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'''Liberation theology''' is a [[Christinaity|Christian]] school of [[theology]] that developed in the 1960s and focuses on liberation of the oppressed. It was initially expressed in the ''Medellín Document on Peace'', issued by the Latin American Bishops in 1968. It expressed grass-roots activity of Catholic priests working with the poor in base communities using the pedagogical methods of Brazilian educator [[Paulo Freire]].<ref>Paulo Freire, ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'', New York: Seabury Press, 1970. ISBN 0816491321</ref> Liberation theology was initially developed in the works of [[Rubem Alves]],<ref>Alves, Rubem, ''A Theology of Hope'' (originally titled ''Towards a Theology of Liberation''), Abbey Press, 1969.</ref> [[Leonardo Boff]],<ref>Boff, Leonardo, ''Church: Charisma & Power, Liberation Theology and the Institutional Church,''  New York: Crossroad, 1986. ISBN 0824507266 and (with Clodovis Boff) ''Introducing Liberation Theology'', New York: Orbis Books, 1987. ISBN 0883445506</ref> [[Gustavo Gutierrez]],<ref>Gutiérrez, Gustavo, ''A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation,'' Orbis Books, 1988. ISBN 088344478X and ''The Power of the Poor in History'', Orbis Books, 1984. ISBN 0883443880</ref> [[Juan Luis Segundo]],<ref>Segundo, Juan Luis, ''The Liberation of Theology,''New York: Orbis, 1976. ISBN 0883442868</ref> [[Jon Sobrino]],<ref>Sobrino, Jon, ''Christology at the Crossroads,'' New York: Orbis, 1985. ISBN 0883440768</ref> and others. Liberation theology stressed "orthopraxis" over "orthodoxy," or action over belief. It was particularly controversial in the [[Vatican]] because it viewed the [[Catholic Church]]'s alignment with the ruling class in Latin America as part of the problem of structural injustice. As the guardian of orthodoxy, the current Pope, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], then Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger who headed the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, was a fierce opponent of liberation theology.<ref>Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal with Vittorio Messori, ''The Ratzinger Report,'' San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1985. ISBN 0898700809</ref>
 
  
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Although many elements of liberation theology were rejected by the Vatican, and liberation theologians harshly admonished by [[Pope John Paul II]] (leading to the curtailing of its growth), it is recognized within liberal [[Protestantism|Protestant]] circles as an important school of thought, enjoying equal standing with [[neo-orthodoxy]], [[feminist theology]], and [[process theology]]. In the 1970s liberation theology was studied in seminaries around the world and spawned many other theologies of liberation, for example, [[James H. Cone]]'s ''A Black Theology of Liberation''<ref>Cone, James H., ''A Black Theology of Liberation,'' New York: J.B. Lippincott, 1970. ISBN 0397100981 and ''God of the Oppressed,'' New York: Seabury Press, 1975. ISBN 0816402639</ref> or [[John B. Cobb, Jr.]]'s ''The Liberation of Life.''<ref>Birch, Charles and John B. Cobb, Jr., ''The Liberation of Life,'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 0521237874</ref>
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'''Liberation theology''' is a [[Christianity|Christian]] school of [[theology]] that developed in [[Latin America]] in the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on liberation of the oppressed. It was initially expressed in the Medellín documents issued at the second conference of the CELAM (''Conselho Episcopal Latino Americano''—Latin American Episcopal Council) in 1968. Expressed there was grass-roots activity of Catholic [[priest]]s working with the poor in "base communities," using the pedagogical methods of the [[Brazil]]ian educationist [[Paulo Freire]]. Liberation theology was initially developed in the works of Gustavo Gutiérrez (considered the father of liberation theology), Juan Luis Segundo, Leonardo Boff, Jon Sobrino, Rubem Alves, and others. Using [[Marxism]] as a way of social analysis and as a program for social change, liberation theology stressed "orthopraxis" over "[[orthodoxy]]," or action over belief. It was particularly controversial in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] because it viewed the [[Catholic Church]]'s alignment with the ruling class in Latin America as part of the problem of structural injustice. As the guardian of orthodoxy, the former Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope [[Benedict XVI]]), who headed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith from 1981 to 2005, was a fierce opponent of liberation theology.
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Liberation theology has had an impact. It helped many of the poor in Latin America to create their own self-reliant communities, although it did not really mean socio-political revolution. Liberation theology bequeathed Marxist elements to [[black theology]] in the [[United States of America]]. It helped ''minjung'' theology (theology of people) in [[Korea]] and ''Dalit'' theology (theology of the untouchable) in [[India]] to emerge. It built a considerable base, when it was connected with the Marxist-led Sandinista [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]] in the 1980s. More recently, some prominent [[politics|political]] leaders in Latin America such as President Rafaek Correa of [[Ecuador]] are said to be sympathetic to liberation theology, presenting some challenge to the establishment. But the basically secular orientation of liberation theology is considered not to have appealed as much to the poor in Latin America, most of whom are rather [[religion|religious]] and pious in nature. Especially after the decline of [[communism]], liberation theology is readjusting itself to the changing situation of the world.
  
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As the liberation theology debates developed and the issues were better understood, the initial confrontation developed into a dialogue.<ref> Boff, Leonardo and Clodovis Boff, ''Liberation Theology: From Confrontation to Dialogue,'' San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1986. ISBN 0866835288</ref>  One concept contributed by [[Rosemary Radford Reuther]] was the idea that liberation of the oppressed is followed by liberation of the oppressor.<ref>Rosemary Reuther, ''Liberation Theology,'' New York, Paulist Press, 1972, quoted by Ferm, William Dean, ''Contemporary American Theologies II: A Book of Readings,'' New York: Seabury Press, 1982, pp. 141-146. ISBN 0816424071</ref> This view emphasized that all people are God's children and only when the oppressed are no longer victims, and the society's leaders are no longer alienated oppressors, can there be a world of wholeness and peace.
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==Development of Liberation Theology==
  
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== History ==  
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===Roots of liberation theology===
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Liberation theology in [[Latin America]] is rooted in both the far and the recent past. Many liberation theologians (especially Gustavo Gutiérrez) have referred back to Bartolomé de Las Casas, a sixteenth-century [[Spain|Spanish]] [[priest]] in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], who defended Native Americans from the cruel [[Spanish Conquistadors]]. Liberation theology is also rooted in at least three more things that were more recent: 1) the development of "[[political theology]]" by [[Germany|German]] [[theology|theologians]] such as Jürgen Moltmann, Johann Metz, and Dorothee Sölle in the 1960s which, under the influence of [[Marxism]], made [[politics|political]] praxis the starting point of theological reflection; 2) the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962-1965), which opened the doors to Catholic involvement in social issues; and 3) the continuous [[poverty]] in Latin America, which was perceived by many to have been caused by two elements: economic dependence imposed by [[Europe|European]] and [[North America|North American]] [[capitalism]]; and suppression by oligarchies and harsh military regimes that cooperated with that capitalism. To address the situation of poverty in Latin America, [[Paulo Freire]] (1921-1997), a Brazilian educator, suggested the program of "conscientization" (''conscientização'' in Portuguese) or "consciousness raising" in his 1968 work ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed,'' teaching that the oppressed and the oppressor must liberate themselves from their "dominated-conditioned" and "dominating-conditioned" mentalities, respectively.<ref>Paulo Freire. ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed.'' (Seabury, 1973).</ref>
  
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===CELAM and Jesus the Liberator===
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===CELAM II===
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Created in 1955 in [[Rio de Janeiro]] (Brazil), the CELAM (''Conselho Episcopal Latino Americano''—Latin American Episcopal Conference) pushed the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962-65) toward a more vocal stance on social justice issues. In 1968, CELAM organized the [[Medellín]] Conference, in Colombia, whose gathering of Roman Catholic Bishops officially supported a version of Liberation Theology. In his account of those historical events, [[Cardinal López Trujillo]] explained that another catalyst of liberation theology was the Brazilian theologian from Princeton, [[Rubem Alves]], who in 1968 wrote ''Towards a Theology of Liberation.''<ref>Published later under the title ''A Theology of Human Hope''.</ref>
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[[Image:Gustavo gutierrez.jpg|thumb|230px|A 2007 photograph of Gustavo Gutiérrez, a [[Peru]]vian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[priest]] and [[theology|theologian]], considered the father of liberation theology.]]
  
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Among the several essays published on liberation theology in the 1970s, one of the most famous was by the Peruvian priest [[Gustavo Gutiérrez]]. In his 1972 essay ''A Theology of Liberation: Perspectives,'' he theorized a combination of Marxism and the social-Catholic teachings contributed to a socialist current in the Church that was influenced by the [[Catholic Worker Movement]] and the French Christian youth worker organization, ''"Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne."'' It was also influenced by [[Paul Gauthier (theologian)|Paul Gauthier]]'s ''The Poor, Jesus and the Church'' (1965).  
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Liberation theology is usually considered to have begun with CELAM II or the Medellín Conference in 1968. The CELAM (''Conselho Episcopal Latino Americano''—Latin American Episcopal Council), a council of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[bishop]]s of Latin America, was originally created in 1955 in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. In 1968, the CELAM had its second conference in Medellín, [[Colombia]] for the purpose of applying [[Vatican II]]'s program of pastoral reform and renewal specifically to the Latin American situation. The program was based on Vatican II's "Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the World." The bishops at the conference were also apparently inspired with the pedagogical approach of Freire. CELAM II condemned extreme inequality among the social classes, unjust use of power, what it called "institutionalized violence," exploitive trade policies, and the Church's alliance with the ruling class. It also decided that the call to "liberation" is integral to the mission of the Church. Gustavo Gutiérrez (1928- ), a [[Peru|Peruvian]] [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] priest and theology professor, served as a member of the theological advisory team at CELAM II to play a key role in drafting its most radical documents, one entitled "Peace," another "Justice." Three years later, in 1971, Gutiérrez' perspective at CELAM II appeared in the form of a book entitled ''Teología de la liberacíon'' ''(A Theology of Liberation).''<ref>Gustavo Gutiérrez. ''A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation,'' revised ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988).</ref> He is considered the father of liberation theology in Latin America, and the book the [[Magna Carta]] of liberation theology.
  
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CELAM itself never supported any aspects of liberation theology questioned by the [[Holy See|Vatican]], as [[Pope Paul VI]] tried to slow the progressivism initiated by the 1962-1965 [[Second Vatican Council|Council]]. [[Antonio Samoré|Cardinal Samore]], in charge of relations between the [[Roman Curia]] and the CELAM as the leader of the [[Pontifical Commission for Latin America]], was ordered to put a stop to this orientation judged antithetical to the Catholic church's teachings.
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===CELAM III===
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With Alfonso López Trujillo's 1972 election as general secretary of the CELAM, official opposition to liberation theology started to increase. In 1979, under his leadership, the CELAM had its third conference in Puebla, [[Mexico]] for the purpose of repudiating the position of CELAM II. So, Pope [[John Paul II]] opened the conference, and Gutiérrez was excluded from the conference. The pope actually tried to steer a conciliatory middle course during his opening speech, expressing his concern not only about the radicalism of liberation theology but also about the unjust condition of the poor. For while saying, "this conception of Christ as a political figure, a revolutionary, as the subversive of Nazareth, does not tally with the Church's catechisms," he also referred to "the ever increasing wealth of the rich at the expense of the ever increasing poverty of the poor," stating that the principle of private property "must lead to a more just and equitable distribution of goods."<ref>Pope John Paul II, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP791228.htm "Opening Address at the Puebla Conference."] Retrieved August 26, 2008.</ref> But, a group of liberation theologians operated out of a nearby [[seminary]] with the help of liberal [[bishop]]s and managed to influence the outcome. Within four hours after the pope's speech, Gutiérrez and his colleagues produced a 20-page refutation which was circulated on the floor of the conference. According to critics, 25 percent of the final Puebla documents were written by those theologians who had not even been invited to the conference. It must be true, because in the end the conference endorsed the idea of [[God]]'s "preferential option for the poor" as part of the quest for [[justice]] and criticized the military dictatorships of Latin America as "institutionalized violence."
  
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With [[Cardinal Alfonso López Trujillo]]'s 1972 election as general secretary of the CELAM, another more orthodox view of liberation began to take root in [[Latin America]]. This viewpoint was solidified after the General Meeting of Latin American Bishops in [[Puebla]] in 1979. At the 1979 Conference in Puebla, the more ecclesiastical reorientation was met by strong opposition from liberal parts of the clergy that assumed the concept of a "preferential option for the poor," that had been stamped by [[Bishop Ricard Durand]], who acted as president of the [[Commission about Poverty]] in Medellín.
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==Contents of Liberation Theology==
  
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[[Sebastian Kappen]], an Indian theologian, published ''[[Jesus and Freedom]]'' in 1977, with an introduction by the French activist [[François Houtart]]. In [[1980]], the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith asked the General of the [[Society of Jesus]] (of which Kappen was a member) to disavow this book. Kappen responded with a pamphlet entitled "[[Censorship and the Future of Asian Theology]]". There was no further action taken by Vatican in this matter. Later Salvadorian [[Jon Sobrino]], in ''Jesus in Latin America,'' argued that just as Jesus was crucified and rose again in glory, the oppressed masses of [[Latin America]] would arise.<ref>Sobrino, Jon, ''Jesus in Latin America,'' New York: Orbis, 1987. ISBN 0883444127</ref> Such images did not always directly endorse violent revolution, but neither did they reject it. To some, Jesus was much like [[Che Gueverra]]. These images gave the poor hope and instilled fear in those in power, reflecting the great social tension that existed in Latin America at the time.
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===Gutiérrez' theology===
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In his ''A Theology of Liberation,'' Gustavo Gutiérrez observed that the "development" approach, which may initially have sounded good, failed to solve the root causes of exploitation because it left intact the structures of exploitation. He opted for the "liberation" approach, therefore, calling for radical structural and social change. This undoubtedly reflected a use of [[Marxism]] not only as a tool of social analysis but also as a program for changing society. Praxis as commitment to this liberation should precede any theoretical reflection in [[theology]]. Even the use of [[violence]] by the oppressed should be permitted for the purpose of liberation, and it should not be equated with the unjust violence of the oppressor. The conventional double standard on violence which assumes that the violence of the oppressor to maintain order is good, but that that of the oppressed to change the order is bad, should be rejected.<ref>Gutiérrez, 1988, 63-64.</ref>
  
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=== The Vatican's reaction===
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Regardless of this Marxist orientation, however, Gutiérrez did not believe that [[Jesus]] reduced [[religion]] to [[politics]] entirely. The political dimension of his [[gospel]] as the liberator of the oppressed "goes to the very root of human existence: the relation with God in solidarity with other persons."<ref>Gutiérrez, 134.</ref> Jesus was not a [[Zealots|Zealot]], as his proclamation of the [[Kingdom of God]] transcended the more limited and political orientation of the Zealots. [[Sin]] is, therefore, defined as the loss of the basic relationship of solidarity of [[God]] and human beings; it is "a social, historical fact, the absence of fellowship and love in relationships among persons, the breach of friendship with God and with other persons, and, therefore, an interior, personal fracture."<ref>Gutiérrez, 102-103.</ref> [[Salvation]], then, means to be freed from that sin; it means "the communion of human beings with God and among themselves."<ref>Gutiérrez, 85.</ref> Salvation in this sense is not personal nor otherworldly beyond this life but rather collective and thisworldly. The Kingdom of God is where this salvation is realized as the reestablishment of [[justice]] in this world. Interestingly, Gutiérrez' approach involves a profound sense of [[spirituality]] where you experience such a "conversion" to the oppressed that you are willing to give unconditional [[love]] to them. He refers to it as the source of Christian joy.
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Due to the controversial nature of liberation theology within the Roman Catholic Church and the controversial way in which Church officials responded, liberation theology was widely discussed and debated. According to official statements, liberation theology is only partially compatible with [[Catholic social teaching]]. It was rejected by the Vatican because of the Marxist concepts that tended towards materialism, and incited "hate and violence (and) the exaltation of class struggle" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Bertrand_Aristide#Education_and_church_career]. However the former [[Pope Benedict XVI|Cardinal Ratzinger]], now Pope Benedict XVI, praised that aspect of the movement which rejects violence and instead "stresses the responsibility which Christians necessarily bear for the poor and oppressed"
 
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[http://www.christendom-awake.org/pages/ratzinger/liberationtheol.htm]. Nevertheless in his essay on liberation published in 1983, he strongly criticized the Marxist trend of liberation theology as presented by Father [[Gutiérrez]].
 
  
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[[Pope John Paul II]] tried to steer a conciliatory middle course during his opening speech at the January 1979 [[Puebla]] CELAM conference, saying, "this conception of [[Christ]] as a political figure, a revolutionary, as the subversive of Nazareth, does not tally with the Church's catechisms." However, he also expressed concern over, "the ever increasing wealth of the rich at the expense of the ever increasing [[poverty]] of the poor." He stated that the principle of [[private property]] "must lead to a more just and equitable distribution of goods,...and if the common good demands it, there is no need to hesitate at expropriation itself, done in the right way."
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===Other liberation theologians===
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Other than Gutiérrez, there are several notable liberation theologians with their distinctive theological points. Juan Luis Segundo (1925-1997), a [[Jesuit]] from [[Uruguay]], was famous for his [[hermeneutics|hermeneutical]] treatment of the [[Bible]] from the perspective of liberation and yet with an emphasis on the primacy of the Bible. His main work was ''The Liberation of Theology.''<ref>Juan Luis Segundo. ''The Liberation of Theology'' (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1976).</ref> Leonardo Boff (1938- ), a [[Franciscan]] from [[Brazil]], has challenged the Church by asserting that it should be open for change because of the possibility for the further action of the [[Holy Spirit]] in the "base communities," the reason being that the Church originally emerged from the post-[[Easter]] [[Pentecost]]al experience of the early [[Christian]]s anyway and not from Jesus as an unchanging institution. This, expressed in his ''Ecclesiogenesis,''<ref>Leonardo Boff, ''Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church'' (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986)</ref> reflects a result of the historical-critical biblical scholarship. A prolific writer, he has written more than 100 books including ''Church: Charism and Power,'' a book on [[ecclesiology]], which was perceived to be defiant and militant in the eyes of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]].<ref>Leonardo Boff. ''Church: Charism and Power - Liberation Theology and the Institutional Church.'' (New York: Crossroad, 1986)</ref> Jon Sobrino (1938- ), a [[El Salvador|Salvadorian]] Jesuit originally from [[Spain]], has argued in his ''Jesus in Latin America'' that just as Jesus was crucified and rose again in glory, the oppressed masses of [[Latin America]] would arise.<ref>Jon Sobrino. ''Jesus in Latin America.'' (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987).</ref> Such images did not always directly endorse violent revolution, but neither did they reject it.
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There are also some liberation theologians with [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background. José Míguez Bonino (1924- ), a [[Methodist]] from [[Argentina]], in his ''Christians and Marxists'' has strongly defended the Christian use of [[Marxism|Marxist]] as the best instrument available for social revolution in spite of its uneasy tension with the religious nature of the Christian faith.<ref>José Míguez Bonino. ''Christians and Marxists: The Mutual Challenge to Revolution.'' (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1976).</ref> Rubem Alves (1933- ), a Brazilian [[Presbyterians|Presbyterian]], has argued in his ''A Theology of Human Hope,'' published from his 1968 Ph.D. dissertation ("A Theology of Liberation") at [[Princeton Theological Seminary]], that unless the oppressed are willing to resist this world of injustice in favor of a future world of hope, God will suffer.<ref>Rubem Alves. ''A Theology of Human Hope.'' (Washington, D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969).</ref>
  
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Despite the orthodox predominance in CELAM at Sucre from 1972, liberation theology retained a sympathy in some circles, especially among the South-American laity and individual priests. The Puebla conference was far from the end of discussion. Despite the more orthodox stance of the Church itself, a group of liberation theologians, operated out of a nearby seminary with the help of liberal bishops and managed to influence the outcome. Within four hours after the Pope's speech, Gutierrez and his colleagues produced a twenty-page refutation which was circulated on the floor of the conference. According to critics, 25 percent of the final Puebla documents were written by theologians that had not even been invited to the conference. [[Cardinal López Trujillo]] considers this to be "an incredible exaggeration." Nevertheless he conceded that there was a strong pressure from a group of some 80 Marxist liberationists from outside the Bishop's Conference. "Those who criticized Puebla, now say they wrote part of it", mocked the Colombian Cardinal. Despite the official disavowal of liberation theology by Catholic church authorities, the movement after Puebla managed to persist in some areas.  
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==The Impact of Liberation Theology==
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Liberation theology has had an impact much wider than an ecclesiastical dispute within the [[Catholic Church]] itself. It promoted awareness that the poor and impoverished can struggle for change instead of continuing to live in [[poverty]]. That awareness led to three general types of action or praxis, aimed at changing the situation. These were: 1) social revolution, 2) peaceful social transformation, and 3) parallel societies. Liberationists stood for social revolution, and the Catholic Church and dominant [[politics|political]] powers feared revolution and preached peaceful transformation. By contrast, many [[Latin America]]ns in base communities, simply created parallel societies, their own communities, instead of necessarily following the option of social revolution. They learned self-reliance, hygiene, and various skills from [[priest]]s and social workers, and then from one another. In ''The Other Path'' (as opposed to the [[Mao Zedong|Maoist]] guerrilla movement ''Sendero Luminoso,'' "Shining Path," in [[Peru]]), Hernando de Soto documented the growth of the informal economy around Lima, in which entire communities were built, roads were paved, and people prospered outside the formal economy. Officially squatters, some of Peru's impoverished had created middle-class and upper middle-class lives by "pulling up their own bootstraps."<ref>Hernando de Soto. ''The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World.'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).</ref> The idea was to overcome impoverishment through [[education]] and hard work apart from the structural oppression which existed.
  
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Former Cardinal Ratzinger strongly opposed liberation theology. Through the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]] (CDF), which he headed, the Vatican condemned liberation theology twice (in 1984 and 1986) accusing it of Marxist tendencies and incitement to hate and violence. [[Leonardo Boff]] was suspended, while others were reputedly asked to take vows of silence.  
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[[Protestant]] theologians watching the internecine Catholic disputes tended to champion their brothers who were repeating some of [[Martin Luther]]'s criticisms four centuries earlier. So, liberation theology has been recognized within liberal Protestant circles as an important school of thought, enjoying equal standing with other contemporary schools of theology such as [[black theology]] and [[feminist theology]]. But, another Protestant response to the perceived Catholic complicity with the established order in Latin America was massive conversions to Protestantism in the 1970s and 1980s. The Protestantism being taught in Latin America emphasized an ethic of self-reliance and greater equality between men and women. Many women became Protestants, seeking a life in which the "machismo" mentality common in males was not endorsed. Protestantism was another path to possible social advancement.
  
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In 1980, [[San Salvador]]'s prelate, Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]], clashed with Pope John Paul II during his visit to Europe. Romero was later assassinated during Mass in San Salvador by unknown members of [[death squad]]s that some critics associate with anti-communists in [[El Salvador]]. Sympathetic to the plight of the poor and opposed to the death squads, Óscar Romero argued that El Salvador's government should not be supported because of its alleged support of terror and human rights violations.  
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Black theology emerged in response to the problem of [[racism]] in the [[United States of America]] around the same time as liberation theology in Latin America. James Cone published his major work ''A Black Theology of Liberation'' in 1970, while Gutiérrez published ''Teología de la liberacíon'' in 1971. Although the two different schools emerged independently of each other because their roots were different, they had something in common: liberation from the discriminatory structures of racism or classism. Therefore, there started dialogue, communication, and cooperation between them. One example was a symposium on black theology and Latin American liberation theology, which took place in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] in 1973. It was under the influence of Latin American liberation theology that black theology started to adopt Marxism, which otherwise had been negatively treated by black theologians as merely [[atheism|atheist]], sectarian, and even racist because of its connection with white [[Russia]]ns. James Cone admits that his interest in Marxism for social and economic change was renewed in the late 1970s through contact with Latin American liberation theology.<ref>James H. Cone. ''For My People: Black Theology and the Black Church.'' (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Press, 1984), 177.</ref> Needless to say, ''minjung'' theology (theology of people) in [[Korea]] in the 1970s and of ''Dalit'' theology (theology of the untouchable) in [[India]] in the 1980s emerged under the influence of Latin American liberation theology.
  
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In March 1983, Cardinal Ratzinger published "ten observations" on Gutiérrez's theology, accusing Gutiérrez of politically interpreting the Bible and of supporting a temporal messianism. Ratzinger declared that the influence of Marxism was proven by the predominance accorded to orthopraxis over orthodoxy. Finally, he stated that these ideas would support similar class conflict inside the Church, and the rejection of its hierarchy. During the 1980-1990s, Ratzinger continued his condemnation of liberation theology, prohibiting some dissident priests to teach their doctrines in the name of the [[Catholic Church]]. For example, [[Tissa Balasuriya]] in [[Sri Lanka]] was excommunicated for doing this.
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Liberation theology built a considerable base, when it was connected with the Marxist-led [[Sandinista]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]] in the 1980s. More recently, the influence of liberation theology still exists in Latin America, still posing a challenge to the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and the existing establishment. The presence of liberation theology especially in poorer areas of [[Brazil]] such as the [[Amazon]] is unquestionable. Political leaders such as President [[Evo Morales]] of [[Bolivia]] and President Rafaek Correa of [[Ecuador]] are said to be sympathetic to liberation theology. In 2008, the former Bishop [[Fernando Lugo]], a liberation theologian, was elected as President of [[Paraguay]].
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During his travel to Managua, [[Nicaragua]], Pope John Paul II harshly condemned what he dubbed the "popular Church." This condemnation by the church was partly fueled by the involvement of "ecclesial base communities" (CEBs) in class struggle, and the Nicaraguan clergy support the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]]. The Pope further insisted on His authority over the Church as [[Universal Pastor]], in conformity with canonical law and global Church teachings.
 
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A new trend followed Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger and [[Pope John Paul II]]'s condemnations of the Marxist currents in liberation theology, by promoting [[Reconciliation Theology]] that would promote non-violent efforts to uplift the poor. This theology has had a great influence among clergy and laity in Latin America.
 
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==The Impact of Liberation Theology==
 
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Liberation theology has had an impact much wider than an ecclesiastic dispute within the [[Catholic Church]]. It reflected the struggles of the poor and impoverished everywhere and the tendency of religious leaders to promote "peaceful" solutions, which inevitably translated into "delay" or "never" from the standpoint of the poor, who might be dead before gradual change ever helped their plight. Wherever there was oppression or poverty a form of liberation theology for that particular group might emerge.
 
  
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Liberation theology was more than anything promoting awareness in impoverished communities that they did not have to continue to live in poverty. This was [[Paulo Freire|Freire's]] pedagogy. That awareness led to three general types of action, or "praxis," aimed at changing the situation. These were (1) social revolution, (2) peaceful social transformation, and (3) parallel societies. The Catholic Church and dominant political powers feared revolution and preached peaceful transformation, but many Latin Americans simply created parallel societies.
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==The Vatican's Reaction==
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[[Paul VI|Pope Paul VI]], who reigned the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] from 1963 to 1978, tried to slow the progressivism initiated by the [[Second Vatican Council]]. So, Cardinal Samore, in charge of the relations between the Roman Curia and the CELAM as the leader of the Pontifical Commission for Latin America from 1967 to 1983, was naturally ordered to put a stop to the orientation of liberation theology judged antithetical to the [[Catholic Church]]'s teachings.
  
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Many in base communities learned self-reliance, hygiene, and various skills from priests and social workers, and then from one another. Many of the poor simply developed their own communities. In ''The Other Path'' (as opposed to the [[Mao Zedong|Maoist]] movement "The Shining Path" in Peru), [[Hernando de Soto]] documented the growth of the informal economy around Lima, in which entire communities were built, roads were paved, and people prospered outside the formal economy. Officially squatters, some of Peru's impoverished had created middle-class and upper middle-class lives by "pulling up their own bootstraps."<ref>de Soto, Hernando, ''The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World'', New York: Harper and Row, 1989. ISBN 0060160209</ref> Parallels could be seen also with the teachings of [[Louis Farrakhan]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] in the United States. The idea was to overcome impoverishment through education and hard work apart from the structural oppression which existed.
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At CELAM III in 1979, however, [[Pope John Paul II]] steered a conciliatory middle course, showing his concern not only about liberation theology itself but also about the miserable condition of the poor in [[Latin America]], perhaps because he saw the exposure of that miserable condition through CELAM II in 1968. In fact, the idea of [[God]]'s "preferential option for the poor" endorsed by liberation theology is not new; rooted in the [[Bible|biblical]] notion of [[justice]] for the voiceless and powerless among us such as widows and [[orphan]]s, it has a long tradition within [[Christianity]]. The question is: How broad and inclusive is the notion of liberation? While liberation theology understands the notion to be social and [[politics|political]], the Bible would include in it not only this external sense but also the spiritual sense in which people are supposed to be liberated from the bondage of sin. Hence, at CELAM III John Paul II proclaimed "liberation in its deeper, fuller sense," namely, "liberation from everything that oppresses human beings, but especially liberation from sin and the evil one, in the joy of knowing God and being known by him."<ref>Pope John Paul II, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP791228.htm "Opening Address at the Puebla Conference."] Retrieved August 26, 2008.</ref> John Paul II later experienced some moments of direct tension with liberationist [[clergy]]. In 1980, San Salvador's prelate, Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]], clashed with the pope during his visit to [[Europe]]. In 1983, the [[Nicaragua]]n clergy involvement with base communities in class struggle by working with the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]] led the pope during his visit to Nicaragua to harshly condemn what he dubbed the "popular church" vis-à-vis the existing Church.  
  
−
[[Protestant]] theologians watching the internecine Catholic disputes tended to champion their brothers who were repeating some of [[Martin Luther]]'s criticisms four centuries earlier. Indeed another response to the perceived Catholic complicity with the established order in [[Latin America]] were massive conversions to protestantism in the 1970s and 1980s. The protestantism being taught in Latin America emphasized an ethic of [[self-reliance]] and greater equality between men and women. Many women became protestants seeking a life in which the "machismo" mentality common in males was not endorsed. Protestantism was another path to possible social advancement.
+
[[Image:PopeBenedictXVI.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Pope Benedict XVI, the former Cardinal Ratzinger, a key opponent of liberation theology.]]
  
−
In the [[United States]], [[Black Theology]] became heavily influenced by liberation theology in the 1970s. [[James Cone]] promoted a more confrontational form of Black liberation theology with sympathy toward [[Malcolm X]],<ref>Cone, James H., ''A Black Theology of Liberation.'' ISBN 0397100981</ref> while James DeOtis Roberts promoted a more conciliatory form of social transformation associated with [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] Black liberation theology, which ministers to those oppressed by the effects of [[slavery]] in the [[United States]], frequently cites [[Exodus]] because [[Moses]] led the slaves out of [[Egypt]].
+
The former Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope [[Benedict XVI]]), who headed the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (or the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith from 1983) from 1981 to 2005, strongly opposed liberation theology. In March 1983, he published an article entitled "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez,"<ref>Joseph Ratzinger, "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez," in ''Liberation Theology: A Documentary History,'' ed. Alfred T. Hennelly (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990), 348-350.</ref> accusing Gutiérrez of politically interpreting the Bible and of supporting a temporal [[Messiah|messianism]]. Ratzinger declared that the influence of [[Marxism]] was proven by the predominance accorded to orthopraxis over [[orthodoxy]]. Finally, he stated that these ideas would support similar class conflict inside the [[Church]], and the rejection of its hierarchy.  
  
−
In [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], the theologians [[John Mbiti]] ([[Uganda]]), [[Kosuke Koyama]] ([[Japan]]), and many others developed indigenous theologies which understood the [[Bible]] in relation to their own cultures, rather than through "European" lenses.<ref>Ferm, William Deane, ''Third World Liberation Theologies: A Reader,'' New York: Orbis, 1986. ISBN 0883445174</ref> Elements of [[Shamanism]], [[Daoism]], and [[naturalism]] can be found in many of these "third world" liberation theologies.
+
The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Ratzinger officially condemned liberation theology twice (in 1984 and 1986), issuing "Instruction on Certain Aspects of the 'Theology of Liberation'" (1984)<ref>Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger,
 +
[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19840806_theology-liberation_en.html "Instruction on Certain Aspects of the 'Theology of Liberation'."] ''Vatican Library''. Retrieved August 26, 2008.</ref> and "Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation" (1986).<ref>Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger,[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19860322_freedom-liberation_en.html "Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation."]''Vatican Library''. Retrieved August 26, 2008.</ref> The 1984 instruction criticized especially the social analysis which liberation theology adopted from [[Karl Marx|Marx]]'s notions of "labor value," "surplus value," and "exploitation," as in Bonino’s explicit use of Marx in his ''Christians and Marxists'' and Gutiérrez’s specific reference to the appropriation by [[capitalism|capitalists]] of "the value of the work of others,"<ref>Gustavo Gutiérrez, ''A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation'', revised ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988), 116.</ref> for example. The 1986 instruction showed a bit more sympathy to liberation theologians.
  
−
In the final analysis, liberation theology in is various forms has served to give a voice to the voiceless and has allowed the variety of human beings to come to understand one another better in an age of [[globalization]].
+
In 1985, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith silenced [[Leonard Boff]] for a year for his book ''Church: Charism and Power,'' which was perceived to have presented a very radical [[ecclesiology]]. He was almost silenced again in 1992, in an attempt to prevent him from attending the Eco-92 Earth Summit in [[Rio de Janeiro]], but this led him to leave the [[Franciscan]] order and the [[priest]]hood. Also, some other dissident priests were prohibited from teaching their doctrines in the name of the Catholic Church.
  
−
== Partial list of liberation theologians and authors supporting liberation theology ==
+
==Liberation Theology Afterward==
 +
Liberation theology, in spite of its strong [[theology|theological]]/[[ideology|ideological]] stance on praxis for social revolution, has hardly been able to accomplish that kind of revolution. It has been found out that most of the poor in [[Latin America]] are by nature too [[religion|religious]] and pious to accept liberation theology's radical program for social revolution, and that they have been interested mainly in pursuing their own parallel societies. So, liberationists have had to "shake" them instead of listening to them: "After having tried to lose themselves within the people, to identify with the people, [liberationists] come to understand that they must shake the people."<ref>James Tunstead Burchaell, "How Authentically Christian is Liberation Theology?" ''Review of Politics'' 50 (1988): 266.</ref> Ironically, therefore, liberationists have quite often been critiqued of not carefully listening to the poor whom they are supposed to love by having a "conversion" to them.
 +
 +
After the rapid decline of [[communism]] since the end of 1980s, liberation theology seems to have been in retreat. In spite of the continuous presence of the movement, it seems to have become more [[skepticism|skeptical]] of Marxism, now redirecting its "central concerns away from politics in the narrow sense to issues of popular religion, spirituality, and long-term social and cultural change."<ref>Daniel H. Levine, "Considering Liberation Theology as Utopia," ''Review of Politics'' 52 (1990): 607.</ref> Even Gutiérrez has more recently recognized the importance of knowing and accommodating the [[spirituality]] of common Latin American people to the cause of liberation.
  
−
* [[Marcella Althaus-Reid]], [[Argentina]] - [[Scotland]]
+
Liberation theology, of course, still stirs controversies today. For example, Jon Sobrino received worldwide attention in 2007, when his humanistic view of [[Jesus]] based on what he called the "Church of the poor" elicited from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith a notification that stated that it is erroneous and dangerous. Other things that are still challenging the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] include: liberation theology's continuous presence in poorer areas of [[Brazil]] such as the [[Amazon]]; the election of the former Bishop Fernando Lugo, a liberation theologian, as President of [[Paraguay]] in 2008; and some sympathy with liberation theology among [[politics|political]] leaders such as President Rafaek Correa of [[Ecuador]]. Nevertheless, the movement's struggle with the Vatican has definitely decreased, and its original program for radical revolution may have waned. During the [[Ash Wednesday]] [[Mass]] in the Basilica of Santa Sabina on February 21, 2007, Gutiérrez was among those who received ashes from Pope Benedict XVI. Gutiérrez said that his problems with the Church's ''magisterium'' (teaching authority) were "completely over" and had been settled some time ago.<ref>[http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0701160.htm "Catholic News Service," Feb-28-2007.] Retrieved September 4, 2008.</ref>
−
* [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], [[Haiti]] (b. 1953)
 
−
* [[Alan Boesak]], [[South Africa]] (b. 1945)
 
−
* [[Paulo Evaristo Arns]], [[Brazil]] (b. 1921)
 
−
* [[Hugo Assmann]], [[Brazil]] (b. 1933)
 
−
* [[Tomás Balduíno]], [[Brazil]] (b. 1923)
 
−
* [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]], [[Timor Leste]] (b. 1948)
 
−
* [[Jose Oscar Beozzo]], [[Brazil]]
 
−
* [[Clodovis Boff]], [[Brazil]]
 
−
* [[Curt Cadorette]], [[Peru]], Professor of Religion at University of Rochester
 
−
* [[Rafael Puente Calvo]], S.J., [[Bolivia]] (b. 1940), present President of Bolivian police under [[Evo Morales]]
 
−
* [[Leonardo Boff]], [[Brazil]] (b. 1938)
 
−
* [[Robert McAfee Brown]], [[U.S.]] (1920-2001)
 
−
* [[Hélder Câmara]], [[Brazil]] (1909-1999)
 
−
* [[Katie Geneva Cannon]], [[U.S.]]
 
−
* [[Pedro Casaldáliga]], [[Spain]] - [[Brazil]] (b. 1928)
 
−
* [[James Cone (theologian)|James Cone]], [[U.S.]] (b. 1938)
 
−
* [[Ernesto Cardenal]], [[Nicaragua]] (b. 1925)
 
−
* [[Fernando Cardenal]], [[Nicaragua]]
 
−
* [[Diane Drufenbrock]], [[U.S.]]
 
−
* [[Virgilio Elizondo]], [[U.S.]]
 
−
* [[Ignacio Ellacuría]], S.J., [[Spain]] - [[El Salvador]] (1930-1989)
 
−
* [[Larry W. Gaiters]], [[Canada]] (b. 1963)
 
−
* [[Paul Gauthier (theologian)|Paul Gauthier]], [[France]] (1914-2002)
 
−
* [[Gustavo Gutiérrez]], [[Peru]] (b. 1928)
 
−
* [[François Houtart]], [[Belgium]] (b. 1925)
 
−
* [[Gérard Jean-Juste]], [[Haiti]] (b. 1947)
 
−
* [[Sebastian Kappen]], India (1924 - 1993)
 
−
* [[Elmar Klinger]], [[Germany]] (b. 1938)
 
−
* [[Erwin Kräutler]], [[Austria]] - [[Brazil]] (b. 1939)
 
−
* [[Hans Küng]], [[Switzerland]] - [[Germany]] (b. 1928)
 
−
* [[Martin Maier]], S.J. [[Germany]]
 
−
* [[Ignacio Martín-Baró]], S.J., [[Spain]] - [[El Salvador]] (1942-1989)
 
−
* [[Herbert McCabe]], O.P., UK (1926-2001)  
 
−
* [[Johann Baptist Metz]], [[Germany]] (b. 1928)
 
−
* [[José Míguez Bonino]], Argentina
 
−
* [[Jürgen Moltmann]], [[Germany]] (b. 1926)
 
−
* [[Segundo Montes]], S.J., [[Spain]] - [[El Salvador]] (1933-1989)
 
−
* [[Carlos Mugica]], Argentina (1930-1974)
 
−
* [[Henri Nouwen]], [[Netherlands]] (1932-1996)
 
−
* [[Óscar Romero]], [[El Salvador]] (1917-1980)
 
−
* [[Samuel Ruiz]], [[Mexico]] (b. 1924)
 
−
* [[Edward Schillebeeckx]], Belgium - [[Netherlands]] (b. 1914)
 
−
* [[Juan Luis Segundo]], S.J., [[Uruguay]] (1925-1996)
 
−
* [[Stefan Silber]], [[Germany]]
 
−
* [[Stephen Sizer]], [[England]] (b. 1953)
 
−
* [[Jon Sobrino]], S.J., [[Spain]] - [[El Salvador]] (b. 1938)
 
−
* [[Dorothee Sölle]], [[Germany]] (1929-2003)
 
−
* [[Camilo Torres Restrepo]], [[Colombia]] (1929-1966)
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
 
<references />
 
<references />
  
−
== References ==  
+
== Bibliography ==  
−
* Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, "Liberation Theology" (preliminary notes to 1984 Instruction)
+
* Alves, Rubem. ''A Theology of Human Hope''. Washington, D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969.
−
* Berryman, Phillip, ''Liberation Theology'' (1987).  
+
* Berryman, Phillip. ''Liberation Theology''. Temple University Press, 1987. ISBN 087722479X
−
* Sigmund, P.E., ''Liberation Theology at the Crossroads'' (1990).  
+
* Boff, Leonardo. ''Church: Charisma and Power—Liberation Theology and the Institutional Church''. New York: Crossroad, 1986. ISBN 0824507266
−
* Hillar, Marian, "Liberation Theology: Religious Response to Social Problems. A Survey", published in ''Humanism and Social Issues. Anthology of Essays''. M. Hillar and H.R. Leuchtag, eds., American Humanist Association, Houston, 1993, pp. 35-52 [http://www.socinian.org/files/LiberationTheology.pdf].  
+
* Boff, Leonardo. ''Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986. ISBN 0883442140
−
* Gutiérrez, Gustavo, ''A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation'', Orbis Books, 1988.  
+
* Boff, Leonardo, and Clodovis Boff. ''Introducing Liberation Theology''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987. ISBN 0883445506
−
* Smith, Christian, ''The Emergence of Liberation Theology: Radical Religion and the Social Movement Theory'', University of Chicago Press, 1991.
+
* Boff, Leonardo, and Clodovis Boff. ''Liberation Theology: From Dialogue to Confrontation''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0866835288
−
* Mahan, Brian and L. Dale Richesin, ''The Challenge of Liberation Theology: A First World Response,'' 1981, Orbis Books, Maryknoll, NY.
+
* Bonino, José Míguez. ''Christians and Marxists: The Mutual Challenge to Revolution''. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1976.
 +
* Burchaell, James Tunstead. "How Authentically Christian is Liberation Theology?" ''Review of Politics'' 50 (1988): 264-81.
 +
* Cone, James H. ''For My People: Black Theology and the Black Church''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Press, 1984 ISBN 0883441063
 +
* De Soto, Hernando. ''The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World''. New York: Harper & Row, 1989. ISBN 0060160209
 +
* Ferm, William Deane. ''Third World Liberation Theologies: A Reader''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986. ISBN 0883445174
 +
* Freire, Paulo. ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed''. New York: Seabury Press, 1970. ISBN 0816491321
 +
* Gutiérrez, Gustavo. ''A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation''. Revised ed. Orbis Books, 1988. ISBN 0883445425
 +
* Gutiérrez, Gustavo. ''The Power of the Poor in History''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1984. ISBN 0883443880
 +
* Hillar, Marian. "Liberation Theology: Religious Response to Social Problems. A Survey." In ''Humanism and Social Issues. Anthology of Essays'', edited by M. Hillar and H.R. Leuchtag, 35-52. Houston: American Humanist Association, 1993. [http://www.socinian.org/files/LiberationTheology.pdf (Online Source).] Retrieved June 3, 2008.  
 +
* John Paul II. [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP791228.htm "Opening Address at the Puebla Conference."]
 +
* Kappen, Sebastian. ''Jesus and Freedom''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977. ISBN 0883442337
 +
* Levine, Daniel H. "Considering Liberation Theology as Utopia." ''Review of Politics'' 52 (1990): 603-20.
 +
* Mahan, Brian, and L. Dale Richesin. ''The Challenge of Liberation Theology: A First World Response''. New York: Orbis Books, 1981. ISBN 088344092X
 +
* Miranda, José. ''Marx and the Bible: A Critique of the Philosophy of Oppression''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1974. ISBN 0883443074
 +
* Novak, Michael. ''Will it Liberate?: Questions About Liberation Theology''. Madison Books Reprint, 2000. ISBN 0819180602
 +
* Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal. [http://www.christendom-awake.org/pages/ratzinger/liberationtheol.htm "Liberation Theology."] Retrieved August 26, 2008.
 +
* Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal. "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez." In ''Liberation Theology: A Documentary History'', edited by Alfred T. Hennelly, 348-50. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990. ISBN 088344593X
 +
* Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, with Vittorio Messori. ''The Ratzinger Report: An Exclusive Interview on the State of he Church''. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1985. ISBN 0898700809
 +
* Schall, James V. ''Liberation Theology in Latin America''. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1982. ISBN 089870006X
 +
* Segundo, Juan Luis. ''The Liberation of Theology''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1976. ISBN 0883442868
 +
* Sigmund, Paul E. ''Liberation Theology at the Crossroads: Democracy or Revolution?''. Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 019507274X
 +
* Smith, Christian. ''The Emergence of Liberation Theology: Radical Religion and the Social Movement Theory''. University of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226764109
 +
* Sobrino, Jon. ''Christology at the Crossroads''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985. ISBN 0883440768
 +
* Sobrino, Jon. ''Jesus in Latin America''. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987. ISBN 0883444127
  
 
== External links ==  
 
== External links ==  
−
*[http://tcrnews2.com/paxtcr.html What is abiding in Liberation Theology]
+
All links retrieved October 25, 2022.
−
*[http://www.landreform.org/boff2.htm A short history of Liberation theology]
 
−
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8420/liberation.html Excerpts on and Chronology of liberation theology] (alt link [http://home.comcast.net/~chtongyu/liberation/liberation.html])
 
−
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~ronrhodes/Liberation.html "Christian Revolution in Latin America: The Changing Face of Liberation Theology"], Ron Rhodes
 
−
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/pope/obit/theo_liberation.shtml BBC Religion & Ethics theological obituary of Pope John Paul II: his views on liberation theology]
 
−
*[http://www.theo.kuleuven.ac.be/clt/index.htm Centre for Liberation Theologies, Faculty of Theology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium]
 
−
*[http://tcrnews2.com/genpoor.html The Blessed Poor of Jesus of Nazareth]
 
−
*[http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=643 Edward A. Lynch, "The Retreat of Liberation Theology", 1994]
 
−
*[http://www.liberationtheology.org Liberation Theology Resources Online] — articles, organizations, biographies, book links
 
−
*[http://www.sp-usa.org/spfaith/spfaith.html Socialism and Faith Commission of the Socialist Party USA]
 
−
*[http://www.blackliberationtheology.info Black Liberation Theology: Information]
 
  
−
=== Vatican ===
+
*[http://www.liberationtheology.org Liberation Theology Resources Online]—articles, organizations, biographies, book links
−
*[http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_df84lt.htm Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, August 6, 1984, ''Instruction on Certain Aspects of "Theology of Liberation"'']  
+
*[http://www.christendom-awake.org/pages/ratzinger/liberationtheol.htm "Liberation Theology"] by Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger
−
*[http://www.christendom-awake.org/pages/ratzinger/liberationtheol.htm Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, "Liberation Theology" (preliminary notes to 1984 Instruction)]
+
*[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19840806_theology-liberation_en.html "Instruction on Certain Aspects of the 'Theology of Liberation'"] by Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
 +
*[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19860322_freedom-liberation_en.html "Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation"] by Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 22:27, 25 October 2022


Liberation theology is a Christian school of theology that developed in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on liberation of the oppressed. It was initially expressed in the Medellín documents issued at the second conference of the CELAM (Conselho Episcopal Latino Americano—Latin American Episcopal Council) in 1968. Expressed there was grass-roots activity of Catholic priests working with the poor in "base communities," using the pedagogical methods of the Brazilian educationist Paulo Freire. Liberation theology was initially developed in the works of Gustavo Gutiérrez (considered the father of liberation theology), Juan Luis Segundo, Leonardo Boff, Jon Sobrino, Rubem Alves, and others. Using Marxism as a way of social analysis and as a program for social change, liberation theology stressed "orthopraxis" over "orthodoxy," or action over belief. It was particularly controversial in the Vatican because it viewed the Catholic Church's alignment with the ruling class in Latin America as part of the problem of structural injustice. As the guardian of orthodoxy, the former Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), who headed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith from 1981 to 2005, was a fierce opponent of liberation theology.

Liberation theology has had an impact. It helped many of the poor in Latin America to create their own self-reliant communities, although it did not really mean socio-political revolution. Liberation theology bequeathed Marxist elements to black theology in the United States of America. It helped minjung theology (theology of people) in Korea and Dalit theology (theology of the untouchable) in India to emerge. It built a considerable base, when it was connected with the Marxist-led Sandinista government of Nicaragua in the 1980s. More recently, some prominent political leaders in Latin America such as President Rafaek Correa of Ecuador are said to be sympathetic to liberation theology, presenting some challenge to the establishment. But the basically secular orientation of liberation theology is considered not to have appealed as much to the poor in Latin America, most of whom are rather religious and pious in nature. Especially after the decline of communism, liberation theology is readjusting itself to the changing situation of the world.

Development of Liberation Theology

Roots of liberation theology

Liberation theology in Latin America is rooted in both the far and the recent past. Many liberation theologians (especially Gustavo Gutiérrez) have referred back to Bartolomé de Las Casas, a sixteenth-century Spanish priest in Central and South America, who defended Native Americans from the cruel Spanish Conquistadors. Liberation theology is also rooted in at least three more things that were more recent: 1) the development of "political theology" by German theologians such as Jürgen Moltmann, Johann Metz, and Dorothee Sölle in the 1960s which, under the influence of Marxism, made political praxis the starting point of theological reflection; 2) the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), which opened the doors to Catholic involvement in social issues; and 3) the continuous poverty in Latin America, which was perceived by many to have been caused by two elements: economic dependence imposed by European and North American capitalism; and suppression by oligarchies and harsh military regimes that cooperated with that capitalism. To address the situation of poverty in Latin America, Paulo Freire (1921-1997), a Brazilian educator, suggested the program of "conscientization" (conscientização in Portuguese) or "consciousness raising" in his 1968 work Pedagogy of the Oppressed, teaching that the oppressed and the oppressor must liberate themselves from their "dominated-conditioned" and "dominating-conditioned" mentalities, respectively.[1]

CELAM II

A 2007 photograph of Gustavo Gutiérrez, a Peruvian Dominican priest and theologian, considered the father of liberation theology.

Liberation theology is usually considered to have begun with CELAM II or the Medellín Conference in 1968. The CELAM (Conselho Episcopal Latino Americano—Latin American Episcopal Council), a council of the Roman Catholic bishops of Latin America, was originally created in 1955 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1968, the CELAM had its second conference in Medellín, Colombia for the purpose of applying Vatican II's program of pastoral reform and renewal specifically to the Latin American situation. The program was based on Vatican II's "Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the World." The bishops at the conference were also apparently inspired with the pedagogical approach of Freire. CELAM II condemned extreme inequality among the social classes, unjust use of power, what it called "institutionalized violence," exploitive trade policies, and the Church's alliance with the ruling class. It also decided that the call to "liberation" is integral to the mission of the Church. Gustavo Gutiérrez (1928- ), a Peruvian Dominican priest and theology professor, served as a member of the theological advisory team at CELAM II to play a key role in drafting its most radical documents, one entitled "Peace," another "Justice." Three years later, in 1971, Gutiérrez' perspective at CELAM II appeared in the form of a book entitled Teología de la liberacíon (A Theology of Liberation).[2] He is considered the father of liberation theology in Latin America, and the book the Magna Carta of liberation theology.

CELAM III

With Alfonso López Trujillo's 1972 election as general secretary of the CELAM, official opposition to liberation theology started to increase. In 1979, under his leadership, the CELAM had its third conference in Puebla, Mexico for the purpose of repudiating the position of CELAM II. So, Pope John Paul II opened the conference, and Gutiérrez was excluded from the conference. The pope actually tried to steer a conciliatory middle course during his opening speech, expressing his concern not only about the radicalism of liberation theology but also about the unjust condition of the poor. For while saying, "this conception of Christ as a political figure, a revolutionary, as the subversive of Nazareth, does not tally with the Church's catechisms," he also referred to "the ever increasing wealth of the rich at the expense of the ever increasing poverty of the poor," stating that the principle of private property "must lead to a more just and equitable distribution of goods."[3] But, a group of liberation theologians operated out of a nearby seminary with the help of liberal bishops and managed to influence the outcome. Within four hours after the pope's speech, Gutiérrez and his colleagues produced a 20-page refutation which was circulated on the floor of the conference. According to critics, 25 percent of the final Puebla documents were written by those theologians who had not even been invited to the conference. It must be true, because in the end the conference endorsed the idea of God's "preferential option for the poor" as part of the quest for justice and criticized the military dictatorships of Latin America as "institutionalized violence."

Contents of Liberation Theology

Gutiérrez' theology

In his A Theology of Liberation, Gustavo Gutiérrez observed that the "development" approach, which may initially have sounded good, failed to solve the root causes of exploitation because it left intact the structures of exploitation. He opted for the "liberation" approach, therefore, calling for radical structural and social change. This undoubtedly reflected a use of Marxism not only as a tool of social analysis but also as a program for changing society. Praxis as commitment to this liberation should precede any theoretical reflection in theology. Even the use of violence by the oppressed should be permitted for the purpose of liberation, and it should not be equated with the unjust violence of the oppressor. The conventional double standard on violence which assumes that the violence of the oppressor to maintain order is good, but that that of the oppressed to change the order is bad, should be rejected.[4]

Regardless of this Marxist orientation, however, Gutiérrez did not believe that Jesus reduced religion to politics entirely. The political dimension of his gospel as the liberator of the oppressed "goes to the very root of human existence: the relation with God in solidarity with other persons."[5] Jesus was not a Zealot, as his proclamation of the Kingdom of God transcended the more limited and political orientation of the Zealots. Sin is, therefore, defined as the loss of the basic relationship of solidarity of God and human beings; it is "a social, historical fact, the absence of fellowship and love in relationships among persons, the breach of friendship with God and with other persons, and, therefore, an interior, personal fracture."[6] Salvation, then, means to be freed from that sin; it means "the communion of human beings with God and among themselves."[7] Salvation in this sense is not personal nor otherworldly beyond this life but rather collective and thisworldly. The Kingdom of God is where this salvation is realized as the reestablishment of justice in this world. Interestingly, Gutiérrez' approach involves a profound sense of spirituality where you experience such a "conversion" to the oppressed that you are willing to give unconditional love to them. He refers to it as the source of Christian joy.

Other liberation theologians

Other than Gutiérrez, there are several notable liberation theologians with their distinctive theological points. Juan Luis Segundo (1925-1997), a Jesuit from Uruguay, was famous for his hermeneutical treatment of the Bible from the perspective of liberation and yet with an emphasis on the primacy of the Bible. His main work was The Liberation of Theology.[8] Leonardo Boff (1938- ), a Franciscan from Brazil, has challenged the Church by asserting that it should be open for change because of the possibility for the further action of the Holy Spirit in the "base communities," the reason being that the Church originally emerged from the post-Easter Pentecostal experience of the early Christians anyway and not from Jesus as an unchanging institution. This, expressed in his Ecclesiogenesis,[9] reflects a result of the historical-critical biblical scholarship. A prolific writer, he has written more than 100 books including Church: Charism and Power, a book on ecclesiology, which was perceived to be defiant and militant in the eyes of the Vatican.[10] Jon Sobrino (1938- ), a Salvadorian Jesuit originally from Spain, has argued in his Jesus in Latin America that just as Jesus was crucified and rose again in glory, the oppressed masses of Latin America would arise.[11] Such images did not always directly endorse violent revolution, but neither did they reject it.

There are also some liberation theologians with Protestant background. José Míguez Bonino (1924- ), a Methodist from Argentina, in his Christians and Marxists has strongly defended the Christian use of Marxist as the best instrument available for social revolution in spite of its uneasy tension with the religious nature of the Christian faith.[12] Rubem Alves (1933- ), a Brazilian Presbyterian, has argued in his A Theology of Human Hope, published from his 1968 Ph.D. dissertation ("A Theology of Liberation") at Princeton Theological Seminary, that unless the oppressed are willing to resist this world of injustice in favor of a future world of hope, God will suffer.[13]

The Impact of Liberation Theology

Liberation theology has had an impact much wider than an ecclesiastical dispute within the Catholic Church itself. It promoted awareness that the poor and impoverished can struggle for change instead of continuing to live in poverty. That awareness led to three general types of action or praxis, aimed at changing the situation. These were: 1) social revolution, 2) peaceful social transformation, and 3) parallel societies. Liberationists stood for social revolution, and the Catholic Church and dominant political powers feared revolution and preached peaceful transformation. By contrast, many Latin Americans in base communities, simply created parallel societies, their own communities, instead of necessarily following the option of social revolution. They learned self-reliance, hygiene, and various skills from priests and social workers, and then from one another. In The Other Path (as opposed to the Maoist guerrilla movement Sendero Luminoso, "Shining Path," in Peru), Hernando de Soto documented the growth of the informal economy around Lima, in which entire communities were built, roads were paved, and people prospered outside the formal economy. Officially squatters, some of Peru's impoverished had created middle-class and upper middle-class lives by "pulling up their own bootstraps."[14] The idea was to overcome impoverishment through education and hard work apart from the structural oppression which existed.

Protestant theologians watching the internecine Catholic disputes tended to champion their brothers who were repeating some of Martin Luther's criticisms four centuries earlier. So, liberation theology has been recognized within liberal Protestant circles as an important school of thought, enjoying equal standing with other contemporary schools of theology such as black theology and feminist theology. But, another Protestant response to the perceived Catholic complicity with the established order in Latin America was massive conversions to Protestantism in the 1970s and 1980s. The Protestantism being taught in Latin America emphasized an ethic of self-reliance and greater equality between men and women. Many women became Protestants, seeking a life in which the "machismo" mentality common in males was not endorsed. Protestantism was another path to possible social advancement.

Black theology emerged in response to the problem of racism in the United States of America around the same time as liberation theology in Latin America. James Cone published his major work A Black Theology of Liberation in 1970, while Gutiérrez published Teología de la liberacíon in 1971. Although the two different schools emerged independently of each other because their roots were different, they had something in common: liberation from the discriminatory structures of racism or classism. Therefore, there started dialogue, communication, and cooperation between them. One example was a symposium on black theology and Latin American liberation theology, which took place in Geneva, Switzerland in 1973. It was under the influence of Latin American liberation theology that black theology started to adopt Marxism, which otherwise had been negatively treated by black theologians as merely atheist, sectarian, and even racist because of its connection with white Russians. James Cone admits that his interest in Marxism for social and economic change was renewed in the late 1970s through contact with Latin American liberation theology.[15] Needless to say, minjung theology (theology of people) in Korea in the 1970s and of Dalit theology (theology of the untouchable) in India in the 1980s emerged under the influence of Latin American liberation theology.

Liberation theology built a considerable base, when it was connected with the Marxist-led Sandinista government of Nicaragua in the 1980s. More recently, the influence of liberation theology still exists in Latin America, still posing a challenge to the Vatican and the existing establishment. The presence of liberation theology especially in poorer areas of Brazil such as the Amazon is unquestionable. Political leaders such as President Evo Morales of Bolivia and President Rafaek Correa of Ecuador are said to be sympathetic to liberation theology. In 2008, the former Bishop Fernando Lugo, a liberation theologian, was elected as President of Paraguay.

The Vatican's Reaction

Pope Paul VI, who reigned the Vatican from 1963 to 1978, tried to slow the progressivism initiated by the Second Vatican Council. So, Cardinal Samore, in charge of the relations between the Roman Curia and the CELAM as the leader of the Pontifical Commission for Latin America from 1967 to 1983, was naturally ordered to put a stop to the orientation of liberation theology judged antithetical to the Catholic Church's teachings.

At CELAM III in 1979, however, Pope John Paul II steered a conciliatory middle course, showing his concern not only about liberation theology itself but also about the miserable condition of the poor in Latin America, perhaps because he saw the exposure of that miserable condition through CELAM II in 1968. In fact, the idea of God's "preferential option for the poor" endorsed by liberation theology is not new; rooted in the biblical notion of justice for the voiceless and powerless among us such as widows and orphans, it has a long tradition within Christianity. The question is: How broad and inclusive is the notion of liberation? While liberation theology understands the notion to be social and political, the Bible would include in it not only this external sense but also the spiritual sense in which people are supposed to be liberated from the bondage of sin. Hence, at CELAM III John Paul II proclaimed "liberation in its deeper, fuller sense," namely, "liberation from everything that oppresses human beings, but especially liberation from sin and the evil one, in the joy of knowing God and being known by him."[16] John Paul II later experienced some moments of direct tension with liberationist clergy. In 1980, San Salvador's prelate, Archbishop Óscar Romero, clashed with the pope during his visit to Europe. In 1983, the Nicaraguan clergy involvement with base communities in class struggle by working with the Sandinistas led the pope during his visit to Nicaragua to harshly condemn what he dubbed the "popular church" vis-à-vis the existing Church.

Pope Benedict XVI, the former Cardinal Ratzinger, a key opponent of liberation theology.

The former Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI), who headed the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (or the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith from 1983) from 1981 to 2005, strongly opposed liberation theology. In March 1983, he published an article entitled "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez,"[17] accusing Gutiérrez of politically interpreting the Bible and of supporting a temporal messianism. Ratzinger declared that the influence of Marxism was proven by the predominance accorded to orthopraxis over orthodoxy. Finally, he stated that these ideas would support similar class conflict inside the Church, and the rejection of its hierarchy.

The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Ratzinger officially condemned liberation theology twice (in 1984 and 1986), issuing "Instruction on Certain Aspects of the 'Theology of Liberation'" (1984)[18] and "Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation" (1986).[19] The 1984 instruction criticized especially the social analysis which liberation theology adopted from Marx's notions of "labor value," "surplus value," and "exploitation," as in Bonino’s explicit use of Marx in his Christians and Marxists and Gutiérrez’s specific reference to the appropriation by capitalists of "the value of the work of others,"[20] for example. The 1986 instruction showed a bit more sympathy to liberation theologians.

In 1985, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith silenced Leonard Boff for a year for his book Church: Charism and Power, which was perceived to have presented a very radical ecclesiology. He was almost silenced again in 1992, in an attempt to prevent him from attending the Eco-92 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, but this led him to leave the Franciscan order and the priesthood. Also, some other dissident priests were prohibited from teaching their doctrines in the name of the Catholic Church.

Liberation Theology Afterward

Liberation theology, in spite of its strong theological/ideological stance on praxis for social revolution, has hardly been able to accomplish that kind of revolution. It has been found out that most of the poor in Latin America are by nature too religious and pious to accept liberation theology's radical program for social revolution, and that they have been interested mainly in pursuing their own parallel societies. So, liberationists have had to "shake" them instead of listening to them: "After having tried to lose themselves within the people, to identify with the people, [liberationists] come to understand that they must shake the people."[21] Ironically, therefore, liberationists have quite often been critiqued of not carefully listening to the poor whom they are supposed to love by having a "conversion" to them.

After the rapid decline of communism since the end of 1980s, liberation theology seems to have been in retreat. In spite of the continuous presence of the movement, it seems to have become more skeptical of Marxism, now redirecting its "central concerns away from politics in the narrow sense to issues of popular religion, spirituality, and long-term social and cultural change."[22] Even Gutiérrez has more recently recognized the importance of knowing and accommodating the spirituality of common Latin American people to the cause of liberation.

Liberation theology, of course, still stirs controversies today. For example, Jon Sobrino received worldwide attention in 2007, when his humanistic view of Jesus based on what he called the "Church of the poor" elicited from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith a notification that stated that it is erroneous and dangerous. Other things that are still challenging the Vatican include: liberation theology's continuous presence in poorer areas of Brazil such as the Amazon; the election of the former Bishop Fernando Lugo, a liberation theologian, as President of Paraguay in 2008; and some sympathy with liberation theology among political leaders such as President Rafaek Correa of Ecuador. Nevertheless, the movement's struggle with the Vatican has definitely decreased, and its original program for radical revolution may have waned. During the Ash Wednesday Mass in the Basilica of Santa Sabina on February 21, 2007, Gutiérrez was among those who received ashes from Pope Benedict XVI. Gutiérrez said that his problems with the Church's magisterium (teaching authority) were "completely over" and had been settled some time ago.[23]

Notes

  1. ↑ Paulo Freire. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. (Seabury, 1973).
  2. ↑ Gustavo Gutiérrez. A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation, revised ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988).
  3. ↑ Pope John Paul II, "Opening Address at the Puebla Conference." Retrieved August 26, 2008.
  4. ↑ Gutiérrez, 1988, 63-64.
  5. ↑ Gutiérrez, 134.
  6. ↑ Gutiérrez, 102-103.
  7. ↑ Gutiérrez, 85.
  8. ↑ Juan Luis Segundo. The Liberation of Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1976).
  9. ↑ Leonardo Boff, Ecclesiogenesis: The Base Communities Reinvent the Church (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986)
  10. ↑ Leonardo Boff. Church: Charism and Power - Liberation Theology and the Institutional Church. (New York: Crossroad, 1986)
  11. ↑ Jon Sobrino. Jesus in Latin America. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1987).
  12. ↑ José Míguez Bonino. Christians and Marxists: The Mutual Challenge to Revolution. (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1976).
  13. ↑ Rubem Alves. A Theology of Human Hope. (Washington, D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969).
  14. ↑ Hernando de Soto. The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World. (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).
  15. ↑ James H. Cone. For My People: Black Theology and the Black Church. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Press, 1984), 177.
  16. ↑ Pope John Paul II, "Opening Address at the Puebla Conference." Retrieved August 26, 2008.
  17. ↑ Joseph Ratzinger, "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez," in Liberation Theology: A Documentary History, ed. Alfred T. Hennelly (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990), 348-350.
  18. ↑ Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, "Instruction on Certain Aspects of the 'Theology of Liberation'." Vatican Library. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
  19. ↑ Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger,"Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation."Vatican Library. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
  20. ↑ Gustavo Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation, revised ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1988), 116.
  21. ↑ James Tunstead Burchaell, "How Authentically Christian is Liberation Theology?" Review of Politics 50 (1988): 266.
  22. ↑ Daniel H. Levine, "Considering Liberation Theology as Utopia," Review of Politics 52 (1990): 607.
  23. ↑ "Catholic News Service," Feb-28-2007. Retrieved September 4, 2008.

Bibliography

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  • Miranda, José. Marx and the Bible: A Critique of the Philosophy of Oppression. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1974. ISBN 0883443074
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  • Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal. "Ten Observations on the Theology of Gustavo Gutiérrez." In Liberation Theology: A Documentary History, edited by Alfred T. Hennelly, 348-50. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990. ISBN 088344593X
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