abraham broke his idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him ([[as-Saaffat|Quran 37]]:83-98). The well-known but wholly non-canonical [[Qisas al-Anbiya]] ([[Ibn Kathir]]) records considerably more detail about his life, which are commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life[http://iisca.org/knowledge/biographies/ibrahim_1.htm].
+
Unfortunately, not even ten righteous men were found. Although Lot and his daughters escaped, both Sodom and its sister city, Gomorrah, were obliterated.
  
−
Traditionally, Muslims believe that it was [[Ishmael]] rather than [[Isaac]] whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. In support of this, Muslims note that the text of [[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)|Genesis]], despite specifying Isaac, appears to state that Abraham was told to sacrifice his only son ("Take now thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac," [http://www.breslov.com/bible/ Jewish Publication Society] translation, Genesis/Bereshit 22:2) to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, it is arguable there was no time at which he would have been Abraham's "only son", and that this supports the Muslim belief that there was an original text that must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The [[Qur'an]] itself does not specify by name which son Abraham nearly sacrificed saying only that it was his only son (Quran 37:99-111). Isaac ([[Ishaq]] in Islam) is also considered a prophet in Islam.
+
===The offering of Isaac===
 +
{{main|Isaac}}
 +
[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|250px|right|"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]]
  
−
Also, unlike Jewish belief, Muslims note that nowhere in the [[Qur'an]] does God say that it was He who told Abraham to sacrifice his son nor does God say He gave Abraham the dream of the sacrifice. The Qur'an teaches that God never advocates evil. Thus, it is said that for a father to slaughter his son, is an evil that cannot be coming from God; it can only come from [[Satan]]. Furthermore, Muslims state that God would not contradict Himself and, therefore, would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited, even as a test. Since Abraham thought the dream was from God and he proceeded to sacrifice his son Ismail, God sent him the lamb to be sacrificed instead, and to save Ismail and the father-son sacred relationship. Furthermore, Muslims believe that God promised to protect His righteous believers from Satan's tricks, and he saved Abraham and his son, Ismail, from this exact test.
+
Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a burnt sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Abraham made all the necessary preparations, even going so far as to build a pyre, bind Isaac, and raise the knife to slay his son before burning him. He was prevented at the last minute by the Angel of the Lord, who said:
−
It is believed that Ibrahim's dream is a test from God. And when Ibrahim told his dream to Ismail, it is Ismail who convinced Ibrahim to fulfill God's order. So this is test for both Ibrahim, which had longed for a son for so long time, and unto Ismail. When devil teased them before sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail throw stone at the devils. This reincarnated as jumrah, one of rite on Hajj.
 
  
−
This entire episode of the sacrifice is regarded as a trial that Abraham had to face from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of [[Eid ul-Adha]]. Muslims also believe that Abraham, along with his son Ishmael, rebuilt the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] ([[al-Baqara|Quran 2]]:125).
+
<blockquote>"Do not lay a hand on the boy," he said. "Do not do anything to him. Now I know that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son" (Gen. 22:12)</blockquote>
  
−
==Abraham in philosophy==
+
Instead of offering Isaac, Abraham then sacrificed a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity.<ref>The binding of Isaac is one of the most challenging, and ethically troublesome, parts of the Bible. See [[Isaac]] for more details.</ref>
−
Abraham, as a man communicating with God, inspired [[philosopher]]s, like the [[existentialists]], such as [[Kierkegaard]] and [[Sartre]]. The "stress of Abraham" was a concept invented by [[Kierkegaard]] and later processed by [[Sartre]] like this: God asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. How does Abraham know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else or even the product of a mental condition? Thus, Sartre concludes, even if there are signs in the world, it is to us, humans, to decide how to interpret them and so we are abandoned in our freedom, which is the core of [[existentialism]]. This of course makes sense within the context of [[rationalism]] but not inside [[mysticism]], the foundation of every religion.
 
  
−
==Abraham and his descendants (Biblical Perspective)==
+
The offering of Isaac was certainly a difficult thing for Abraham, as the Bible hints when it calls Isaac "your only son, whom you love" (Gen. 22:2). According to the Jewish tradition, God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice [[Isaac]]. At the same time, it was a test for Isaac, who was old enough to know what was going to happen to him. Several rabbinic stories describe Isaac's faith as equal to Abraham's; he even encouraged his broken-hearted father to be strong to carry out God's order.
−
''For a full account of the '''historicity''' of Abrahamic stories in the book of'' [[Genesis]], ''see'' [[The Bible and history#The Patriarchs|Historicity of the Patriarchs]].
 
  
−
Biblical narratives represent Abraham as a wealthy, powerful and supremely virtuous man, but humanly flawed, and when afraid for himself, miscalculating, and a sometimes deceiver and an inconsiderate husband. But his central importance in the book of Genesis, and his portrait as a man favored by God, is unequivocal.  Abraham's generations (Hebrew: ''[[toledoth]]'', translated to Greek: "Genesis") are presented as part of the crowning explanation of how the world has been fashioned by the hand of God, and how the boundaries and relationships of peoples were established by him.
+
Christian tradition regarding the sacrifice of Isaac sees Abraham standing in the position of God, and Abraham's willingness to offer up his "only" son [[Isaac]] foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of [[Jesus of Nazareth|Jesus]] for the sins of mankind. Thus the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] states:
 +
<blockquote>By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead. (Heb. 11:17-19)</blockquote>
  
−
As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the [[Israelites]] and their neighbours. As the father of [[Ishmael]], whose twelve sons became desert princes (most prominently, [[Nebaioth]] and [[Kedar]]), along with [[Midian]], [[Sheba]] and other [[Arab]]ian tribes (25:1-4), the book of Genesis gives a portrait of Isaac's descendents as being surrounded by kindred peoples, who are also oft-times enemies.  It seems that some degree of kinship was felt by the [[Hebrews]] with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, the Egyptian Hagar, and [[Keturah]]) are in the descending scale, perhaps of purity of blood, or as of purity of relationship, or of connectedness to Sarah: Sarah, her servant, her husband's other wife (or concubine). The Bible says of the Hebrew people: "Your father was a wandering Syrian".
+
Traditionally, most Muslims believe that it was [[Ishmael]] rather than [[Isaac]] whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. In support of this, Muslims note that the text of [[Genesis]], despite specifying Isaac, states that Abraham was told to sacrifice his "only son" to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, Muslims believe that the original text must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The [[Qur'an]] itself, however, does not specify that Ishmael was offered, saying only that it was his "only son" (Q 37:99-111).
  
−
As stated above, Abraham came from Ur in [[Babylonia]] to Haran and thence to [[Canaan]]. Late tradition supposed that the [[Migration (human)|migration]] was to escape Babylonian idolatry ([[Judith]] 5, [[Jubilees]] 12; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in [[Isaiah]] 29:22). The route along the banks of the [[Euphrates]] from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself. It was thence that [[Jacob]], the father of the tribes of Israel, came, and the route to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]] is precisely the same in both.  A twofold migration is doubted by some, but from what is known of the situation in [[Canaan]] in the [[15th century B.C.E.]], not at all impossible.
+
===Later life===
 +
[[Sarah]] died at age 127 at Hebron, where Abraham reportedly purchased the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near Mamre from Hittite landowners. The spot became the family burial site and today is known as the “Cave of the Patriarchs.”
  
−
Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua, partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. also Joshua 8:9 with Gen. 12:8, 13:3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any [[ethnological]] interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the [[Jordan]]; the presence of [[Aramean]] blood among the Israelites; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites &mdash; these and other considerations may readily be found to account for the traditions.
+
After Sarah's death, Abraham commissioned his servant Eleazar to find a wife for [[Isaac]] among Abraham's relatives in [[Haran]]. Eleazar returned with the lovely [[Rebekah]], who turned out to be a perfect match for Isaac. "So she became his wife, and he loved her; and Isaac was comforted after his mother's death" (Gen. 24:67).
  
−
Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctuating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between [[Moab]] and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps [[Judges]] 3), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configuration of the [[Dead Sea]] may have led to the legend of the destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities.
+
Although a very old man, Abraham now took another wife for himself, [[Keturah]]. She bore him six sons, to whom he bequeathed lands while he still lived. These sons are traditionally believed to be the progenitors of several tribes living on the outskirts of [[Canaan]], including the [[Midianites]]. The text also refers to other "concubines" who bore him sons. The Bible says that he sent them away to the "east country" (Gen. 25:6), from which derives a Jewish tradition that through them Abraham's wisdom was sown in the Eastern religions.  
  
−
===Arab connection===
+
Upon his death, "Abraham left everything he owned to Isaac." He reportedly died at the age of 175. Isaac and Ishmael were reunited for his funeral and buried him next to Sarah at the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 25:9).
−
Although historians have no non-religious evidence for Abraham's connection to the Arabs, and the historicity of Biblical accounts is questioned by academics (see [[The Bible and history]]), some believe that the area outlined as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants (from Havilah to Assyria) refers to Northern [[Arabia]].  The earliest known record of the connection of Abrahams son, Ishmael, to the Arabs is by the [[Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]], who approximately 2000 years after such events, asserted that Ishmael was the father of the "Arab nation" [http://www.blessedquietness.com/alhaj/append-1.htm]. Little other information exists to understand the basis for Josephus' statement or his understanding of what he meant by "Arab nation", although one line in the [[Book of Jubilees]] (20:13) also mentions the tradition.
 
  
−
This has led to the notion of identifying Abraham as the father of the Arabs through Ishmael.  In addition, Abraham's next wife, [[Keturah]], is said to have borne him a son named [[Midian]] who became father of the [[Midianites]][http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/midian.htm].  The Midianites are also identified with the Arabs as they are said to have settled east of the [[Jordan River]].{{fact}}  In recent times some Christian polemical writers have insisted these claims are spurious and entirely made up by Muslims, although, they existed long before Islam arrived.  Some have claimed that all of Ishmael's descendants in fact died out; and that most Arabs are descended from Joktan.  The subject continues to be a source of controversy.
+
==Abraham's Legacy==
  
 +
===Abraham in Judaism===
 +
[[Image:Isaac-with-Abraham.jpg|200px|thumb|Abraham and Isaac]]
  
 +
Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as its first [[patriarch]], having fathered (Isaac), who in turn fathered [[Jacob]], the father of the [[Israelites|Twelve Tribes]]. God promised the land of [[Israel]] to Abraham's children, and this constituted the first claim of the [[Jew]]s to Israel. Abraham was the first to know God personally and intimately, and through him God instituted many of the regulations for Jewish family life (Gen. 18:19), notably [[circumcision]].
  
−
==Slavery==
+
Rabbinical tradition is rich with marvelous tales and spiritual insights about Abraham. God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice [[Isaac]]. Jewish tradition ascribes a special trait to each patriarch. Abraham's was kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait.
−
In [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]] (1852), one of the characters states that the Bible approves bondage because Hagar was the bond servant of Sarah, and this fact is not condemned in the Bible.
+
 
 +
In addition to describing Abraham's [[Abraham#Childhood in Mesopotamia|original insight]] into [[monotheism]], rabbinic tradition teaches that God commissioned Abraham to spread the truth, even in Haran. He and Sarah made many converts, some of whom came with him to Canaan. Abraham also reportedly started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the [[Kabbala|Kabbalist]] work, the [[Sefer Yetzirah]]. Other works attributed to Abraham include the [[Apocalypse of Abraham]] and the [[Testament of Abraham]], both of which are thought to date from the first century C.E.
 +
 
 +
=== Abraham in Christianity ===
 +
In the [[New Testament]], Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of faith. Jesus mentions him several times, as does the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]; and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of true faith: "What does the Scripture say? 'Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness'" (Rom. 4:3; Gal. 3).
 +
 
 +
New Testament generally regards Abraham as the root of the spiritual lineage of faith that is open to all people of faith, in contradistinction to the Jewish view that Abraham's lineage is physical and extends to the Jewish people only. Hence, Jews who wish to rightfully belong to Abraham's physical lineage should act according to Abraham's standard of faith. For example:
 +
 
 +
* “I say to you that many will come from the east and the west, and will take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven.” (Matt. 8:11)
 +
 
 +
* “If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise.” (Gal. 3:29)
 +
 
 +
* “‘If you were Abraham's children,’ said Jesus (speaking to some Jewish opponents), ‘then you would do the things Abraham did.’” (John 8:40)
 +
 
 +
* “Zacchaeus stood up and said to the Lord, ‘Look, Lord! Here and now I give half of my possessions to the poor, and if I have cheated anybody out of anything, I will pay back four times the amount.’ Jesus said to him, ‘Today salvation has come to this house, because this man, too, is a son of Abraham.’” (As a tax collector, Zacchaeus may have endured ostracism from his people.) (Luke 19:8-9)
 +
 
 +
Jesus also uses the example of Abraham to support his belief in the resurrection of the dead and the abiding life of the righteous in [[afterlife|heaven]]:
 +
 
 +
* “Have you ([[Sadducees]]) not read in the book of [[Moses]], in the burning bush passage, how God spoke to him, saying, ‘I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?’ He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living.” (Mark 12:26-27)
 +
 
 +
* “The rich man also died and was buried. In hell, where he was in torment, he looked up and saw Abraham far away... So he called to him, ‘Father Abraham, have pity on me and send Lazarus to dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue, because I am in agony in this fire.’” (Luke 16:22-24)
 +
 
 +
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the [[Eucharistic prayer]], recited during mass.
 +
 
 +
=== Abraham in Islam===
 +
Abraham (called '''Ibrahim''') is important to [[Islam]], both in his own right as [[prophet]] and as the father of the prophet [[Ismail]] (Ishmael). Regarded as one of the most important prophets, he is commonly termed ''Khalil Ullah,'' “Friend of God.” While most Muslims believe that [[Adam]] was the first [[Muslim]], they universally agree that Abraham was a model of faith in [[Allah]].
 +
 
 +
Many Muslims recite daily prayers that ask God to bless both Abraham and [[Muhammad]]. The direction in which Muslims face when praying is toward the [[Ka'bah]], a structure Ibrahim reportedly rebuilt with his son Ismail in [[Mecca]]. In the [[Masjid al Haram]] in Mecca, there is an area known as the "station of Ibrahim" (''Maqam Ibrahim''; مقام), which is thought to bear an impression of Abraham's footprints.
 +
 
 +
In the [[Qur'an]], Abraham is the spiritual father of all believers, and the first to submit (''islam'') to God. He was the first [[monotheism|monotheist]] (Q 6:76-83). As in Jewish belief, Abraham's father (named Azar in Islam) was an idol-maker, and Abraham broke his [[idol]]s, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him (Q 37:83-98). The well-known but non-canonical [[Qisas al-Anbiya]] ([[Ibn Kathir]]) records considerably more detail about his life, which is commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life.
 +
 
 +
Traditionally, most Muslims believe that it was Ismail rather than Isaac whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. Muslims also note that nowhere in the [[Qur'an]] does God say that it was God who told Abraham to sacrifice his son. Many Muslims affirm that God would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited—human sacrifice—even as a test. Abraham, however, thought the command&mdash;given in a dream&mdash;was from God. When the devil taunted them before sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail threw stones at the [[devil]]. This act is commemorated in the ''jumrah,'' one of rites of the [[hajj]] where the faithful throw stones at the symbol of the devil. It also symbolizes the rejection of evil ways in one's life.
 +
 
 +
While denying that God directly commanded Ishmael's sacrifice, the entire episode is nevertheless regarded as a trial from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of [[Eid ul-Adha]].
 +
 
 +
=== Abraham in philosophy===
 +
Abraham, as a man communicating with God, has inspired [[philosopher]]s, especially the [[existentialism|existentialists]] such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]].
 +
 
 +
Kierkegaard was particularly drawn to the issue of Abraham's offering of Isaac. God reportedly asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. But does Abraham know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or even the product of a mental condition? And even if it is God's voice, should such a command be obeyed?
 +
 
 +
Kierkegaard concluded that God is to be obeyed and that such tests from God require a "leap of faith." Sartre, on the other hand, concluded that it is for us humans to decide how to interpret life's challenges. We stand alone in our freedom, fully responsible for our own actions, which is the core of [[existentialism]].
  
 
==Historical criticism==
 
==Historical criticism==
−
Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a [[chieftain]] of the [[Amorites]], as the head of a great [[Semitic]] migration from [[Mesopotamia]]; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of [[Moon]]-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god.  From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. But it is important to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and that the interesting discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram) on Babylonian contracts of about [[2000 BC]] does not prove the Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their number.  One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of [[Elam]] and the east (''Genesis'' 14). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.
+
Theories abound concerning the "historical" Abraham as well as his legendary character and mythical significance. The discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram) on Babylonian contracts from about 2000 B.C.E. shows at least that the story of Abram's "Chaldean" origins is plausible. The fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia during the same period likewise is consistent with the idea of migrating bands moving from Babylon to Canaan.
  
−
On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, [[Amraphel]], king of [[Shinar]] (i.e., Babylonia, ''Genesis'' 10:10), has been in the past identified with [[Hammurabi]], one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (ca. 2000 B.C.E.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. [[Arioch]], king of [[Ellasar]], has been connected with [[Eriaku of Larsa]] &mdash; the reading has been questioned &mdash; a contemporary with Hammurabi.  [[Chedorlaomer]], king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine [[Elamite]] name, Kudur-Lagamer. Finally, the name of [[Tid'al]], king of [[Goiim]], may be identical with a certain [[Tudhulu, the son of Gazza]], a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and has been connected by others with [[Tudhaliya]], a predynastic Hittite king.  Goiim (the Hebrew for "gentiles" or "nations") may also stand for Gutim, the [[Guti]] being a people who lived to the east of [[Kurdistan]]. Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental evidence for the genuineness of the story, and the most that can be said with certainty is that the author (of whatever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, and in representing an invasion of Canaan by Babylonian overlords, has given expression to a possible situation. It may be that only the bare outlines are historical. If it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible that a writer who lived in the [[post-exilic]] age, and was acquainted with Babylonian history, decided to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military success against the monarchs of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], the high esteem he enjoyed in Canaan, and the practical character displayed in his brief exchange with [[Melchizedek]]. The historical section of the article [[Tithe]] provides more evidence on the historicity of the meeting with Melchizedek.
+
The [[Book of Genesis]] is widely believed to be based on a [[documentary hypothesis|compilation of sources]], which accounts for such phenomena as the doubling of certain stories (Sarah's entering the harem of the king of Egypt and later the king of Gerar, for example), the use of [[Yahweh]] for God's name in some passages and [[El]], Elohim, El-Shaddai, etc. in others. Scholars postulate a northern source, "E" for the "Elohist" verses and a southern source, "J" for the Yahwist verses. Also evident is a priestly source, "P," that is particularly concerned with religious law and ritual, as well as a later Deuteronomic editor "D" who superimposed the religious view of the sixth century B.C.E.. onto more primitive traditions.
  
−
Several minimalist professors of archaeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, [[Moses]], and others, were actually made up by scribes hired by King [[Josiah]] ([[7th century B.C.E.]]) in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Mimimalists claim that the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before [[650 B.C.E.]], and vehemently dispute the validity any evidence to the contrary. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). Of course, the historical annals and tributes to "great kings" are not well-served by preserving great defeats by their enemies (in this case, the Hebrews), and therefore, such records are understandably scanty. Also, many great kings did not long survive great defeats, as it was a sign to their followers that these "great leaders" had lost the favor of their God, gods and goddesses, and the kings were quickly assassinated and replaced.
+
Some theorists suggest that Abraham was once a more localized tribal patriarch who later emerged as the larger-than-life central figure of the Israelite origin story. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories these scholars believe that he was primarily associated with [[Hebron]] and its environs. The story of the many widespread altars he reportedly established served to connect local religious shrines to the overall Israelite origin legend.<ref>A contemporary example of this phenomenon is the American tradition of "George Washington slept here" inns throughout the northeastern United States.</ref>
 +
 
 +
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* The [[1911 Encyclopedia]].
+
*Abright, William F. ''The Archeology of Palestine.'' Peter Smith Pub Inc., 2nd edition, 1985. ISBN 0844600032
−
* [[Genesis]]
+
*Bright, John. ''A History of Israel,'' 4th ed., Westminster John Knox Press,  2000. ISBN 0664220681
 +
*De Vaux, Roland. ''Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997. ISBN 978-0802842787
 +
*Dever, William G. ''Who Were the Early Israelites?'' Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758
 +
*Feller, Bruce. ''Abraham: A Journey to the Heart of Three Faiths.'' Harper Perennial, 2005. ISBN 978-0060838669
 +
*Gellman, Jerome. ''Abraham! Abraham: Kierkegaard and the Hasidim on the Binding of Isaac.'' London: Ashgate Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-0754616795
 +
*Heap, Norman. ''Abraham, Isaac and Jacob: Servants and Prophets of God.'' Greensboro, NC: Family History Publications, 1999. ISBN 978-0945905028
 +
*Rosenberg, David. ''Abraham: The First Historical Biography.'' New York: Basic Books, new edition, 2007. ISBN 978-0465070954
 +
*Wilson, Marvin R. ''Our Father Abraham: Jewish Roots of the Christian Faith.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1989. ISBN 978-0802804235
  
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==See also==
 
−
*[http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/abraham.asp Abraham in all three Abrahamic faiths]
 
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*[http://www.hajj.ca/Ismail.html Abraham's sacrifice: an Islamic perspective]
 
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*[http://www.GospelTruth.info/ GospelTruth] — God's promises to Abraham according to Christian belief
 
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*[http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/ Biblical Archeology] — Bible-related article about Abraham
 
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*[http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020930/ The Legacy of Abraham] — Time magazine cover story
 
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*[http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/2004/09/09_abraham/ Children of Abraham] — episode of the weekly [[Minnesota Public Radio]] show ''[[Speaking of Faith]]''
 
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Latest revision as of 16:27, 23 December 2022


God said to Abraham: "Look up at the heavens and count the stars—if indeed you can count them…. So shall your offspring be" (Gen. 15:5)

Abraham (Hebrew אַבְרָהָם Avraham "Father/Leader of many," Arabic ابراهيم Ibrāhīm) was the original patriarch of Judaism, recognized as the "father of faith" by Christianity, and an extremely important prophet in Islam. The story of his life is told in the Book of Genesis and in the Qur'an. In both scriptures, Abraham is characterized as having exemplary faith, a living relationship with the personal God who directs his life.

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "Abrahamic religions" because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. The Hebrew Bible describes Abraham as the first patriarch of the Israelites. He is the one to whom God gave the blessing of descendants "like the sands of the sea" and the promise of a nation that would keep the ways and commandments of God. Abraham's journeys through the land of Canaan mark out the territory that would later become the land of Israel. In the Qur'an Abraham is a prophet blessed by God, and it is he who established the Ka'bah in Mecca as a holy sanctuary. His son Ishmael is said to be the father of the Arabs. Both Judaism and Islam credit Abraham with being the first monotheist, who, living amidst a polytheistic culture, had the revolutionary insight that there is but one God, the Creator of the universe. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, Jesus of Nazareth.

His original name was Abram (אַבְרָם—Avram—"Exalted father/leader"), which was changed to Abraham in later life at God's command. The historicity of Abraham is debated by modern scholarship, and it is difficult to provide definite dates. Traditionally, he is said to have lived between 2166 and 1991 B.C.E.

The Life of Abraham

Childhood in Mesopotamia

Map showing Abram's birthplace of Ur, near the mouth of the Euphrates

According to the Book of Genesis, Abram's father Terah came from Ur of the Chaldees. This is traditionally identified with an ancient city in southern Mesopotamia; however, Josephus, Islamic tradition and Maimonides each posit that Ur was in Northern Mesopotamia (identifying it with Urartu, Urfa, and Kutha respectively). Terah is said to have migrated with his family to Haran, apparently the classical Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor River.

The Bible does not say anything of his early life. There is a story in the Midrash,[1] that his father Terah owned a store that sold idols. As early as the age of three, Abram started to question their authenticity. This culminated in an incident when Abram destroyed some of these idols. He was then brought to the king, Nimrod, and he and his brother Haran were sentenced to death unless they recanted their position. Abram was then thrown into a fire. According to the Book of Jubilees, when Abram exited unscathed, his brother Haran also refused to recant, and was also thrown into the fire. However, because Haran did not truly believe, he died.

The Qur'an confirms this tradition about Abram. His father (named Azar in Arabic) was an idol-maker, and Abram broke his idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him (Q 37:83-98).

Abram's confrontation with the idolaters suggests that it was in Mesopotamia that he first became a committed monotheist. According to the Qur'an, Abram enjoyed observing the heavens, and considered whether the stars, the moon and the sun could be gods. But since these all disappeared in the alternation of night and day, they could not be worthy of worship. He concluded that there must be one Lord who is the Creator of all these (Q 6:75-79).

Journey to Canaan

According to the Bible, one day God called Abram, "Go from your country... to the land I will show you" (Gen. 12:1). God promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) "a great nation" (Gen. 12:2). One can surmise that it was not easy for Abram and his family to leave their settled life and journey to a strange land. As it says in the New Testament, "By faith Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out to a place which he was to receive as an inheritance; and he went out, not knowing where he was to god" (Heb. 11:8). He dutifully obeyed, taking with him his wife Sarai (later Sarah), his nephew Lot, and their household. Together they journeyed to the land of Canaan.

Abram journeyed to Shechem, and at the sacred tree there received a new promise that the land would be given to his descendants. Having built an altar to commemorate God's appearance to him, he removed to a spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another altar and called upon the name of Yahweh (Gen. 12:1-9).[2] After this, he moved south, to the Negev.

Life as a Sojourner

The Bible depicts Abram as a "sojourner" or "stranger" (Hebrew: gēr). Throughout his life, Abram journeyed from place to place, living the semi-nomadic life of a pastoralist who drove his herds of sheep and goats to where there was available pasture. He and pastoralists like him had a precarious relationship with the settlements and cities in the area: cities had markets where he could trade wool and skins, but they also could be hostile to these strangers in their midst. The stories of Abram's sojourning depict him as leading his family through many difficulties, living by his wits and his faith.

Lot parts ways with Abram

For example, once he was driven by a famine to take refuge in Egypt (12:10). Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety. He therefore instructed Sarai to act as his sister. The pharaoh then took her into the royal harem and showed his gratitude to Abram with gifts of herds and servants. Later, Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and his house with great plagues." The king then realized that Sarai was Abram's wife and sent them from his land greatly enriched.

In Genesis 20, Abram and Sarai again pose as brother and sister, this time in the Philistine city of Gerar.[3] The storyline is quite similar to the episode in Egypt, leading some scholars to suppose a doublet of what was originally a single event. This time the king, Abimelech, is warned in a dream that Sarai is actually Abram's wife after God had caused the women of the city to cease bearing children. The text makes it clear that the king did not have sexual relations with Sarai. While the modern sensibility might criticize Abraham for endangering his wife on these occasions, the Bible recognizes the precariousness of his situation, which opens opportunities for God's grace.

Abram then returned to the Negev, and wandered with his herds until settling again Bethel and Ai. There he stayed for several years, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice of land. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the Jordan River, while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, stayed in the hilly terrain to the west. He moved south to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron and built yet another altar. Scholars believe the references to various altars established by the Patriarchs provide origin stories for later sacred altars used by the Israelites. Ironically, these altars were declared illegitimate by later biblical writers—a result of Hezekiah's reform in the eighth century, which established that sacrifices could only be offered at the Temple of Jerusalem.

Blessing by Melchizedek

After about eight years, a war developed among the kings of the region's several cities. When Sodom fell, Lot was taken captive. Abram heard of Lot's ill-fortune and came to his rescue with a force of 318 armed men. He liberated Lot and the other captives from Sodom and recovered the spoils taken by Lot's captors.

Melchizedek blesses Abram in the name of Elyon El, "God Most High"

After this victory, Abram received the thanks of the king of Sodom and was honored with a sacramental meal of bread and wine by the mysterious Melchizedek, king of Salem (Jerusalem), identified as a "priest of God Most High (El Elyon)." In exchange, Abram offered Melchizedek a tenth "of everything" (14:20). This event was the origin of the tithe in the Jewish and Christian tradition.

Abram's covenant offering

Abram then received another revelation from Yahweh, who promised that his descendants will be as numerous as "the stars of heaven." Since he was childless, this seemed like an impossible hope, yet the Bible records that Abram responded faithfully: "He believed the Lord, and he reckoned it to him as righteousness" (Gen. 15:6). Saint Paul later quoted Abram's profession of faith (Rom. 4:3) as exemplary for Christians who live by faith, not by works.

However, Abram balked when God told him that he would also take possession of the land of Canaan. "How can I know that I will gain possession of it?" he demands (Gen. 15:8). God instructed him to prepare a sacrifice of "a heifer, a goat and a ram, each three years old, along with a dove and a young pigeon" for a special covenant ceremony. In covenant ceremonies of this type, all the animals are cut in half and the parties to the covenant walk between the pieces (Gen. 15:17; Jer. 34:18).

Abram prepared this offering, cutting the animals in half, but not the birds. Birds of prey descended on the sacrifice, and Abram had to drive them away. Then a "dread darkness" fell on him, and he fell asleep. God appeared to him again with dire news:

Know for certain that your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated for four hundred years, but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they will come out with great possessions. (Gen. 15:13-14)

This prophesies that Abram's descendants would endure slavery in Egypt. Most exegetes regard it as a glimpse of a future already fore-ordained; however there is a hint that this future may have had something to do with Abram's failure to cut the birds and allowing "birds of prey"—a symbol of Satan—to pollute the sacrifice.

The birth of Ishmael

As Sarai was infertile, she gave her Egyptian handmaid Hagar to Abram to bear a child in her stead. When Hagar became pregnant, she presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness, abused Hagar and forced her to flee (16:1-14). However an angel appeared to Hagar and commanded her to return and submit to Sarai, promising Hagar that her descendants will be too numerous to count. Her son Ishmael thus was Abram's firstborn. Abraham circumcised Ishmael on the same day that he circumcised Isaac (Gen. 17:23-27).

After Sarai gave birth to Isaac, trouble arose when Hagar's son Ishmael, now a teenager, acted inappropriately toward the much younger Isaac at a feast held to celebrate Isaac's weaning. Fearful that the much older Ishmael would supplant Isaac as the son of the promise, Sarai demanded that Abram banish both Hagar and Ishmael, and God commanded him to follow her advice. The handmaid and her son were consequently exiled to the wilderness, where they nearly died of thirst before being rescued by God (Gen. 21:8-21).

In the Islamic tradition, Abraham (Ibrahim) continues to have a close relationship with Ismail (Ishmael) throughout his life. Together, they traveled throughout Arabia, most notably to Mecca. There Ibrahim and his son Ismail reportedly rebuilt the Ka'bah, the sacred structure at the center of the Muslim pilgrimage, the hajj.

The birth of Isaac

In Genesis 18, Abram and Sarai provide hospitality for three visitors, who are traditionally regarded as angels, although one is addressed as "Yahweh"—God. Their promise of a son to Sarai made Abram "laugh," which would later figure in the naming of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarai herself also "laughed" at the idea (18:1-15). The following spring Sarai finally became pregnant; she gave birth to Isaac, which means "laughter" (Gen. 21:1-7).

Genesis 17 describes the covenant of circumcision. Abram was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarai specifically. God's covenant with Abram was to be fulfilled through Isaac, though God promised that Ishmael, too would be blessed to become a great nation. It was at this time that Abram's name was changed to Abraham and Sarai was given the name Sarah.

In the biblical tradition, the line of succession runs from Abraham through Isaac to Jacob, the father of the Twelve Tribes. The God of the Israelites is therefore called the God of "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob." In the Muslim view, God's promise runs from Abraham to Ishmael as the father of the Arab peoples, yet Islam also considers Isaac (Ishaq in Arabic) as a prophet.

As the father of both Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Hence these are called the "Abrahamic religions." Isaac's son Esau is regarded as the father of the Edomites. Ishmael's 12 sons became prominent Arab princes. Moreover, Abraham's nephew Lot is portrayed as the father of the Moabites and Ammonites.

Sodom and Gomorrah

Informed of God's plan to destroy the great city of Sodom, Abraham pleaded with God not to destroy the city, where Lot currently lived. God agreed that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it. Abraham bargained God down to 45, then 30, 20, even ten righteous people. Abraham's plea for Sodom and Gomorrah showed his compassionate heart of concern that innocent people not perish with the guilty. He bargained with God and even challenged him: "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?" (Gen. 18:25). Judaism praises this level of intimacy with God, where a believer is not limited to accepting whatever God wills but may challenge God to do a greater thing.

Unfortunately, not even ten righteous men were found. Although Lot and his daughters escaped, both Sodom and its sister city, Gomorrah, were obliterated.

The offering of Isaac

Main article: Isaac
"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de LaHire, 1650

Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a burnt sacrifice in the land of Moriah. Abraham made all the necessary preparations, even going so far as to build a pyre, bind Isaac, and raise the knife to slay his son before burning him. He was prevented at the last minute by the Angel of the Lord, who said:

"Do not lay a hand on the boy," he said. "Do not do anything to him. Now I know that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son" (Gen. 22:12)

Instead of offering Isaac, Abraham then sacrificed a ram which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity.[4]

The offering of Isaac was certainly a difficult thing for Abraham, as the Bible hints when it calls Isaac "your only son, whom you love" (Gen. 22:2). According to the Jewish tradition, God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice Isaac. At the same time, it was a test for Isaac, who was old enough to know what was going to happen to him. Several rabbinic stories describe Isaac's faith as equal to Abraham's; he even encouraged his broken-hearted father to be strong to carry out God's order.

Christian tradition regarding the sacrifice of Isaac sees Abraham standing in the position of God, and Abraham's willingness to offer up his "only" son Isaac foreshadowing of God's offering of Jesus for the sins of mankind. Thus the Epistle to the Hebrews states:

By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead. (Heb. 11:17-19)

Traditionally, most Muslims believe that it was Ishmael rather than Isaac whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. In support of this, Muslims note that the text of Genesis, despite specifying Isaac, states that Abraham was told to sacrifice his "only son" to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, Muslims believe that the original text must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The Qur'an itself, however, does not specify that Ishmael was offered, saying only that it was his "only son" (Q 37:99-111).

Later life

Sarah died at age 127 at Hebron, where Abraham reportedly purchased the Cave of Machpelah near Mamre from Hittite landowners. The spot became the family burial site and today is known as the “Cave of the Patriarchs.”

After Sarah's death, Abraham commissioned his servant Eleazar to find a wife for Isaac among Abraham's relatives in Haran. Eleazar returned with the lovely Rebekah, who turned out to be a perfect match for Isaac. "So she became his wife, and he loved her; and Isaac was comforted after his mother's death" (Gen. 24:67).

Although a very old man, Abraham now took another wife for himself, Keturah. She bore him six sons, to whom he bequeathed lands while he still lived. These sons are traditionally believed to be the progenitors of several tribes living on the outskirts of Canaan, including the Midianites. The text also refers to other "concubines" who bore him sons. The Bible says that he sent them away to the "east country" (Gen. 25:6), from which derives a Jewish tradition that through them Abraham's wisdom was sown in the Eastern religions.

Upon his death, "Abraham left everything he owned to Isaac." He reportedly died at the age of 175. Isaac and Ishmael were reunited for his funeral and buried him next to Sarah at the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 25:9).

Abraham's Legacy

Abraham in Judaism

Abraham and Isaac

Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as its first patriarch, having fathered (Isaac), who in turn fathered Jacob, the father of the Twelve Tribes. God promised the land of Israel to Abraham's children, and this constituted the first claim of the Jews to Israel. Abraham was the first to know God personally and intimately, and through him God instituted many of the regulations for Jewish family life (Gen. 18:19), notably circumcision.

Rabbinical tradition is rich with marvelous tales and spiritual insights about Abraham. God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice Isaac. Jewish tradition ascribes a special trait to each patriarch. Abraham's was kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait.

In addition to describing Abraham's original insight into monotheism, rabbinic tradition teaches that God commissioned Abraham to spread the truth, even in Haran. He and Sarah made many converts, some of whom came with him to Canaan. Abraham also reportedly started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the Kabbalist work, the Sefer Yetzirah. Other works attributed to Abraham include the Apocalypse of Abraham and the Testament of Abraham, both of which are thought to date from the first century C.E.

Abraham in Christianity

In the New Testament, Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of faith. Jesus mentions him several times, as does the Epistle to the Hebrews; and the apostle Paul uses him as an example of true faith: "What does the Scripture say? 'Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness'" (Rom. 4:3; Gal. 3).

New Testament generally regards Abraham as the root of the spiritual lineage of faith that is open to all people of faith, in contradistinction to the Jewish view that Abraham's lineage is physical and extends to the Jewish people only. Hence, Jews who wish to rightfully belong to Abraham's physical lineage should act according to Abraham's standard of faith. For example:

  • “I say to you that many will come from the east and the west, and will take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven.” (Matt. 8:11)
  • “If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise.” (Gal. 3:29)
  • “‘If you were Abraham's children,’ said Jesus (speaking to some Jewish opponents), ‘then you would do the things Abraham did.’” (John 8:40)
  • “Zacchaeus stood up and said to the Lord, ‘Look, Lord! Here and now I give half of my possessions to the poor, and if I have cheated anybody out of anything, I will pay back four times the amount.’ Jesus said to him, ‘Today salvation has come to this house, because this man, too, is a son of Abraham.’” (As a tax collector, Zacchaeus may have endured ostracism from his people.) (Luke 19:8-9)

Jesus also uses the example of Abraham to support his belief in the resurrection of the dead and the abiding life of the righteous in heaven:

  • “Have you (Sadducees) not read in the book of Moses, in the burning bush passage, how God spoke to him, saying, ‘I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?’ He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living.” (Mark 12:26-27)
  • “The rich man also died and was buried. In hell, where he was in torment, he looked up and saw Abraham far away... So he called to him, ‘Father Abraham, have pity on me and send Lazarus to dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue, because I am in agony in this fire.’” (Luke 16:22-24)

The Roman Catholic Church calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the Eucharistic prayer, recited during mass.

Abraham in Islam

Abraham (called Ibrahim) is important to Islam, both in his own right as prophet and as the father of the prophet Ismail (Ishmael). Regarded as one of the most important prophets, he is commonly termed Khalil Ullah, “Friend of God.” While most Muslims believe that Adam was the first Muslim, they universally agree that Abraham was a model of faith in Allah.

Many Muslims recite daily prayers that ask God to bless both Abraham and Muhammad. The direction in which Muslims face when praying is toward the Ka'bah, a structure Ibrahim reportedly rebuilt with his son Ismail in Mecca. In the Masjid al Haram in Mecca, there is an area known as the "station of Ibrahim" (Maqam Ibrahim; مقام), which is thought to bear an impression of Abraham's footprints.

In the Qur'an, Abraham is the spiritual father of all believers, and the first to submit (islam) to God. He was the first monotheist (Q 6:76-83). As in Jewish belief, Abraham's father (named Azar in Islam) was an idol-maker, and Abraham broke his idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him (Q 37:83-98). The well-known but non-canonical Qisas al-Anbiya (Ibn Kathir) records considerably more detail about his life, which is commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life.

Traditionally, most Muslims believe that it was Ismail rather than Isaac whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. Muslims also note that nowhere in the Qur'an does God say that it was God who told Abraham to sacrifice his son. Many Muslims affirm that God would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited—human sacrifice—even as a test. Abraham, however, thought the command—given in a dream—was from God. When the devil taunted them before sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail threw stones at the devil. This act is commemorated in the jumrah, one of rites of the hajj where the faithful throw stones at the symbol of the devil. It also symbolizes the rejection of evil ways in one's life.

While denying that God directly commanded Ishmael's sacrifice, the entire episode is nevertheless regarded as a trial from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of Eid ul-Adha.

Abraham in philosophy

Abraham, as a man communicating with God, has inspired philosophers, especially the existentialists such as Søren Kierkegaard and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Kierkegaard was particularly drawn to the issue of Abraham's offering of Isaac. God reportedly asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. But does Abraham know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or even the product of a mental condition? And even if it is God's voice, should such a command be obeyed?

Kierkegaard concluded that God is to be obeyed and that such tests from God require a "leap of faith." Sartre, on the other hand, concluded that it is for us humans to decide how to interpret life's challenges. We stand alone in our freedom, fully responsible for our own actions, which is the core of existentialism.

Historical criticism

Theories abound concerning the "historical" Abraham as well as his legendary character and mythical significance. The discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on Babylonian contracts from about 2000 B.C.E. shows at least that the story of Abram's "Chaldean" origins is plausible. The fact that there were Amorites in Babylonia during the same period likewise is consistent with the idea of migrating bands moving from Babylon to Canaan.

The Book of Genesis is widely believed to be based on a compilation of sources, which accounts for such phenomena as the doubling of certain stories (Sarah's entering the harem of the king of Egypt and later the king of Gerar, for example), the use of Yahweh for God's name in some passages and El, Elohim, El-Shaddai, etc. in others. Scholars postulate a northern source, "E" for the "Elohist" verses and a southern source, "J" for the Yahwist verses. Also evident is a priestly source, "P," that is particularly concerned with religious law and ritual, as well as a later Deuteronomic editor "D" who superimposed the religious view of the sixth century B.C.E. onto more primitive traditions.

Some theorists suggest that Abraham was once a more localized tribal patriarch who later emerged as the larger-than-life central figure of the Israelite origin story. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories these scholars believe that he was primarily associated with Hebron and its environs. The story of the many widespread altars he reportedly established served to connect local religious shrines to the overall Israelite origin legend.[5]

Notes

  1. ↑ Genesis Rabbah 38
  2. ↑ According to the documentary hypothesis, several sources are woven together in this story. Abram calls upon God's true name only in the "J" verses of Genesis, while in the "E" verses he used the word Elohim, El-Shaddai, etc. to refer to God.
  3. ↑ Archaeologists believe the reference to Gerar as a Philistine city here is an anachronism, as the Philistines did not arrive in the area until much later.
  4. ↑ The binding of Isaac is one of the most challenging, and ethically troublesome, parts of the Bible. See Isaac for more details.
  5. ↑ A contemporary example of this phenomenon is the American tradition of "George Washington slept here" inns throughout the northeastern United States.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Abright, William F. The Archeology of Palestine. Peter Smith Pub Inc., 2nd edition, 1985. ISBN 0844600032
  • Bright, John. A History of Israel, 4th ed., Westminster John Knox Press, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
  • De Vaux, Roland. Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997. ISBN 978-0802842787
  • Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites? Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758
  • Feller, Bruce. Abraham: A Journey to the Heart of Three Faiths. Harper Perennial, 2005. ISBN 978-0060838669
  • Gellman, Jerome. Abraham! Abraham: Kierkegaard and the Hasidim on the Binding of Isaac. London: Ashgate Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-0754616795
  • Heap, Norman. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob: Servants and Prophets of God. Greensboro, NC: Family History Publications, 1999. ISBN 978-0945905028
  • Rosenberg, David. Abraham: The First Historical Biography. New York: Basic Books, new edition, 2007. ISBN 978-0465070954
  • Wilson, Marvin R. Our Father Abraham: Jewish Roots of the Christian Faith. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1989. ISBN 978-0802804235

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