Difference between revisions of "New Testament" - New World Encyclopedia

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Dan Fefferman

The New Testament (Greek: Καινή Διαθήκη, Kainē Diathēkē) is the name given to the final portion of the Christian Bible, written after the Old Testament. It is sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various unknown authors after c. AD 45 and before c. AD 140. Its 27 books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture.

Etymology

The term New Testament is a translation from the Latin Novum Testamentum first coined by the second century Christian writer Tertullian. It is related to the concept expressed by the prophet Jeremiah (31:33), that translates into English as new covenant:

The time is coming," declares the Lord, when I will make a new covenant

with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah...

I will put my law in their minds and write it on their hearts.

I will be their God, and they will be my people.

Many Christians considered the "old" covenant with the Jews to be obsolete. In Tertullian's day, many even considered the God of the Hebrew Bible to be a very different being than the Heavenly Father of Jesus. Tertullian, however took the orthodox position, that the God of the Jews and the God of the Christians are one and the same. He therefore wrote:

All Scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—-that is, the law and the prophets—-is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant... (Against Marcion)

Books

The majority of Christian denominations have settled on the same twenty-seven book canon. It consists of the four narratives of Jesus Christ's ministry, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church called the Book of Acts; 21 early letters, commonly called "epistles", written by various authors and consisting mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and a book of apocalyptic prophecy known as the Book of Revelation.

Gospels

Each of the Gospels narrates the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. None of the Gospels originally had an authors name attached to it, but each has been an assigned an author according to tradition. Modern scholarship differs on precisely by whom, when, or in what original form the various gospels were written.

The Gospel of Matthew, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Matthew, son of Alphaeus.
The Gospel of Mark, traditionally ascribed to Mark the Evangelist, who wrote down the recollections of the Apostle Simon Peter.
The Gospel of Luke, traditionally ascribed to Luke, a physician and companion of Paul of Tarsus.
The Gospel of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.

The first three are commonly classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain very similar accounts of events in Jesus' life, although differing in some respects. The Gospel of John stands apart for its unique records of several miracles and sayings of Jesus not found elsewhere. Its timeline of Jesus' ministry also differs significantly from the other Gospels, and its theological outlook is also unique.

Acts

The Book of Acts, also occasionally termed Acts of the Apostles or Acts of the Holy Spirit, is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death. It is also a sequel to the third Gospel, written by the same author. The book traces the events of the early Christian church—the the apostles Peter and Paul as the main characters—from shortly after Jesus' resurrection, through its spread from Jerusalem into the Gentile world, until shortly before the trial and execution of Saint Paul in Rome.

Pauline epistles

The Pauline epistles constitute those letters traditionally attributed to Paul, though his authorship of some of them is disputed. One letter, Hebrews, is nearly universally agreed to be by someone other than Paul. The so-called Pastoral Epistles—1 and 2 Timothy and Titus—are thought my many modern scholars to have been written by a later author in Paul's name.

General epistles

The General or "Catholic" Epistles are those written to the church at large by various writers. (Catholic in this sense simply means universal.)

Epistle of James, traditionally by James, the brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church.
First Epistle of Peter, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Saint Peter.
Second Epistle of Peter, also traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Peter.
First Epistle of John, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle John, son of Zebedee.
Second Epistle of John, also ascribed to the same John.
Third Epistle of John, similarly ascribed John.
Epistle of Jude, traditionally ascribed to Jude Thomas, brother of Jesus and James.

The date and authorship of each of these letters are widely debated.

The Book of Revelation

The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, traditionally by the Apostle John, son of Zebedee also known as John of Patmos). The book is also called the Apocalypse of John. It consists of a channeled message from Jesus to seven Christian churches, together with a dramatic vision of the Last Days, the Second Coming of Christ, and the Final Judgment.

Apocrypha

In ancient times there were dozens of Christian writings which were considered authoritative by some but not all ancient churches. These were not ultimately included in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal," and are therefore referred to as the New Testament Apocrypha.

Language

The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the holy land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic, Koine Greek, and to a limited extent Hebrew. The original text of the New Testament books written mostly or entirely in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in first century Roman provinces of the Eastern Mediterranean. It was later translated into other languages, most notably Latin, Syriac, and Coptic.

In the Middle Ages, translation of the New Testament was strongly discouraged by church authorities. The most notable Middle English translation, Wyclif's Bible (1383) was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. A Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in the mid fifteenth century, and in 1478, a Catalan translation in the dialect of Valencia. In 1521, Martin Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German, and this version was published in September 1522. William Tyndale's English Bible (1526) met with heavy sanctions, and Tyndale himself was jailed in 1535. The Authorized King James Version is an English translation of the Christian Bible by the Church of England begun in 1604 and first published in 1611. The Counter-Reformation and missionary activity by the Jesuit order led to a large number of sixteenth century translations into languages of the New World.

Authorship

The New Testament is a collection of works, and as such was written by multiple authors. The traditional view is that all the books were written by Apostles (e.g. Matthew and Paul) or disciples working under their direction. These traditional ascriptions have been rejected by some church authorities as early as the second century, however. In modern times, with the rise of rigorous historical inquiry and textual criticism, the apostolic origin of the New Testament books has been called into serious question.

=Paul

Seven of the epistles of Paul are now generally accepted by most modern scholars as authentic. These undisputed letters include Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Opinion about the Epistle to the Colossians is divided. Most critical scholars doubt that Paul wrote the the other letters attributed to him. Modern conservative Christian scholars tend to be more willing to accept the traditional ascriptions. However, few serious scholars, Christian or otherwise, still hold that Paul wrote the Letter to the Hebrews.

The authorship of all non-Pauline books have been disputed in recent times. Ascriptions are largely polarized between Christian and non-Christian experts, making any sort of scholarly consensus all but impossible.

The Gospel writers

The Synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, unlike the other New Testament works, have a unique documentary relationship. The traditional view—also supported by a minority of critical scholars— supposes that Matthew was written first, and Mark and Luke drew from it. A smaller group of scholars espouse Lukan priority. The dominant view among critical scholars, the Two-Source Hypothesis, is that both Matthew and Luke drew significantly upon the Gospel of Mark and another common source, known as the "Q Source", from Quelle, the German word for "source." However, the nature and even existence of Q is speculative, and thus scholars have proposed variants on the hypothesis which redefine or exclude it.

The Gospel of John is thought by tradition Christians to have been written by John, the son of Zebedee. He is also referred to as "the beloved disciple, and is particularly important to Eastern Orthodox tradition. Critical scholarship generally takes the very that John's gospel is the product of a community of Jewish Christian in the late first or early second century who had recently been expelled from the Jewish community because of their insistence on the divinity of Jesus.

Other writers

Views about the authors of the author New Testament works fall along similar lines. Traditionalists tend to accept the designations as they have been received, while critical scholars usually challenge these notions, seeing the works as wrongly attributed to apostolic origin, or in some case being "pious forgeries," written in honor an apostle but not actually authored by him.

Date of composition

According to tradition, the earliest of the books were the letters of Paul, and the last books to be written are those attributed to John, who is traditionally said to have lived to a very old age, perhaps dying as late as 100, although evidence for this tradition is generally not convincing. Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185, stated that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark were written while Peter and Paul were preaching in Rome, which would be in the 60s, and Luke was written some time later. Evangelical and Traditionalist scholars generally support this dating.

Most critical scholars agree that Paul's letters were the earliest to be written. For the Gospels, they tend to date Mark no earlier than 65 and no later than 75. Matthew is dated between 70 and 85. Luke is usually placed within 80 to 95. John's Gospel is the subject of more debate, being dates as early as 85 and as late as the early second century.

A number of variant theories to the above have also been proposed.

Canonization

Papyrus 46, one of the earliest New Testament texts, is a fragment of Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians.

The process of canonization—deciding which book would be included as authorized scripture and which would not—was complex and lengthy. Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not decided in large Church council meetings, but rather developed slowly over several centuries. Formal councils and declarations were also involved, however.

In the first three centuries of the Christian Church there no New Testament canon was universally recognized. Documents such as some of Paul's letters and one Gospel or another were read publicly in certain churches, while other documents, including some later judge to be forgeries or heretical were read in others. One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by the Marcion, c. 140 C.E., who accepted only a modified version of Luke and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. German scholar Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914)^[1] argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. It was against Marcion that Tertullian wrote to insist that both the New Testament and the Old Testament were considered holy scripture by the Christian Church.

The Muratorian fragment, usually in the late second century, provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.

The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 C.E. by Bishop Irenaeus of Lyon in his polemic Against the Heresies. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian (all second century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament Apocrypha. Several works were that were given special honor, but did not rise to the status of Scripture. These became known as the works of the Apostolic Fathers, including such documents as the Didache (the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), the epistles of Ignatius of Antioch, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Martyrdom of Polycarp, and the Epistle of Barnabas.

The Book of Revelation was the most controversial of those books that were finally accepted. Several canon lists by various Church Fathers rejected it. The early church historian Eusebius of Caesaria relates that the church at Roman rejected the letter to the Hebrews on the grounds that it did not believe it to have been written by Paul. (Ecclesiastical History 3.3.5)

The "final" New Testament canon was first listed by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt,^[2]. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. This list gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the sixteenth century, Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation.

Due to such challenges by Protestants, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional canon of the Scripture as a dogma of the Catholic Church. For example of these include the Council of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain)^[3], the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Greek Orthodoxy.

Notes

↑ [1]
↑ Festal Letter 39
↑ Metzger, Bruce M. (March 13, 1997). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford University Press, p. 246. “"Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."”

External links

Source text of New Testament

Greek

New Testament Byzantine Greek Original Side by side with the English (King James) and Russian (Synodal) translation - Commentary by the Greek Fathers - Icons from Athos Holy Mountain
New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate
Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids
Greek New Testament This is a Greek text of the New Testament, specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants.
Greek-English interlinear of the Old & New Testaments - in PDF format.

Other languages

Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net
Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University
Online Bible at GospelHall.org - King James Version, English Standard Version, Bible in Basic English, Darby Translation
King James version of New Testament at Project Gutenberg
Full text of the New Testament in English, Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and French
Serbian New Testament—full text
The New Testament at romansonline.com
The Complete Sayings of Christ The complete collection of Christ's sayings from the New Testament --- in parallel English and Latin.
Online New Testament in Turkish.

General references

New Testament Gateway, sponsored by Duke University
Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy
Overview of Inerrancy
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Ask the Pastor - a Lutheran discussion of the dates of writing, compiling, and setting of the canon
New Testament Alterations from the Order of Nazorean Essenes (Budhist / Gnostic Chritian source)
Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament
Catholic Encyclopedia: New Testament
Evangelical Textual Criticism Blog
Dating the NT - list of opinions of scholars
Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library

Development and authorship

hak:Sîn-yok Sṳn-kîn

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[1] [1]

[2] Festal Letter 39

[3] Metzger, Bruce M. (March 13, 1997). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford University Press, p. 246. “"Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."”

[1]

[2]

[3]

@@ Line 73: / Line 73: @@
 The common languages spoken by both Jews and Gentiles in the holy land at the time of Jesus were [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]], [[Koine Greek]], and to a limited extent [[Hebrew]]. The original text of the New Testament books written mostly or entirely in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in first century [[Roman province]]s of the [[Mediterranean|Eastern Mediterranean]]. It was later translated into other languages, most notably [[Latin]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Coptic language|Coptic]].
+In the Middle Ages, translation of the New Testament was strongly discouraged by church authorities. The most notable [[Middle English]] translation, Wyclif's Bible (1383) was banned by the Oxford Synod in 1408. A Hungarian [[Hussite]] Bible appeared in the mid fifteenth century, and in 1478, a Catalan translation in the dialect of Valencia. In 1521, Martin Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German, and this version was published in September 1522. William Tyndale's English Bible (1526) met with heavy sanctions, and Tyndale himself was jailed in 1535. The Authorized [[King James Version]] is an English translation of the Christian Bible by the [[Church of England]] begun in 1604 and first published in 1611. The Counter-Reformation and missionary activity by the Jesuit order led to a large number of sixteenth century translations into languages of the New World.
 ==Authorship==
@@ Line 99: / Line 99: @@
 ==Canonization==
-{{main|Development of the New Testament canon}}
+[[Image:P46.jpg|thumb|Papyrus 46, one of the earliest New Testament texts, is a fragment of Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians.]]
+The process of ''[[canonization]]''—deciding which book would be included as authorized scripture and which would not—was complex and lengthy. Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not decided in large Church council meetings, but rather developed slowly over several centuries. Formal councils and declarations were also involved, however.
-The process of canonization was complex and lengthy. It was characterized by a compilation of books that Christians found inspiring in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.
-Contrary to popular misconception, the New Testament canon was not summarily decided in large, bureaucratic Church council meetings, but rather developed very slowly over many centuries.  This is not to say that formal councils and declarations were not involved, however.  Some of these include the [[Council of Trent]] of 1546 for [[Roman Catholicism]] (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance |first=Bruce M. |last=Metzger |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=March 13, 1997 |ISBN=0198269544 |pages=p. 246 |quote="Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree ''(De Canonicis Scripturis)'' in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."}}</ref>, the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for [[Greek Orthodoxy]].
-According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] article on the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm Canon of the New Testament]: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the [[Council of Trent|Tridentine Council]]."
-In the first three centuries of the Christian Church, [[Early Christianity]], there seems to have been no New Testament canon that was universally recognized.
-One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by [[Marcion]], c. 140 C.E., who accepted only a modified version of Luke ([[Gospel of Marcion]]) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His unorthodox canon was rejected by a majority of Christians, as was he and his theology, [[Marcionism]]. [[Adolf Harnack]] in ''Origin of the New Testament'' (1914)[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html] argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church (one that "follows the Testament of the Creator-God") without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.
-The [[Muratorian fragment]], dated at between 170 (based on an internal reference to [[Pope Pius I]] and arguments put forth by [[Bruce Metzger]]) and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the [[Anchor Bible Series#Anchor Bible Dictionary|Anchor Bible Dictionary]]), provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity.  It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
-The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 C.E.  It was a claim made by Bishop [[Irenaeus]] in his polemic ''Against the Heresies'', for example [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xii.html III.XI.8]: "It is not possible that the Gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the Church is the Gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh."
-At least, then, the books considered to be authoritative included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul. [[Justin Martyr]], Irenaeus, and [[Tertullian]] (all 2nd century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of [[New Testament Apocrypha]].
-[[Eusebius]], c. 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002 Book 3], Chapter XXV:
-:"1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the [[Gospels]]; following them the [[Acts of the Apostles]]... the [[Pauline Epistles|epistles of Paul]]... the [[First Epistle of John|epistle of John]]... the [[First Epistle of Peter|epistle of Peter]]... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the [[Apocalypse of John]], concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the '''accepted writings'''."
-:"3 Among the '''disputed writings''' <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Antilegomena]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called [[epistle of James]] and that of [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]], also the [[Second Epistle of Peter|second epistle of Peter]], and those that are called the [[Second Epistle of John|second]] and [[Third Epistle of John|third of John]], whether they belong to the [[John the Evangelist|evangelist]] or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the [[Acts of Paul]], and the so-called [[Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd]], and the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], and in addition to these the extant [[epistle of Barnabas]], and the so-called [[Didache|Teachings of the Apostles]]; and besides, as I said, the [[Apocalypse of John]], if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]... And all these may be reckoned among the '''disputed books'''."
-:"6... such books as the [[Gospel of Peter|Gospels of Peter]], of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], of [[Gospel of Matthias|Matthias]], or of any others besides them, and the [[Acts of Andrew]] and [[Acts of John|John]] and the other apostles...  they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of [[heretics]]. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."
-Revelation is counted as both '''accepted''' (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and '''disputed''', which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the Church Fathers, we know that it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the [[Diatessaron]]: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the Gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle [Paul], in order to improve their style."
-The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria]], in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]. Also cited is the [[Council of Rome]], but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the [[Synods of Carthage|Third Council of Carthage]] in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially [[Epistle of James|James]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. Even as late as the 16th century, theologian and reformer [[Martin Luther]] questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the [[Epistle of Jude]], the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] and the Book of Revelation. Even today, [[German language|German-language]] [[Luther Bible]]s are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than their traditional order for other Christians. Due to the fact that some of the recognized Books of the Holy Scripture were having their canonicity questioned by Protestants in the 16th century, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the ''traditional canon'' (that is for Catholics the canon of the Council of Rome) of the Scripture as a [[dogma]] of the Catholic Church.
-==Early manuscripts==
-The early [[Biblical manuscript|New Testament manuscripts]] can be classified into certain major families or types of text. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with a common ancestor. It must be noted that many early manuscripts can be composed of several different text-types. For example, [[Codex Washingtonianus]] consists of only the four gospels, and yet, different parts are written in different type-types. Four distinctive New Testament text-types have been defined:
-The [[Alexandrian text-type]] is usually considered the best and most faithful at preserving the original; it is usually brief and austere. The main examples are the [[Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and [[Bodmer Papyri]].
-The [[Western text-type]] has a fondness for paraphrase and is generally the longest. Most significant is the [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version of Acts]], which is 10% longer. The main examples are the [[Codex Bezae]], [[Codex Claromontanus]], [[Codex Washingtonianus]], [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin versions]] (prior to the [[Vulgate]]), and quotes by [[Marcion]], [[Tatian]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Cyprian]].
-The [[Caesarean text-type]] is a mixture of Western and Alexandrian types and is found in the [[Chester Beatty Papyri]] and is quoted by [[Eusebius]], [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] and Armenians.
-The [[Byzantine text-type]] is the textform that is contained in a majority of the extant manuscripts and thus is often called the "Majority Text."  The origin of this text is debated among scholars. Some scholars, observing that few Byzantine readings exist among early uncial manuscript witnesses, contend that the text formed late and contains conflated readings. Other scholars look to the shear number of consistent witnesses to the Byzantine textform, and the existence of readings which parallel the Byzantine textform in very early translations, as evidence that the Byzantine textform is probably the closest text to that originally penned by the New Testament authors.  The Byzantine textform can be found in the [[Gospels]] of [[Codex Alexandrinus]], later [[uncial]] texts and most [[minuscule]] texts.  A variant of the Byzantine text, called the [[Textus Receptus]], is the basis of [[Erasmus]]'s printed Greek New Testament of 1516, which became the basis of the 1611 [[King James Version]] of the English New Testament.
-Most modern English versions of the New Testament are based on critical reconstructions of the Greek text, such as the [[United Bible Societies]]' Greek New Testament or Nestle-Alands' [[Novum Testamentum Graece]], which have a pronounced Alexandrian character.
-==Additions==
-Over the years, there have been a number of possible additions to the original text, such as:
-*[[Mark 16#The Longer Ending|Mark 16:9-20]]
-*Luke 22:19b-20,43-44
-*[[Pericope Adulteræ|John 7:53-8:11]]
-*[[Comma Johanneum|1 John 5:7b–8a]]
-In addition, there are a large number of variant readings, see [[Bruce Metzger]]'s ''Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (1994)'' for details.
-==Authority==
-All Christian groups respect the New Testament, but they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of ''[[inspiration]]'', which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of [[Biblical inerrancy]] and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
-*''Infallibility'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.
-*''Inerrancy'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).
-*''Authoritativeness'' relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.
-Christian scholars such as Professor [[Peter Stoner]] see the Bible having compelling and detailed fulfilled [[Bible prophecy]] and argue for the Bible's inspiration. This is argued to show that the Bible is authoritative, since it is argued that only God knows the future. A common objection in the West regarding this matter is that the burden of proof is on miracles, which, by Occam's Razor, should only be considered when all ordinary explanations fail. [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Norman Geisler]], [[William Lane Craig]], and Christians who engage in [[Christian apologetics]] have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [http://www.comereason.org/phil_qstn/phi060.asp] [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t011.html] [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/miracles.html][http://www.tektonics.org/gk/hume01.html]{{PDFlink|[http://www.ses.edu/journal/articles/2.1Hoffman.pdf]|133&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 136387 bytes —>}} [http://christian-thinktank.com/mqx.html]. On the other hand, in the West those who do not believe in miracles often use the arguments of [[David Hume]], [[Benedict de Spinoza]], or the arguments of [[Deism]]. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/miracles/#Hum][http://atheism.about.com/od/weeklyquotes/a/spinoza01.htm][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deism].
-All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.
-===Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy===
-For the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, there are two strands of revelation, the Bible, and the (rest of the) [[Apostolic Succession|Apostolic Tradition]]. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. In Catholic terminology the Teaching Office is called the [[Magisterium]]; in Orthodox terminology the authentic interpretation of scripture and tradition is limited, in the final analysis, to the [[Canon law#Orthodox Churches|Canon Law]] of the [[Ecumenical council]]s. Both sources of revelation are considered necessary for proper understanding of the tenets of the faith. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] (1992):
-<blockquote>
-§ 83: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
-<br/>
-§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
-</blockquote>
-===Protestantism===
-Following the doctrine of [[sola scriptura]], Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in some Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to their doctrine of Scripture vary widely.
-====American Evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism====
-Certain American conservatives, [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalists]] and [[neo-evangelicalism|evangelicals]] believe that the Scriptures are both human and divine in origin: human in their manner of composition, but divine in that their source is God, the Holy Spirit, who governed the writers of scripture in such a way that they recorded nothing at all contrary to the truth. Fundamentalists accept the enduring authority and impugnity of a prescientific interpretation of the Bible.  In the United States this particularly applies to issues such as the [[ordination of women]], [[abortion]], and [[homosexuality]]. However, although American evangelicals are overwhelmingly opposed to such things, other evangelicals are increasingly willing to consider that the views of the biblical authors may have been culturally conditioned, and they may even argue that there is room for change along with cultural norms and scientific advancements.
-Both fundamentalists and evangelicals profess belief in the inerrancy of the Bible. In the US the fundamentalists' stronger emphasis on literal interpretation has led to the rejection of many scientific concepts, particularly that of [[evolution]], which contradicts the doctrine of [[Creationism]].
-Evangelicals, on the other hand, tend to avoid interpretations of the Bible that would directly contradict generally accepted scientific assertions of fact. They do not impute error to biblical authors, but rather entertain various theories of literary intent which might give credibility to human progress in knowledge of the world, while still accepting the divine inspiration of the scriptures.
-Within the US, the [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] (1978) is an influential statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."
-Critics of such a position point out that there are many statements that Jesus makes in the Gospels or that Paul makes in his epistles, even to the point of making them commands, which are not taken as commands by most advocates of [[Biblical inerrancy]]. Examples of this are Jesus' command to the disciples to sell all they have and give the money to the poor so as to gain treasure in the [[Kingdom of Heaven]] (Mark 10:21), or Paul's calls to imitate him in [[celibacy]] (1 Cor 7:8). Other sections of the Bible, such as the second half of John chapter six, where Jesus commands that the disciples eat his flesh and drink his blood, are interpreted by most adherents of Biblical Inerrancy as symbolic language rather than literally, as might be expected from the statements of the doctrine. Supporters of Biblical Inerrancy generally argue that these passages are intended to be symbolic, and that their symbolic nature can be seen directly in the text, thus preserving the doctrine.
-==== American Mainline and liberal Protestantism====
+In the first three centuries of the Christian Church there no New Testament canon was universally recognized. Documents such as some of Paul's letters and one Gospel or another were read publicly in certain churches, while other documents, including some later judge to be forgeries or heretical were read in others. One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by the [[Marcion]], c. 140 C.E., who accepted only a modified version of Luke and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the [[Old Testament]] entirely. German scholar [[Adolf Harnack]] in ''Origin of the New Testament'' (1914)<ref> [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html]</ref> argued that the orthodox Church at this time was largely an Old Testament Church without a New Testament canon and that it gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. It was against Marcion that Tertullian wrote to insist that both the New Testament ''and'' the Old Testament were considered holy scripture by the Christian Church.
-Mainline American [[Protestant]] denominations, including the [[United Methodist Church]], [[Presbyterian Church USA]], [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]], and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the Scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly. For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is increasingly regarded as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.
-Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."
+The [[Muratorian fragment]], usually in the late second century, provides the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream (that is, not Marcionite) Christianity.  It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
-Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their Evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of Scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for justice. The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's [[ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.
+The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written c. 180 C.E. by Bishop [[Irenaeus]] of Lyon in his polemic ''Against the Heresies''. [[Justin Martyr]], Irenaeus, and [[Tertullian]] (all second century) held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of [[New Testament Apocrypha]]. Several works were that were given special honor, but did not rise to the status of Scripture. These became known as the works of the [[Apostolic Fathers]], including such documents as the Didache (the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), the epistles of [[Ignatius of Antioch]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]], the [[Martyrdom of Polycarp]], and the [[Epistle of Barnabas]].
-There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]].
+The Book of Revelation was the most controversial of those books that were finally accepted. Several canon lists by various Church Fathers rejected it. The early church historian Eusebius of Caesaria  relates that the church at Roman rejected the letter to the Hebrews on the grounds that it did not believe it to have been written by Paul. (''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.3.5)
-=== Messianic Judaism ===
+The "final" New Testament canon was first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt,<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]</ref>. Also cited is the [[Council of Rome]], but not without controversy. This list gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the [[Synods of Carthage|Third Council of Carthage]] in 397. Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books continued to be questioned, especially [[Epistle of James|James]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. Even as late as the sixteenth century, [[Martin Luther]] questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the [[Epistle of Jude]], the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] and the Book of Revelation.
-[[Messianic Judaism]] generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.
-==See also==
+Due to such challenges by Protestants, the Council of Trent reaffirmed the ''traditional canon''  of the Scripture as a [[dogma]] of the Catholic Church. For example of these include the [[Council of Trent]] of 1546 for [[Roman Catholicism]] (by vote: 24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance |first=Bruce M. |last=Metzger |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=March 13, 1997 |ISBN=0198269544 |pages=p. 246 |quote="Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree ''(De Canonicis Scripturis)'' in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."}}</ref>, the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for [[Greek Orthodoxy]].
-*[[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
-*[[Gnosticism and the New Testament]]
-*[[List of Gospels]]
-*[[Expounding of the Law]]
-*[[Bible translations]]
-*[[Biblical canon]]
-*[[Books of the Bible]]
-*[[Gospel of Thomas]]
-*[[New Testament apocrypha]]
-*[[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
-*[[Old Testament]]
-*[[Textus Receptus]]
-*[[Christian anarchism]]
-*[[Two-source hypothesis]]
-*[[Bodmer Papyri]]
-*[[Authorship of the Johannine works]]
-*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
-*[[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
-*[[:Category:New Testament books]]
-*[[Elaine Pagels]]
 ==Notes==