Difference between revisions of "Ghetto" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(144 intermediate revisions by 13 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 +
{{Ebcompleted}}{{2Copyedited}}{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Status}}
 
[[Category: Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category: Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category: Sociology]]
 
[[Category: Sociology]]
 +
[[Category: Submitted]]
 +
[[File:Ghetto (Venice) Panorama.jpg|thumb|400px|The main square of the Venetian Ghetto, Italy]]
 +
A '''ghetto''' is an area where people from a specific ethnic background, [[culture]], or [[religion]] live in seclusion, voluntarily or more commonly involuntarily with varying degrees of enforcement by the dominant social group. The first ghettos were established to confine [[Jewish]] populations in [[Europe]]. They were surrounded by walls, segregating and so-called "protecting them" from the rest of society. In the [[Nazi]] era these ghettos served to confine and subsequently exterminate Jews in massive numbers.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Today the term '''ghetto''' is used to describe a blighted area of a city containing a concentrated and segregated population of a despised minority group. These concentrations of population may be planned, as through government-sponsored housing projects, or the unplanned result of self-segregation and migration. Often municipalities will build highways and set up industrial districts around the ghetto to further isolate it from the rest of the city. The continued existence of ghettos in many parts of the world is a blight upon humanity that requires resolution.
  
−
A '''ghetto''' is an area where people from a specific ethnic background or united in a given [[culture]] or [[religion]] live as a group, voluntarily or involuntarily, in milder or stricter seclusion. The word [[history|historically]] referred to restricted [[house|housing]] [[zoning|zones]] where [[Jew]]s were required to live . However, it now commonly labels any [[poverty]]-stricken [[urban area]]. The original ''ghetto'' was established in Venice in 14th century , where the iron foundry ( 'getto' ) used to be . Other suggested etymologies include the Greek 'Ghetonia' ("neighborhood" ), Italian 'borghetto' for "small neighborhood" or the Hebrew word 'get', literally a "bill of divorce."  
+
==Origin and definition of term==
−
+
{{readout|Historically, the term "ghetto" referred to restricted housing zones where [[Jew]]s were required to live|right}}. The original ghetto was formed by the Jewish immigrants to [[Ghetto#Venetian_Ghetto|Venice]] in the fourteenth century, who settled in the place where a former iron foundry ''(getto)'' used to be. Other suggested etymologies include ''Ghetonia,'' the [[Greek]] word for "neighborhood," ''borghetto,'' [[Italian]] for "small neighborhood," or the [[Hebrew]] word ''get,'' literally meaning a "bill of divorce."  
−
==Jewish ghettos in Europe==
 
  
−
===13th–19th centuries===
+
Ghettos are characterized by four specific conditions present in varying degrees of severity: "social ostracism," "economic hardship," "legal arbitrariness from the side of authorities," and "security," which term has taken on different meanings in different historical eras and geographical locations.  
−
The first ghettos appeared in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], in the [[13th century]], but some authors use the same word to indicate the destination towns to which the [[Roman Empire]] deported Jews chea from the first to the fourth centuries CE.
 
  
−
the [[ From the example of the Venice Ghetto the name then transferred to Jewish neighborhoods. In [[Castile]], they were called ''[[Judería]]'' and in [[Majorca]], ''[[call of Majorca|call]]''. It is worth noticing that the gated Jewish quarter in Venice (the Ghetto), was an affluent part of the town inhabited by merchants and moneylenders. Non-Jews were not allowed to live in this ghetto, nor were Jews allowed to leave, and the gates were locked at night.
+
The term "ghetto" has come to label any poverty-stricken or [[sociology|sociologically]] defined urban minority area whose population lives differently from the rest of the larger society due to the conditions that characterize ghettos. In the [[United States]], the word "ghetto" has also come to be used as an adjective to describe a certain way of dressing, speaking, and behaving. In this sense, "Ghetto" constitutes a subculture, especially among teenagers in urban centers, associated with hip-hop music and a rebellious attitude. As it has become a slang term of art among young people, the meaning of the term morphs constantly.
  
−
In 1555 [[Pope Paul IV]] created the [[Ghetto#Roman_Ghetto|Roman Ghetto]] and issued papal bull ''[[Cum nimis absurdum]]'', forcing Jews to live in a specified area. According to historian Owen Chadwick, the Roman Ghetto "had two objects—to protect Christians from too close an association with persons of a different religion, and to protect the Jews from mobs or hooligans.  The ghetto was welcome to some Jews because it protected the small community from the drain which must follow from assimilation to the majority and enabled special religious customs to be observed without interference... for three or four decades of the nineteenth century this was not a black mark to the papal government—Vienna, Prague, Venince—and further East, in Russia and Poland, their treatment could be rougher" (Chadwick, Owen/A History of the Popes 1830-1914/Oxford University Press/2003/p.128-129). This was the last of the original ghettos to be abolished in Western Europe, when the kingdom of Italy was established in 1861 and overthrew the last of the [[Papal States]] in 1870, with the walls themselves physically being torn down in 1888.
+
==Jewish Ghettos in Europe==
  
−
[[Pope Pius V]] recommended that all the bordering states should set up ghettos, and at the beginning of the 17th century all the main towns had one (with the only exceptions in [[Italy]], being [[Livorno]] and [[Pisa]]). In medieval Central Europe ghettos existed in [[Prague]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Mainz]] and elsewhere.
+
===Thirteenth–Nineteenth Centuries===
  
−
The character of ghettos has varied through times. In some cases, the ghetto was a Jewish quarter with a relatively affluent population (for instance the Jewish ghetto in Venice). In other cases, ghettos have connoted impoverishment.  
+
The first ghettos appeared in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], and [[Portugal]] in the thirteenth century following the recommendation of [[Pope Pius V]] that all the bordering states should set up ghettos. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, all the main towns (with exception of Livorno and Pisa) had complied. In medieval Central [[Europe]], ghettos existed in [[Paris]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Mainz]], [[Prague]], and even further East, in [[Poland]] and [[Russia]]. The treatment of [[Judaism|Jews]] in those more easterly regions was more arbitrary and harsher, as the authorities often left the ghettos open and therefore vulnerable to attack by those, sometimes even more impoverished, who lived outside the ghettos.
 +
 +
The character of ghettos also varied. There were times in which a ghetto featured relative affluence (e.g. in sixteenth century [[Venice]] and in Prague in the fifteenth century). At other times, even a relatively affluent ghetto became impoverished, having lost [[politics|political]] concessions or (as in Prague) [[trade|trading]] privileges. Their character also depended on the circumstances in which the ghettos were established. While some ghettos (e.g. Venice) were established after negotiations between the city and the Jews, others (e.g. Frankfurt) obliged the Jews to move there by a city ordinance.  
  
−
Since Jews could not acquire land outside the ghetto, during periods of population growth, ghettos had narrow streets and tall, crowded houses. Residents had their own justice system. Around the ghetto stood walls that during [[pogrom]]s were closed from the inside during [[Easter Week]] and from the outside during [[Christmas]] or [[Pesach]]. Often ghetto residents had to have a pass to go outside of the bounds of the ghetto.
+
Since Jews could not acquire land outside the ghetto, the landscape was transformed into narrow streets and tall, crowded houses. Walls and gates stood around the ghetto and were closed and locked from the inside (during [[Easter]] week) and from the outside (during [[Christmas]]) to prevent [[anti-Semitic]] violence or [[pogrom]]s.  
−
 
 
−
Jewish ghettos were progressively abolished, and their walls demolished, in the 19th century, following the ideals of the [[French Revolution]].  Furthermore, some Western European countries with tolerant governments (such as [[Napoleon]]'s [[France]], or the [[United Kingdom]]) incited industrious Jews to immigrate. In the [[Papal States]], ghettos made somewhat less restrictive under [[Pope Pius IX]] (who relaxed many restrictions on Jews, but maintained others).  They were completely abolished after the Papal States were overthrown in [[1870]].  The [[Nazi]]s re-instituted Jewish ghettos before and during [[World War II]] in Eastern Europe.
 
−
 
 
−
===European ghettos===
 
−
 
 
−
Famous European ghettos include:
 
−
 
 
−
====Roman Ghetto====
 
−
The '''Roman Ghetto''' was located in the area surrounded by today's ''Via del Portico d'Ottavia'', ''Lungotevere dei Cenci'', ''Via del Progresso'' and ''Via di Santa Maria del Pianto'' close to the [[Tiber]] and the [[Theater of Marcellus]], in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].
 
−
 
 
−
[[Papal bull]] ''[[Cum nimis absurdum]]'', promulgated by [[Pope Paul IV]] in [[1555]] segregated the [[Jew]]s, who had lived freely in Rome since Antiquity, in a walled quarter with three gates that were locked at night, and subjected them to various restrictions on their personal freedom (like limits to the allowed professions), and degradations like compulsory Catholic sermons on the Jewish ''[[shabbat]]'' although to a lesser degree than in other [[Europe]]an countries. The district lacked a well and flooded every winter.
 
−
This "ghetto had two objects—to protect Christians from too close an association with persons of a different religion, and to protect the Jews from mobs or hooligans.  The ghetto was welcome to some Jews because it protected the small community from the drain which must follow from assimilation to the majority and enabled special religious customs to be observed without interference...for three or four decades of the nineteenth century this was not a black mark to the papal government—Vienna, Prague, Venince—and further East, in Russia and Poland, their treatment could be rougher."
 
−
 
 
−
When [[Napoleon]]ic forces occupied Rome, the Ghetto was legally abolished (in [[1808]]), but it was reinstated as soon as the Papacy regained control.  In [[1848]], during the brief [[revolution]], the Ghetto was abolished once more, again temporarily. The Jews had to petition annually for permission to live there, and were disabled from owning any property even in the Ghetto. They paid a yearly tax for the privilege; formality and tax survived until [[1850]].
 
−
[[Image:Sack of jerusalem.JPG|thumb|right|Detail from the Arch of Titus showing spoils from the Sack of Jerusalem]]
 
−
They had to swear yearly loyalty to the Pope by the [[Arch of Titus]] (it celebrates the Roman [[sack of Jerusalem]]). [[Pope Leo XIII]] was less intransigent than [[Pius IX]], and the city of Rome was able to tear down the Ghetto's walls in [[1888]] and demolish some houses, before the area was reconstructed around the new [[Synagogue]].
 
−
 
 
−
The ghetto of Rome was the last remaining [[ghetto]] in Western Europe until its later reintroduction by [[Nazi Germany]].
 
  
 +
Social ostracism often resulted in residents being required to obtain passes to go outside the ghetto boundaries. They were socially isolated, although not necessarily [[culture|culturally]] and [[cognition|intellectually]], since they had their own [[school]] system based on [[synagogue]]s, and they set up their own communal authority to improve security. Thus, in some ways, the segregation sometimes benefited both sides.
  
 +
Jewish ghettos were progressively abolished in the 19th century following the ideals of the [[French Revolution]]. This started in Western European countries when the establishment of tolerant governments, such as [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]]'s [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], encouraged industrious Jews to immigrate. In 1870, after the Papal States were overthrown, the last ghetto in Western Europe was abolished; the walls physically torn down in 1888. In [[Russia]], however, the Jewish Pale continued to exist until the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]].
 +
 
====Venetian Ghetto====
 
====Venetian Ghetto====
  
−
The '''Venetian Ghetto''' was the area of [[Venice]] in which [[Jewish]] people were required to live under the [[Venetian Republic]].  From its name, the word "[[ghetto]]" is derived.
+
The '''Venetian Ghetto''' was the area in Venice in which [[Judaism|Jewish]] people were required to live under the [[government]] of the Venetian Republic.  
  
−
The Ghetto is an area of the [[Cannaregio]] [[sestiere (Venice)|sestiere]] of Venice.  It is named for the [[foundry|iron foundries]] ("geto") located there in the [[fourteenth century|fourteenth]] and [[fifteenth century|fifteenth centuries]].
+
Restrictions on their movement and permitted trades varied, but money-lending, running pawnshops, dealing in second hand goods, and tailoring were common occupations. In 1516, they were moved to the area known as the ''Ghetto Nuovo,'' Surrounded by [[canal]]s, this area was linked to the rest of the city by only two bridges, which were closed at night and during certain [[Christianity|Christian]] festivals, when all Jews were required to stay in the Ghetto.
  
−
Unlike much of Europe, the presence of [[Jew]]s was usually tolerated in Venice from the late fourteenth century.  Restrictions on their movement and permitted trades varied, but [[moneylending]], running [[pawnshop]]s, dealing in [[second hand]] goods and [[tailoring]] were common occupations.  In [[1516]], the [[Venetian Senate]] voted to compel all Jews in the city to move to the area known as the ''Ghetto Nuovo''. Surrounded by [[canal]]s, the area was only linked to the rest of the city by two bridges, which were closed at night and during certain Christian festivals, when all Jews were required to stay in the Ghetto.
+
In 1541, the quarter was enlarged to cover the neighboring ''Ghetto Vecchio,'' and in 1633, the ''Ghetto Nuovissimo'' was also added. Due to population density, buildings rose to six or more stories.  
  
−
Despite the restrictions on movement, the Jewish population thrived, and in [[1541]], the quarter was enlarged to cover the neighbouring ''Ghetto Vecchio'', and in [[1633]], the ''Ghetto Nuovissimo'' was also added.
+
The area is still home to five synagogues connected by a secret corridor. They are known for their interiors, the oldest ''(Schola Grande Tedesca)'' dating from 1528. The ''Scola Spagnola'' now houses the Museum of Hebrew Art.
  
−
The area had such a dense population that – uniquely in Venice – buildings rose to six or more stories.  There were numerous benevolent institutions, and it is still home to five [[synagogue]]s connected by a secret corridor. They are known for their interiors, the oldest ([[Schola Grande Tedesca]]) dating from [[1528]].  Most having fairly plain exteriors, although the [[Scola Levantina]] is a grander, [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] building.  The [[Scola Spagnola]] contains the [[Museum of Hebrew Art]].
+
====Roman Ghetto====
 +
[[Image:Sack of jerusalem.JPG|thumb|400px|Detail from the Arch of Titus showing spoils from the Sack of Jerusalem]]
 +
The '''Roman Ghetto''' was located in the area close to the river [[Tiber]] and the Theater of Marcellus in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].  
  
−
===Second World War===
+
Papal decree ''Cum nimis absurdum,'' promulgated by Pope Paul IV in 1555, segregated the [[Judaism|Jews]] in a walled quarter with gates that were locked at night, and subjected them to various restrictions (e.g. limits on permitted professions) and degradations (e.g. compulsory [[Catholic]] sermons on the Jewish ''[[shabbat]]''), although to a lesser degree than in other European countries. The district lacked a well and flooded every winter.
−
[[Image:Ghettos.gif|thumb|300px|right|[[Ghettos]] established by the Nazis in which Jews were confined, and later shipped to concentration camps.]]
 
  
−
During [[World War II]] ghettos were established by the [[Nazi]]s to confine Jews into tightly packed areas of the cities of Eastern Europe. Starting in 1939, the Nazis began to systematically move Polish Jews into designated areas of large Polish cities. The first large ghetto at Tuliszkow was established in December 1939 or January 1940, followed by the [[Łódź Ghetto]] in April 1940 and the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] in October 1940, with many other ghettos established throughout 1940 and 1941.  The Ghettos were walled off, and any Jew found leaving them was shot.  The [[Warsaw Ghetto]] was the largest of these Ghettos, with 380,000 people and the [[Łódź Ghetto]], the second largest, holding about 160,000,
+
When [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] forces occupied Rome, the Ghetto was legally abolished, in 1808, but it was reinstated as soon as the Papacy regained control. In 1848, during the brief revolution, the ghetto was abolished once more, again temporarily. The Jews had to petition annually for permission to live there, and were restricted from owning any [[property]], even within the ghetto. They paid an annual [[taxation|tax]] for the privilege of living there and annually had to swear loyalty to the [[Pope]] by the Arch of Titus, which celebrates the [[Roman]] sack of [[Jerusalem]].
  
−
The situation in the ghettos was brutal. In Warsaw, 30% of the population were forced to live in 2.4% of the city's area, a density of 9.2 people per room.  In the ghetto of Odrzywol, 700 people lived in an area previously occupied by 5 families, between 12 and 30 to each small room.  The Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, so they had to rely on food supplied by the Nazis: in Warsaw this was 253 [[calorie]]s per Jew, compared to 669 calories per Pole and 2,613 calories per German. With crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and little sanitation (in the Łódź Ghetto 95% of apartments had no sanitation, piped water or sewers) hundreds of thousands of Jews died of disease and starvation.
+
Pope Leo XIII was less intransigent than Pius IX. The city of Rome was able to tear down the ghetto's walls in 1888 and demolish some houses before the area was reconstructed around the new [[synagogue]].
  
−
In 1942, the Nazis began [[Operation Reinhard]], the systematic deportation to [[extermination camp]]s during [[the Holocaust]]. The authorities deported Jews from everywhere in Europe to the ghettos of the East, or directly to the extermination camps — almost 300,000 people were deported from the Warsaw Ghetto alone to [[Treblinka]] over the course of 52 days. In some of the Ghettos the local resistance organisations started [[Ghetto Uprising|Ghetto uprisings]], none were successful, and the Jewish populations of the ghettos were almost entirely killed.
+
===World War II===
 +
[[Image:Getto pomnik.jpeg|thumb|right|400px|The Ghetto Heroes' Memorial]]
 +
The [[Nazi]]s re-instituted [[Judaism|Jewish]] ghettos in Eastern Europe before and during [[World War II]]. However, the nature of these ghettos was dramatically different. Explicit [[anti-Semitism]] in Nazi ideology developed into an official state policy requiring Jews to be confined in the ghettos and later shipped to [[concentration camp]]s. The same policy was instituted in all countries under the [[Third Reich]]'s control, with most of the Jews confined into tightly packed areas in the cities of Eastern Europe. Some of the more notorious ghettos were in [[Ghetto#Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw]], Lublin, [[Ghetto#Lodz Ghetto|Lodz]], Tuliszhkow, Radom, Opole, Kielce, Bialystok, and [[Ghetto:Krakow|Krakow]] in [[Poland]], Riga, Vilno, Vitebsk, Pinsk, Lvov, and Smolensk in [[Russia]], and Budapest in [[Hungary]]. All social, [[economics|economic]], and [[law|legal]] privileges ceased to exist there and were supplanted by state control.  
  
−
Nazi-era ghettos include:
+
Starting in 1939, the Nazi regime began moving Polish Jews into designated ghettos in Tuliszkow (in December, 1939), in Lodz (in April, 1940), in Warsaw (in October, 1940), and into many other ghettos throughout 1940 and 1941. The ghettos were walled off, just like in [[medieval]] times, except that any Jew found leaving was shot.
  
−
==== Warsaw Ghetto====
+
The situation in the ghettos was brutal. As the Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, they had to rely on food supplied by the Nazis. With crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and little sanitation (in the Lodz Ghetto a full 95 percent of the apartments had no sanitation or running water), hundreds of thousands of Jews died of [[disease]] and starvation. In 1942, the Nazi government began "Operation Reinhard," which was the systematic deportation of Jews to extermination camps. During the [[Holocaust]], the authorities deported Jews from everywhere in Europe to these ghettos, or directly to the camps. In some ghettos local resistance organizations started uprisings. However, none were successful, and the Jewish population of the ghettos was almost entirely annihilated.
  
 +
====Warsaw Ghetto====
  
−
The '''Warsaw Ghetto''' was the largest of the [[Jew]]ish [[ghetto]]s established by [[Nazi Germany]] in [[General Government]] during [[the Holocaust]] in [[World War II]]. In the three years of its existence, [[starvation]], [[disease]] and deportations to [[concentration camp]]s and [[extermination camp]]s dropped the population of the [[ghetto]] from an estimated 450,000 to 37,000. The Warsaw Ghetto was the scene of the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]], one of the first mass uprisings against [[Nazi]] occupation in Europe. 
+
The '''Warsaw Ghetto''' was the largest of the [[Judaism|Jewish]] ghettos in [[World War II]]. In the three years of its existence, starvation, disease, and deportations to concentration camps dropped the population of this ghetto from an estimated 450,000 to 37,000.  
−
 
+
−
'''Formation of the Ghetto'''
+
The Warsaw Ghetto was opened on October 16, 1940 to receive about 380,000 people, approximately 30 percent of the population of Warsaw despite being only 2.4 percent of its area. The [[Nazi]]s then built a wall, effectively closing off the Warsaw ghetto from the outside world on November 16, 1940.  
−
Plans to isolate the Jewish population of [[Warsaw]] and its nearby suburbs in a ghetto first circulated immediately after the [[Germany|German]] occupation of Poland in [[1939]]. At the time, the German administration of the [[General Government]] had not been fully organized, and there were conflicting interests among the three major players: the civilian administration, the military, and the [[SS]]. Under these circumstances, the Jewish Council, or [[Judenrat]], headed by [[Adam Czerniakow]], was able to delay the establishment of the Ghetto by one year, mainly by appealing to the military to consider how Jews were a valuable labor resource.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Image:WarsawGhettoMap.gif|thumb|350px|Map of the Warsaw Ghetto. The red line is original Ghetto boundary and tan area is the main area of the Ghetto; the grey areas were factory areas. The black lines are the reduced Ghetto of 1943, and the area shaded light green had been resettled by Poles. The dark red dots and the small white squares mark fighting points and areas of fighting during the Uprising. Point 5 was the train station from which Jews were transported to the extermination camps.]]
 
  
−
The Warsaw Ghetto was finally established by the German [[General Government|Governor-General]] [[Hans Frank]] on [[October 16]], [[1940]]. At this time, the population of the Ghetto was estimated to be about 380,000 people, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was about 2.4% of the size of Warsaw. Nazis then closed off the Warsaw Ghetto from the outside world on [[November 16]]th that year, building a wall. During the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Ghetto, while diseases (especially [[typhoid]]) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, compared to 669 kcal for Poles and 2,613 kcal for Germans.
+
In early 1942, the Nazis began to exterminate the Jews of Europe. The first phase was to eliminate the Jews in [[Poland]]. After the construction of extermination camps was completed in July 1942, the wholesale liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto was set to begin.
  
−
'''Destruction of the Ghetto'''
+
On January 18, 1943, armed resistance started. There was some initial success, which was followed by three months of fighting. The final battle started on the eve of [[Passover]], April 19, 1943. During the fighting approximately 7,000 Jewish partisans were killed and 6,000 were burned alive or gassed in bunkers. The remaining 50,000 people were sent to German concentration camps.
−
[[Image:26543.jpg|thumb|300px|right| Famous Warsaw Ghetto photo. [[Josef Blösche]] is the last soldier on the right holding the gun.  The boy with his arms raised has been identified as Tvsi C. Nussbaum.  However, Nussbaum was arrested on July 13, 1943, several months after the ghetto had been destroyed.]]
 
−
In early 1942, the Nazis made the decision at the [[Wannsee conference]] to exterminate the Jews of Europe. The first phase of the [[Final Solution]] was [[Operation Reinhard]], with the goal of destroying the Jews of Poland. Construction started on the [[Treblinka]] extermination camp in May of 1942, and it was completed in July, when the wholesale liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto was to begin.
 
  
−
On July 22, 1942, the [[Judenrat]] was informed that all Jews except those working in German factories, Jewish hospital staff, members of the Judenrat and their families, and members of the Jewish police force and their families would be "deported to the East". The Jewish police were to deliver 6,000 Jews to the [[Umschlagplatz]] train station each day, and failure to do so would result in immediate execution of some one hundred hostages, including Czerniakow's wife. After failing to persuade the Germans to change their plans, or at least spare the orphans of the Ghetto, Czerniakow killed himself on [[July 23]], [[1942]], leaving behind a note, "I can no longer bear all this. My act will prove to everyone what is the right thing to do." On July 23, members of the Jewish underground met, but decided not to resist, believing that the Jews were really being sent to work camps, rather than their death.
+
====Lodz Ghetto====
  
−
As ordered on [[July 22]], [[1942]], mass deportations of the inhabitants started; in the next 52 days (till [[September 12]], [[1942]]) about 300,000 people were taken to the [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]] [[extermination camp]]. During the remaining days of July, the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] were responsible for carrying out the deportations, a total of 64,606 Jews were transported to the death camps that month. From August onward, the Germans and their allies took a more direct role in the deportations, with over 135,000 Jews deported in August alone.
+
[[Image:Ghetto bridge.JPG|right|thumb|400 px|Jews using a wooden bridge to cross from one section of the Lódz Ghetto to the other. Entering the non-ghetto thoroughfare was forbidden to Jews.]]
 +
[[Image:Children headed for deportation.JPG|right|350px|thumbnail|Children being marched to the trains that will take them to their death]]
 +
The '''Lodz Ghetto''' was the second-largest ghetto (after the Warsaw Ghetto) established for Jews in [[Nazi]]-occupied [[Poland]]. Situated in the town of Lódz, with 672,000 inhabitants and originally intended as a temporary gathering point for Jews, the ghetto was transformed into a major industrial center, providing much needed supplies for Nazi Germany and especially for the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]]. It transformed the Jewish population (reduced from 233,000 to about 164,000) into a [[slave labor]] force. Over the years, Jews from Central Europe and as far away as [[Luxembourg]] were deported to the ghetto. A small [[Rom]]a population was also resettled there.
  
−
The final phase of the first mass deportation happened between September 6 and September 10, 1942, when 35,885 Jews were deported, 2,648 were shot on the spot and 60 committed suicide. After this selection approximately 55,000 to 60,000 Jews remained alive in the Ghetto, either working in German factories within the Ghetto or living in hiding.
+
Even though the work was essential to the ghetto's survival, and despite the [[Third Reich]]'s Armaments Minister Albert Speer advocating the ghetto's continued existence as a source of cheap labor, in the summer of 1944 the final order came to start gradual liquidation of the remaining population. By late August of that year, the last ghetto in Europe was eliminated.  
  
−
During the next six months, what was left of several political organizations was brought together under the name [[Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa|ŻOB]] (''Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa'', Jewish Fighting Organization), headed by [[Mordechaj Anielewicz]], with 220-500 persons; another 250-450 were organized in the [[Żydowski Związek Walki|ŻZW]] (''Żydowski Związek Walki'', Jewish Fighting Union). The members of these groups had no illusions about the German plans and wanted to die fighting. Their armament consisted largely of handguns, homemade explosives and [[Molotov cocktail]]s; the ŻZW was better armed as a result of better contacts to the Polish underground outside the Ghetto.
+
The peculiar situation of the Lódz Ghetto, namely conviction that productivity would ensure survival, coupled with brutal Nazi administration, prevented any manifestations of armed resistance such as in the Warsaw ghetto uprising. However, defensive resistance in the ghetto saved many Jews from final transportation.
  
−
'''Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the destruction of the Ghetto'''
+
====Krakow Ghetto====
  
−
{{main|Warsaw Ghetto Uprising}}
+
[[Image:Krakow Ghetto 06694.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Deportation of Jews from the Kraków Ghetto, March 1943]]
  
−
On [[January 18]], 1943, the first instance of armed resistance occurred when the [[Germany|Germans]] started the second expulsion of the [[Jew]]s. The Jewish fighters had some success: the expulsion stopped after four days and the [[Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa|ŻOB]] and [[Zydowski Zwiazek Walki|ŻZW]] resistance organizations took control of the Ghetto, building dozens of fighting posts and operating against Jewish collaborators. During the next three months, all inhabitants of the Ghetto prepared for what they realized would be a final struggle. The final battle started on the eve of [[Passover]], [[April 19]], 1943. Jewish partisans shot and threw grenades at German and allied patrols from alleyways, sewers, house windows, and even burning buildings. The Nazis responded by shelling the houses block by block and rounding up or killing any Jew they could capture. Significant resistance ended on [[April 23]], and the uprising ended on May 16. During the fighting approximately 7,000 of the Jewish partisans were killed and 6,000 were burnt alive or gassed in bunkers. The remaining 50,000 people were sent to [[German concentration camps|German death camps]], mostly to [[Treblinka extermination camp]].
+
The [[Jew]]ish ghetto in [[Kraków]] (Cracow) was one of the five main ghettos created by the [[Nazi]]s during their occupation of [[Poland]] during [[World War II]]. Before the war, Kraków was an influential cultural center for the 60,000-80,000 Jews that resided there. However, in May 1940, the Nazis announced that Kraków should become the "cleanest" city in the General Government and ordered a massive deportation of Jews from the city. Of the more than 68,000 Jews in Kraków, only 15,000 workers and their families, all crammed into 30 streets, 320 residential buildings, and 3,167 rooms, were permitted to remain due to the policy of separating "able workers" from those who would later be exterminated.
  
−
'''Social and cultural life in the ghetto'''
+
The armed underground resistance in the ghetto had some success, but, unlike in Warsaw, their efforts did not lead to a general uprising before the ghetto was liquidated.
−
[[Image:Warsaw Ghetto 2.jpg|thumb|275px|A soup kitchen for women in the Warsaw Ghetto]]
 
−
Despite the enormous hardships of day-to-day life, the Judenrat and youth movements succeeded in organizing various institutions and organizations in the Ghetto to meet the various needs of the inhabitants. The major concerns were overcrowding, hunger, inactivity, and work detail. In response, the Judenrat took the bulk of the responsibility for allocating housing-with an average of seven people per room, while charitable organizations such as CENTOS organized free soup kitchens: at one point as much as two-thirds of the Ghetto's population was provided for by these soup kitchens. For a brief time, the ''Judenrat'' was also permitted to organize four elementary schools (grades 1-3) for ghetto children, but there was also an extensive underground school system run by the various youth movements, which covered all grades (often disguised as soup kitchens) and even offered university-level courses on Sundays.  
 
  
−
The [[Judenrat]] was also responsible for the hospitals and orphanages that operated in the Ghetto. One orphanage, headed by the pediatrician and author [[Janusz Korczak]], was run as a model democracy, called the Republic of Children. This and the other orphanages were evacuated in [[1942]] and their occupants and staff were sent to Treblinka.  
+
From May 30, 1942 onward, the Nazis implemented systematic deportations from the ghetto to surrounding [[concentration camp]]s. Thousands of Jews were transported over the succeeding months. The final 'liquidation' of the ghetto came in March 13 - March 14, 1943 when 8,000 Jews, deemed able to work, were transported to the Kraków-Płaszów labor camp. Any remaining were killed or sent to die in [[Auschwitz]].
  
−
Cultural life included a lively press in three languages ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), religious activity (including a church for Jews who had converted to [[Catholicism]]), and lectures, concerts, theater, and art exhibits. In many cases, the artists and performers were prominent figures in Polish cultural life during the war.
+
==Post-War Ghettos in the World==
  
−
One of the most remarkable cultural efforts in the Ghetto was headed by the historian [[Emmanuel Ringelblum]] and his group ''Oyneg Shabbos'', which collected documents by people of all ages and positions to create a social history of life in the Ghetto. In all, it is estimated that some 50,000 documents were collected, including essays on various aspects of ghetto life, diaries, memoirs, art work, underground journals, drawings, school work, posters, play bills, recipes, notes from lectures, etc. These documents were hidden in three separate batches, two of which have since been recovered and provide an invaluable insight into life in the Ghetto.  Plans are now underway to find the third cache, which is believed to be buried under what is now the [[China|Chinese]] Embassy in Warsaw.
+
===South African and African ghettos===
  
−
====Łódź Ghetto====
+
[[Image:Joburg.iss.400pix.jpg|thumb|400px|Johannesburg, including Soweto, from the [[International Space Station]]]]
 +
In [[South Africa]] under the apartheid policies, The Group Areas Act of April 27, 1950 barred people of particular races from residing in various urban areas. One of the most notorious “black ghettos” was Soweto, a mostly black urban area to the south west of [[Johannesburg]]. During [[apartheid]] regime, Soweto was constructed for the specific purpose of housing African people who were then living in areas designated by the government for white settlement, such as the multi-racial area called Sophiatown. Today, Soweto is among the poorest parts of Johannesburg. However, there have been signs of economic improvement, and Soweto has become a center of nightlife.
  
−
[[Image:Ghetto bridge.JPG|right|frame|''Jews using a wooden bridge to cross from one section of the Łódź Ghetto to the other. Entering the non-ghetto thoroughfare was forbidden to Jews.'']]
+
There are other "ghettos" in South Africa, such as KwaMashu in Durban in the KZN province. Resettlements, comparable to forced deportations in [[Poland]], into specific, ghetto-like areas were quite common elsewhere in [[Africa]], especially along the [[Zambezi River]]. Before the [[Kariba Dam]] was constructed in 1956, whole tribes were forcibly moved into economically inhospitable inland areas.
  
−
The '''Łódź Ghetto''' was the second-largest [[ghetto]] (after the [[Warsaw Ghetto]]) established for [[Jew]]s in [[Nazi]]-occupied [[Poland]]. Situated in the town of [[Łódź]] and originally intended as a temporary gathering point for Jews, the ghetto was transformed into a major [[industry|industrial]] center, providing much needed supplies for [[Nazi Germany]] and especially for the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]]. Because of its remarkable productivity, the ghetto managed to survive until August [[1944]], when the remaining population was transported to [[Auschwitz]]. It was the last ghetto in Poland to be liquidated.
+
===Ghettos in the United States===
  
−
'''Establishment of the Ghetto'''
+
In the [[United States]], during the period between the abolition of [[slavery]] and the passing of the civil rights laws in the 1960s, discriminatory notions, sometimes codified in law, forced many urban African Americans to live in specific neighborhoods, such as Bronzeville in Chicago and Harlem in [[New York City]], which became known as "ghettos." The [[Civil Rights Act]] allowed wealthier African Americans to move to formerly all-white areas. The result of this was that the economic bases of many ghettos collapsed, leaving them as zones of below-average income, poorly-maintained housing, and high [[crime]]. For example, by the 1970s, the Robert Taylor Homes, located in Chicago's Bronzeville, was home to the poorest and third-poorest [[census]] tracts in the United States.
−
When German forces occupied [[Łódź]] in September [[1939]], the city had a population of 672,000 people, over one-third of them (233,000) Jews. Łódź was annexed directly to the [[Warthegau]] region of the [[Third Reich|Reich]] and renamed Litzmannstadt. As such, the city was to undergo a process of [[Aryan]]ization: the Jewish population was to be expelled to the ''[[General Government|Generalgouvernement]]'' and the [[Poles|Polish]] population was to be reduced significantly and transformed into a [[slavery|slave]] labor force.
 
  
−
First mention of the establishment of a ghetto appears in an order dated [[10 December]] [[1939]], which spoke of a temporary gathering point for local Jews to ease the deportation process. By [[1 October]] [[1940]], the deportation was to have been completed, and the city was to have been ''Judenrein'' (free of Jews).
+
The formation of the ghettos and the black underclass forms one of most controversial issues in [[sociology]]. One of the earliest studies of the modern phenomenon of ghetto formation was Daniel Patrick Moynihan's 1965 work ''The Negro Family: The Case for National Action,'' often referred to as the "Moynihan Report." This report noted that the number of black welfare cases was rising, while employment was falling. It also pointed out that a quarter of all black children were born to unmarried women, and that this percentage was rising. The ghetto was described as a "tangle of pathologies," and Moynihan predicted that conditions would only worsen.
  
−
This set in motion a long series of anti-Jewish measures (as well as anti-Polish measures), by which Jews were stripped of their businesses and possessions, and forced to wear the [[yellow badge]]. Since the invasion, many Jews, particularly the intellectual and political leadership, fled to the area of the ''General government'' or eastward to [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-occupied Poland. On [[8 February]] [[1940]], Jewish residence was limited to specific  streets in the Old City of Łódź and the adjacent Batuny Quarter, the areas that would later become the ghetto. A [[Nazi]]-sponsored [[pogrom]] on [[1 March]] in which many Jews were killed, expediated the relocation, and over the next two months, wooden and wire fences were erected around the area to cut it off from the rest of the city. Jews were formally sealed into the ghetto on [[1 May]] of that year.
+
In the 1980s, a revival of all "ghetto-encompassing" questions occurred, as well as the development of new theories on why these ghettos emerged. Charles Murray argued in ''Losing Ground'' that "Great Society" [[liberalism]] created the hopeless poor. Murray claimed that the eligibility of single women for welfare encouraged women to have babies out of wedlock, and that welfare discouraged all from working. Murray concluded his book with a call for the abolition of welfare. On the other hand, William Julius Wilson argued in ''The Truly Disadvantaged'' that easy access to welfare had little effect on women's decisions on childbearing. Wilson claimed, instead, that the flight of low-skilled manufacturing jobs to the suburbs and the Southern states left blacks economically isolated in the ghettos due to their "spatial mismatch." Wilson thus explained the high percentage of out-of-wedlock births by the lack of "marriageable" (i.e. employed and single) men.  
  
−
[[Image:Ghetto entrance.JPG|250px|thumbnail|right|''German and Jewish police guard an entrance to the Łódź Ghetto'']]
+
Yet another theory of ghetto formation was offered by Roger Waldinger in ''Still the Promised City?'', which detailed a mismatch between the wages that blacks desire and the wages which low-skilled jobs actually pay. In looking at New York City, Waldinger pointed out that new immigrants living in similar “ghettos” ([[Korea]]ns, [[China|Chinese]], [[Pakistan]]is, [[Dominican Republic|Dominicans]], etc.) often fared better than American-born blacks. Waldinger also noticed that southern-born and [[Caribbean]]-born blacks had higher incomes than northern-born blacks. Waldinger argued that immigrant groups benefited by establishing nepotistic niches for themselves, and used niches for mutual help, something blacks in most cases were unable to do. Waldinger also noted that even though hotels and restaurants may offer very low wages, they still outclass wages in [[Mexico]], rural China, or [[Africa]]. Thus, immigrants readily accept them. By contrast, unskilled northern-born blacks, who hope to do something better than their parents, disdain these jobs and may often wind up working outside the legitimate economy.
  
−
Because so many Jews had fled the city, the population of the ghetto upon its creation was 164,000. Over the coming years, Jews from [[Central Europe]] and as far away as [[Luxembourg]] were deported to the ghetto, and there was also a small [[Roma people|Romany]] population that was resettled there (''see:'' [[Porajmos]]).
+
Thus, despite various attempts to improve social and economic conditions, although the legal arbitrariness practically disappeared in post-1964 American ghettos, the ghetto attributes of social ostracism and economic hardship are still generally held. In terms of the security aspect, apart from addressing the alarmingly high [[crime]] rate, there has not been any state intrusion into life in these ghettos whatsoever, meaning that residents are not legally or physically restricted from leaving. This constitutes the specifically "American way" of ghetto life, which differs from that found in other parts of the world.
  
−
To ensure that there was no contact between the Jewish and non-Jewish population of the city, two German [[police]] units were designated to patrol the perimeter of the ghetto. Within the ghetto itself, a Jewish police force was created to ensure that no Jews attempted to escape. Any Jews caught outside the ghetto could, by law, be shot on sight. On [[10 May]] orders went into effect prohibiting any commercial contact between Jews and non-Jews in Łódź under similarly severe penalties.
+
While the American “melting pot” lessened the importance of ethnic origin, [[culture]], and [[religion]]—although some of it returned as “ethnic profiling” after [[9/11]]—quite different situations developed in [[Europe]].
  
−
In other ghettos throughout Poland, a thriving underground economy based on the [[smuggling]] of food and manufactured goods managed to emerge between the ghetto and the outside world. In  Łódź, however, this was practically impossible, and Jews were entirely dependent on the German authorities for food, medicine, and other vital supplies. To further exacerbate the situation, the only legal currency in the ghetto was a specially created ghetto currency. Faced with starvation, Jews eagerly traded their remaining possessions and currency for this scrip, thereby abetting the process by which they were dispossessed of their few remaining belongings.
+
===European Ghettos===
  
−
'''Chaim Rumkowski and the Jewish Council'''
+
Based on the four definitional attributes, ghettos exist in most, if not all, of the [[industry|industrialized]] [[Europe]]an countries even in the twenty-first century. There are, of course, no more Jewish ghettos. Contemporary European problems involve visible minorities, namely recent, and second, if not third, generation immigrants.
  
−
To organize the local population and maintain order, the German authorities established a Jewish Council, or ''[[Judenrat]]''. The ''Judenälteste'', or leader of the ''Judenrat'', [[Chaim Rumkowski]], is still considered one of the most controversial figures in the history of the [[Holocaust]]. Known mockingly as "King Chaim," he was granted unprecedented powers by the Nazi government, which authorized him to "take all necessary measures" to maintain order in the ghetto.
+
In [[France]], the poorer ''banlieues,'' or suburbs, especially those of [[Paris]], house an impoverished population, largely of [[North Africa]]n [[Muslim]] and black [[Africa]]n origin, in large high-rise building developments known as ''Cités.'' These were built in the 1960s and 1970s in the industrial suburbs to the north and east of Paris, especially in the Seine-St-Denis area, as well as in other French cities like Villeurbanne near Lyon. They are similar in style to the large, inner-city, urban renewal projects in the [[United States]], such as the former Cabrini Green in Chicago, and have similar problems. Though most of the young people were born in France, and are citizens, this North-African and African population has suffered routine discrimination in the job market as well as by the [[police]]. The 2005 riots in France originated within these ghettos as a reaction to legal discrimination and the attitude of French society that the minorities in ghettos threaten their secularism. Thus, although the generally poor economic situation aggravated social hardship, it was mostly the legal and security attributes that incited the unrest. On the other hand, most of the recent African immigrants, from places such as [[Cote d'Ivoire]] and [[Dakar, Senegal]], prefer the biased, but functioning, legal system in the French ghettos over the complete breakdown and chaos in their home countries.  
  
−
Although he was directly responsible to Nazi official [[Hans Biebow]], within the ghetto Rumkowski adopted an autocratic style of leadership to transform the ghetto into an enormous industrial complex, manufacturing goods on behalf of Germany. Convinced that Jewish productivity would ensure survival, he forced the population to work 12-hour days in abysmal conditions, producing garments, wood and metalwork, and electrical equipment for the German military. By [[1943]], some 95 percent of the adult population was employed in 117 ''ressorts'' or workshops, which Rumkowski once boasted to the mayor of Łódź, were a "gold mine." In fact, it was because of this productivity that the Łódź Ghetto managed to survive long after all the other Polish ghettos were liquidated.
+
In [[Germany]], the “post-war economic miracle” happened with considerable help from [[Turkey|Turkish]] immigrants. They came, officially invited in, to boost a much-needed [[labor]] force in the heavy machinery sectors and, as in France, they settled in ghettos. They did not seem to mind, and certainly their social, economic and overall way of life dramatically improved, as long as the “economic miracle” lasted. With increasing unemployment in the machinery sector and other [[industry|industries]], the state had to step in and, to preempt [[riot]]s, offered the Turkish families reasonable settlements if they returned to their homeland.
  
−
Under Rumkowski's leadership, a modicum of equality was established among all the Jews living in the ghetto. Food was distributed equally to everyone, and surprisingly, educational and cultural activities, often underground, flourished. Still, conditions were harsh and the population was entirely dependent on the German authorities. Starvation was rampant and disease widespread. This fueled dissatisfaction with Rumkowski, and even led to a series of [[strike]]s in the factories. In most instances, Rumkowski relied on the Jewish police force to quell the discontented workers, but in one instance, the German police were asked to intervene. Strikes usually erupted over the reduction of food rations.
+
===Roma Problem: Czech Republic and Slovakia===
 +
[[Rom]]a, or Gypsies—with their basically [[nomad]]ic way of life, their reluctance to stay and try to become assimilated into any one country, their absence of a common [[language]], and their lack of marketable skills—have caused problems for Eastern and Central European governments for centuries. Their nomadic way of life saved them from being put into ghettos (or worse still, [[concentration camp]]s) until after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Then, the Eastern European states were forced to act. They categorized the Roma as a "social group" or "problem" and thus legitimized intrusive state intervention to deal with them.  
  
−
Disease was also a major feature of ghetto life with which the ''Judenrat'' had to contend. Medical supplies were critically limited, and the ghetto was severely overcrowded. The entire population of 164,000 people was forced into an area of just 4 sq. kilometers, of which just 2.4 kilometers were developed and inhabitable. Furthermore, fuel supplies were severely short, and people burned whatever they could to survive the harsh Polish winter. Some 18,000 people in the ghetto are believed to have died during a famine in 1942, and altogether, about 43,500 people died in the ghetto from starvation and disease.
+
Another aspect of this redefinition of Roma [[identity]] was the transformation of their ethnic and [[culture|cultural]] difference into social deviance. Roma children who did not speak the host language very well were treated as mentally deficient and put into special classes within which they could advance only to the fourth grade. Young Roma thus became increasingly alienated and isolated from the host society, experiencing an enforced "social retardation," which led to withdrawal, [[aggression]], and other forms of antisocial behavior. Perhaps the most radical instance of such intervention was the policy of [[sterilization]] adopted by the [[Slovak]] government between 1980 and 1990 to curb what it called "unhealthy high fertility rates" among the Roma.  
  
−
'''The First Deportation'''
+
After the [[Communism|Communist]] regimes ended in Eastern Europe, prejudice towards the Roma increased. For example, a 1991 ''Times Mirror'' survey found that Europeans in overwhelming numbers expressed contempt for Roma: 59 percent of [[German]]s, 91 percent of [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovaks]], 71 percent of [[Bulgaria]]ns, 79 percent of [[Hungary|Hungarians]], and 50 percent of [[Spain|Spaniards]]. Other polls showed similar negative views of Roma.
  
−
Overcrowding in the ghetto was exacerbated by the deportation there of some forty thousand from the surrounding areas, as well as [[Germany]], [[Luxembourg]], and the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], particularly from [[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Terezín]]. On [[20 December]], [[1941]], Rumkowski announced that twenty thousand Jews would be deported from the ghetto, selected by the ''Judenrat'' from among criminals, people who refused to work, and people who took advantage of the refugees arriving in the ghetto. An Evacuation Committee was set up to help in selecting the initial group of deportees.
+
By the end of the twentieth century, Roma ghettos had appeared in the [[Czech Republic]]. The Roma moved there, both voluntarily and involuntarily, when municipalities forcibly relocated them from other areas. The majority of those living there are unemployed and uneducated, and the [[crime]] rate is high. As the ghetto develops, non-Roma people move away. The most infamous ghetto in the Czech Republic is Chánov, in the city of Most.  
  
−
[[Image:Deportation to Chelmno.JPG|right|250px|thumbnail|''Ghetto residents boarding the trains to [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]]'']]
+
In the case of the Roma, all four ghetto attributes are in evidence: they have a tentative legal status, social and economic hardships are on the rise, and they are relocated into ghettos by the state, allegedly to protect them from the prejudice and harassment of the society, but in reality to deal with a problem to which they have no other solution.
  
−
It is uncertain who first realized that the deportees were being sent to [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]], the first of the [[Operation Reinhard]] [[death camp]]s, where they were killed with [[carbon monoxide]] fumes in gas vans ([[gas chamber]]s had not yet been built). By [[15 May]] [[1942]], an estimated 55,000 people had been deported. The harshest blow was yet to come.
+
==Cultural Life and the Ghetto==
  
−
By September, Rumkowski and the Jews of Łódź had learned that deportation meant death. They had witnessed the German raid on a children's hospital, when all the patients were rounded up and put into trucks (some actually thrown from windows), never to be seen again. A new German order demanded that 15,000 more Jews be handed over for deportation, and a debate raged in the ghetto over who should be handed over. After considering the options, Rumkowski was more convinced than ever that the only chance for survival lay in remaining productive for the Reich. He therefore addressed the parents of Łódź:
+
It is often said that great [[art]] is born out of suffering, and so it is not necessarily a coincidence that great artists lived, and still live, in ghettos. Ghettos often became known as vibrant cultural centers, for example Harlem in New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Artists such as [[Bob Marley]], [[Ice Cube]], [[John Lee Hooker]], [[Cab Calloway]], and [[Tupac Shakur]] were born and raised in ghettos, and much of their music comes from their own suffering, experiences, and life in the ghetto.  
  
−
:''"A grievous blow has struck the ghetto. They are asking us to give up the best we possess - the children and the elderly. I was unworthy of having a child of my own, so I gave the best years of my life to children. I've lived and breathed with children, I never imagined I would be forced to deliver this sacrifice to the altar with my own hands. In my old age, I must stretch out my hands and beg: Brothers and sisters! Hand them over to me! Fathers and mothers: Give me your children!''
+
Even in [[Nazi]]-run ghettos during the [[World War II|Second World War]] cultural events did take place: lectures, concerts, theater, and art exhibits. In many cases, the artists and performers were prominent figures in Polish cultural life. Movie director [[Roman Polanski]], a survivor of the ghetto, recalled his experience in his memoirs, ''Roman.'' In the [[Theresienstadt]] ghetto, in the fortress of [[Terezín]] in former [[Czechoslovakia]], the inhabitants formed [[orchestra]]s as well as chamber groups and [[jazz]] ensembles. Several stage performances were produced and attended by camp inmates, although they were often coerced into performing by the Nazis for [[propaganda]] purposes. Many of the composers and other artists were subsequently sent to [[Auschwitz]] where they died in the [[gas chamber]]s. [[Karel Ancerl]] escaped this fate, although his family did not, becoming a world-renowned conductor of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and later the Toronto Symphony Orchestra.
  
−
[[Image:Children headed for deportation.JPG|right|250px|thumbnail|''Children being marched to the trains that will take them to their death'']]
+
It is acknowledged that the "renaissance," and even the "golden era," of Czech and Slovak [[literature]] of the post-war period occurred during the 1970s and 1980s in [[Czechoslovakia]] under the [[Communism|Communist]] regime. There, several hundred intellectuals (writers, scientists and artists), who signed the anti-communist proclamation “Chartist Movement,” suffered at the hands of the Czech State Security Police. They lost their jobs, were forbidden to publish or exhibit their work, were shadowed by agents constantly, and, hence, ostracized by the general public because of the police presence. All the definitional properties of the classic ghetto were in force, and they even used the term themselves to describe their situation. And yet, the best works by writer [[Ludvik Vaculik]], by playwrights [[Pavel Kohout]] and former Czech president, [[Vaclav Havel]], by scientist [[Vaclav Cerny]], and many others, were done during this “ghetto period.”
  
−
Despite their horror, parents realized that this sacrifice could potentially ensure the survival of, at least, some of the remaining Jews.
+
==Conclusion==
  
−
This decision would have damned Rumkowski in history books, but for the next year and a half, it seemed that he had succeeded in his objective of saving at least part of the ghetto's population. Deportations stopped after the surrender of the children, and in [[1944]], the Łódź Ghetto, with 70,000 inhabitants, had the largest concentration of Jews in Eastern Europe. Admittedly, the ghetto had been transformed into one large labor camp, where survival depended solely on the ability to work. Schools and hospitals were shut down, and new factories, including armament factories, were established. On the other hand, Soviet troops were just sixty miles away and advancing rapidly and it seemed that the survivors would have been saved. Then suddenly, the Soviets stopped their advance.
+
The occasional eruption of [[art]]istic flourishing notwithstanding, the most significant feature of ghettos is the cold and inhuman logic that led to their creation. In each case, the purpose was to move a minority, deemed troublesome to the authorities, within protective walls, real or virtual, without any legal recourse. Those authorities used all means—killing included—to prevent residents inside the ghetto from emerging back into the general society. The magnitude of [[moral]] reprehensibility for such intolerant policies, that led to inhumane and eventually [[murder]]ous acts, was not evident to the those responsible for the creation and enforcement of ghettos. The realization of a peaceful world of prosperity for all can only happen when the establishment, and continued presence, of ghettos are no longer deemed justifiable.
  
−
'''The End of the Łódź Ghetto'''
+
==References==
−
 
+
*Murray, Charles. 1984. ''Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980.'' New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465042317
−
The ultimate fate of the Łódź Ghetto was debated among the highest ranking Nazis as early as [[1943]]. [[Heinrich Himmler]] called for the final liquidation of the ghetto, with a handful of workers relocated to a concentration camp outside Lublin, while Armaments Minister [[Albert Speer]] advocated the ghetto's continued existence as a source of cheap labour, especially necessary now that the tide of the war was turning against Germany.
+
*Polanski, Roman. 1984. ''Roman.'' New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0688026214
−
 
+
*Silverman, Carol. 1995. [https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/persecution-and-politicization-roma-gypsies-eastern-europe "Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of Eastern Europe."] ''Nationalism in Eastern Europe'' 19.2. Retrieved April1 14, 2023.  
−
In the summer of 1944, it was finally decided to commence with the gradual liquidation of the remaining population. From [[June 23]] to [[July 14]], about 7,000 Jews were deported to Chelmno, where they were killed. As the front approached, however, it was decided to transport the remaining Jews, including Rumkowski, to Auschwitz. By late August, the ghetto was eliminated. Some 900 people managed to hide among the ruins, where they survived until the Soviet army liberated Łódź. Altogether, just 10,000 of the 204,000 Jews who passed through the Łódź Ghetto survived the war.
+
*Waldinger, Roger. 1996. ''Still the Promised City? : African-Americans and New Immigrants in Postindustrial New York.'' Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674838610
−
 
+
*Wilson, William Julius. 1990. ''The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy.'' Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226901319
−
'''Resistance in the Łódź Ghetto'''
 
−
 
 
−
The peculiar situation of the Łódź Ghetto prevented any manifestations of armed resistance, which have become synonymous with the final days of the [[Warsaw Ghetto]], [[Vilna Ghetto]], [[Białystok Ghetto]], and other ghettos in Nazi-occupied Poland. Rumkowski's overbearing autocracy, the failure of attempts to smuggle food—and consequently, arms—into the ghetto, and the conviction that productivity would ensure survival precluded any attempts at armed revolt.
 
−
 
 
−
Nevertheless, [[Swiss]] sociologist [[Werner Rings]] identified four distinct forms of resistance that civilian populations engaged in throughout Nazi-occupied [[Europe]], with offensive resistance constituting the final form of resistance. The other three categories: symbolic, polemic, and defensive, can all be found in the ghetto, and there are even indications of offensive resistance in terms of [[sabotage]].
 
−
 
 
−
Symbolic resistance is evident in the rich cultural and religious life that was maintained in the ghetto throughout the early years. Initially, there were 47 schools and day care facilities in the ghetto, which continued to operate despite the harshest conditions. When the school buildings were converted to living space to house the 20,000 Jewish transported to the ghetto from Central Europe, alternatives frameworks were established, particularly for younger children whose mothers were forced to work. In addition to educating the young, schools attempted to ensure that children received proper nourishment despite the meager rations they were allotted. After the schools were shut down in 1941, many of the ''ressorts'' continued to maintain illegal daycare centers for children whose mothers were working.  
 
−
 
 
−
Political organizations also continued to exist in the ghetto, and even engaged in strikes when rations were cut. In one instance, a strike got so out of hand that the German police were called upon to suppress it. At the same time, there was also a rich cultural life, including active theaters, concerts, and banned religious gatherings, all of which countered official attempts at dehumanization. Much information about cultural activities can be found in the ghetto archive, organized by the Judenrat to document ''day-to-day'' life in the ghetto.
 
−
 
 
−
The archive can also be considered a form of polemic resistance, intended to record life in the ghetto for future generations.
 
−
The photographers of the statistical department of the Judenrat, besides their official work, illegally took photos of everyday scenes and atrocities.
 
−
One of them, [[Henryk Ross]], managed to bury the negatives and dig them up after liberation.
 
−
It is because of this archive that we have a real sense of what life in the ghetto was like. Unlike many other images from that period, some of the photographs taken in the ghetto are in color, enhancing the already vivid portrait of ghetto life. As one diarist wrote: "We must observe and protect everything with a critical eye, draw sketches of everything that occurs ..." so that they would be remembered. The archivists also began creating a ghetto [[encyclopedia]] and even a [[lexicon]] of the local [[slang]] that emerged to describe their daily lives.
 
−
 
 
−
Although it was illegal, the Jewish population even maintained several radios with which they were able to keep abreast of events in the outside world. At first, the radio could only receive German news broadcasts, which is why it is codenamed "Liar" in many of the diaries from that period. Among the news bulletins spread around the ghetto was the Allied invasion of [[Normandy]] on the day it occurred.
 
−
 
 
−
Defensive resistance in the ghetto includes avoiding the final transports and helping others to do the same. Some 900 Jews managed to survive in the ghetto from the final liquidation until the Soviets finally liberated the city. Yet even before the final deportation, members of youth movements shared meager rations with friends who refused to report for deportation, allowing them to survive even after they were no longer entitled to food rations.
 
−
 
 
−
Since work was essential to the ghetto's survival, it seems inevitable that sabotage was common. In the latter years, leftist workers adopted the slogan ''P.P.'' (''pracuj powoli'', or "go slow") to hinder their work on behalf of the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. When a bunker with Jews hiding in it was discovered, one of the people assaulted [[Hans Biebow]], Rumkowski's direct superior in the Nazi administration.
 
−
 
 
−
There is evidence in diaries that some form of armed resistance was discussed in the final days of the ghetto, but it never materialized as it did in other ghettos, because of the aforementioned considerations.
 
−
 
 
−
====Kraków Ghetto====
 
−
 
 
−
[[Image:Krakow Ghetto 06694.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Deportation of Jews from the Kraków Ghetto, March [[1943]]]]
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Jew]]ish '''[[ghetto]] in [[Kraków]]''' (Cracow) was one of the five main ghettos created by the [[Nazi]]s in the [[General Government]], during their [[occupation]] of [[Poland]] during [[World War II]]. It was a staging point to begin dividing "able workers" from those who would later be deemed worthy of death. Before the war, Kraków was an influential cultural center for the 60,000-80,000 Jews that resided there.
 
−
 
 
−
Persecution of the Jewish population of Kraków began soon after the Nazis occupied the city in September 1939 during the [[Polish September Campaign]]. Jews were obliged to take part in forced labour (September 1939); in November 1939 all Jews 12 years or older were required to wear identifying [[armband]]s; throughout Kraków, synagogues were ordered closed and all their relics and valuables turned over to the Nazi authorities.
 
−
 
 
−
By May 1940, the [[Germany|German]] occupation authority announced that Kraków should become the "cleanest" city in the [[General Government]] (occupied, but [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|unannexed portions]] of Poland) and ordered a massive deportation of Jews from the city. Of the more than 68,000 Jews in Kraków when the Germans invaded, only 15,000 workers and their families were permitted to remain in the city. All other Jews were ordered out of the city, to be resettled in surrounding areas.
 
−
 
 
−
The Kraków ghetto was formally established on [[March 3]], [[1941]]. Because the ghetto was set up in the Podgórze district, not in the Jewish district of [[Kazimierz]], displaced Polish families from the area took up residence in the former Jewish dwellings away from the ghetto. Before the creation of the ghetto, 3,000 people lived in the Podgórze district. This expanded initially to 15,000 Jews, all crammed into 30 streets, 320 residential buildings, and 3,167 rooms. As a result, one apartment was allocated to every four families, and many less fortunate lived on the street.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Image:Krakow Ghetto Gate 73170.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Arched entrance to Kraków Ghetto, about [[1941]].]]
 
−
 
 
−
The ghetto was surrounded by walls that kept it isolated from the surrounding city. All windows and doors that gave onto the "[[Aryan]]" side were ordered bricked up, although four guarded entrances allowed traffic to pass through. In a grim foreshadowing of the near future, these walls contained panels in the shape of tombstones. Small sections of the wall remain today.
 
−
 
 
−
Leftist militants in an [[Akiva]] group joined forces with [[Zionists]] to form the [[Jewish Combat Organization]] (ŻOB, [[Polish language|Polish]]: Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa), and organize resistance in the ghetto, supported by Polish restistance of [[Armia Krajowa]]. The group carried out a variety of resistance activities including the bombing of an officers club in Kraków. Unlike in [[Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw]], their efforts did not lead to a [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|general uprising]] before the ghetto was liquidated.
 
−
 
 
−
From [[May 30]], [[1942]] onward, the Nazis implemented systematic deportations from the ghetto to surrounding concentration camps. Thousands of Jews were transported over the succeeding months.
 
−
 
 
−
On [[March 13]]-[[March 14]], [[1943]] the Nazis carried out the final 'liquidation' of the ghetto under the command of [[SS]]-[[Sturmbannführer]] [[Willi Haase]]. 8,000 Jews, deemed able to work, were transported to the [[Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp|Plaszow labor camp]]. Those deemed unable to work— some 2,000 Jews— were killed in the streets of the ghetto on those days. Any remaining were sent to die in [[Auschwitz]].
 
−
 
 
−
==South African ghettos==
 
−
The Group Areas Act ([[27 April]] [[1950]]) barred people of particular races from various urban areas.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Soweto]] is a mostly black urban area to the south west of [[Johannesburg]]. During the [[apartheid]] regime, Soweto was constructed for the specific purpose of housing African people who were then living in areas designated by the government for white settlement, such as the multi-racial area called [[Sophiatown]]. Today, Soweto is among the poorest parts of Johannesburg; however, there have been recent signs of economic improval and Soweto has become a centre for nightlife.
 
−
There are other ghetto parts of South Africa like KwaMashu in Durban in the KZN province.
 
−
 
 
−
== Ghettos in the United States ==
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[United States]], between the abolition of [[slavery]] and the passing of the [[civil rights]] laws of the [[1960s]], discriminatory [[mores]] (sometimes codified in [[law]]) often forced urban [[African American]]s to live in specific neighborhoods, which became known as "ghettos". Due to [[Racial segregation|segregation]] laws, in existence in many US states until the [[Civil Rights Movement]] and the enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], African-Americans of all economic levels had to live in ghettos such as [[Douglas, Chicago#Bronzeville|Bronzeville]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[Harlem, New York City|Harlem]] in [[New York City]]. [[1960s]] civil rights laws allowed wealthier African Americans to emigrate to formerly all-white areas, the result of which was that the economic bases of many ghettos collapsed, leaving them zones of below-average wealth, poorly-maintained housing, and high crime.  By the [[1970]]'s, the [[Robert Taylor Homes]], located in Chicago's Bronzeville, was home to the poorest and third-poorest census tracts in the United States.
 
−
 
 
−
The formation of the ghetto and the black [[underclass]] forms one of most controversial issues in [[sociology]]. 
 
−
 
 
−
One of the earliest studies of the modern phenomenon of ghetto formation was [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]]'s 1965 work ''The Negro Family:  The Case for National Action,'' usually simply referred to as the [[Moynihan Report]].  The Moynihan Report pointed out that black welfare cases and unemployment were beginning to "disaggregate," that is, the number of black welfare cases were rising while unemployment was falling.  The Moynihan Report also pointed out that a quarter of all black children were born to unmarried women and that the percentage was rising.  The Moynihan report described the ghetto as a "tangle of pathologies" and predicted that conditions would worsen, not improve, despite the [[Great Society]].
 
−
 
 
−
Though it was a descriptive essay, and not a theoretical one, the Moynihan Report met howls of protest.  The expression "Blaming the Victim" was coined as criticism.
 
−
 
 
−
In ''The Promised Land,'' Nicholas Lemann says of the Moynihan Report. 
 
−
 
 
−
:Today the Moynihan Report stands as probably the most refuted document in American history (though of course its dire predictions about the poor black family all came true). . . the practical effect of the controversy over it was exactly the opposite of what Moynihan intended - all public discussions in mainstream liberal circles of issues like the state of the black family and the culture of poverty simply ceased. (177)
 
−
 
 
−
For almost two decades after the Moynihan Report, there was little discussion of family conditions in the ghetto.  The 1980s began to see a revival of this sociological question, as well as the development of new theories on why the ghetto emerged. 
 
−
 
 
−
[[Charles Murray (author)|Charles Murray]] argues in ''Losing Ground'' that [[Great Society]] [[liberalism]]  created the hopeless poor.  Murray claims that the eligibility of single women for welfare encouraged women to have babies out of wedlock, and that welfare discouraged all from working.  Murray concluded his book with a call for the abolition of welfare.
 
−
 
 
−
''Losing Ground'' has met with a broad chorus of liberal criticism.  ''Losing Ground's'' opponents point out that in the 1970s, when the real amounts of welfare checks decreased, out-of-wedlock births increased.  Critics also point out that illegitimacy rose just as much in low benefit states like Mississippi, where work undoubtedly paid better than welfare, as it did in high benefit states like Illinois and New York.  Critics also say that Murry missed the fact that although the percentage of blacks born out of wedlock increased in the 60s and 70s, the percentage of black women having babies out of wedlock decreased. 
 
−
 
 
−
[[William Julius Wilson]] argues in ''The Truly Disadvantaged'' that easy access to welfare had little effect on women's decisions on childbearing. Wilson instead claims that the flight of low-skilled manufacturing jobs to the suburbs and the South left blacks economically isolated in the ghetto—the "spatial mismatch".  Wilson explains the high percentage of out-of-wedlock births as due to the lack of marriageable—i.e., employed—men for mothers to marry.
 
−
 
 
−
Roger Waldinger offers a third, and less well known, theory of ghetto formation:  detailing a mismatch between the wages which blacks desire and the wages which low-skilled jobs actually pay. The argument mainly appears in Waldinger's book, adapted from his Harvard PhD thesis, ''Still the Promised City?'' 
 
−
 
 
−
In looking at New York City, Waldinger points out that new immigrants—[[Korea]]ns, [[Pakistan]]is, [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]]s, etc—often do better than American-born blacks. Waldinger also notices that  southern-born and [[Caribbean]]-born blacks have higher incomes than northern-born blacks. Waldinger argues that immigrant groups benefit by establishing [[Nepotism|nepotistic]] niches for themselves, and use niches for mutual help, something blacks have in most cases been unable to do.  Waldinger also says that even though hotels and restaurants may offer very low wages, they still outclass wages in [[Mexico]], rural [[China]], or [[Africa]]; thus, immigrants readily accept them.  In contrast, unskilled northern-born blacks, who hope to do something better than their parents, disdain these jobs, in hope of something better, and may often wind up working outside the legitimate economy altogether.  Waldinger's theory has not become as well-known as the theories of Murray or Wilson, and he is also criticized for "blaming the victim."
 
−
 
 
−
== Ghettos in post-WWII France ==
 
−
There are allegedly "ghettos" in modern France. The poorer [[banlieue]]s, or [[suburbs]], of France, especially those of [[Paris]], house an impoverished population largely of [[North African]] [[Muslim]] and [[Black]] [[African]] origin in large medium- and high-rise building developments known as "Cités".  They were built in the 1960's and 1970's in the industrial [[suburbs]] to the north and east of [[Paris]], especially in the [[department]] of [[Seine-St-Denis]] (also known from its departmental code as "le 93" or "le 9-3"), and in other French cities like Villeurbanne near [[Lyon]].  They are similar in style and have similar problems as the large inner-city urban renewal [[projects]] in the US (like [[Cabrini Green]] in [[Chicago]]). Though most of the young were born in [[France]], and (like many of those who weren't) are citizens, this North-African and African population is routinely discriminated against in the job market, as well as by the police. (There are, however, affluent banlieues around Paris as well, such as the [[department]] of [[Hauts-de-Seine]] to the west.)  The recent riots in France largely originated within the ghettos.
 
−
 
 
−
== Ghettos in the Czech Republic ==
 
−
 
 
−
A few ghettos have appeared in the [[Czech Republic]]. These ghettos are mainly inhabited by [[Roma people|Roma]] who move there both voluntarily or involuntarily (municipalities often try to relocate them from other areas). The majority of the people are unemployed and uneducated, and the [[crime rate]] is high. As a ghetto begins to appear non-Roma people move away. The most infamous ghetto in the Czech Republic is [[Chánov]] (part of the city of [[Most]]). Other cities with neighborhoods slowly transforming into ghettos include [[Karviná]].
 
−
 
 
−
== Cultural life and the ghetto ==
 
−
It is often said that great art is born out of suffering. So it is not necessarily a coincidence that great artists lived and still live in the ghetto. Ghettos often became known as vibrant cultural centers, for example the late 19th century [[Paris]], or [[Harlem]] in the 1920s and 1930s. Artists such as [[Bob Marley]], [[Ice Cube]], [[Naughty By Nature]], [[The Fugees]],  [[John Lee Hooker]], [[Nina Simone]], [[Cab Calloway]], and [[Tupac Shakur]] were born and raised in ghettos, and much of their music comes from their own suffering, experiences and life in the Ghetto or their own experiences with [[desegregation]], eg. Bob Marley's "[[No Woman, No Cry]]", Nina Simone's "[[Mississippi Goddamn]]", John Lee Hooker's "[[Rent Blues]]", Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five's "[[The Message (song)|The Message]]", Ice Cube's "[[3 Strikes You In]]", Eminem's "[[8 Mile]]" and Calloway's "[[Minnie The Moocher]]". The [[1970s]] sitcom ''[[Good Times]]'' was modeled after life in the [[Cabrini-Green]] housing projects in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The show portrays a ghetto family that always triumphs over adversity and it has been criticized for painting too rosy of a picture of how the ghetto really works.
 
−
 
 
−
== References ==
 
−
* ''Rome: A [[Let's Go City Guide]]'', Matthew W. Mahan (editor), Macmillan, [[Cambridge, MA]], 2004. ISBN 1-4050-3329-0, page 104.
 
−
* [[Israel Gutman]], <cite>Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</cite>, Houghton Mifflin, 1998, trade paperback, ISBN 0395901308, hardcover, 1994, 277 pages, ISBN 0395601991
 
−
* [[Martin Gray]], <cite>For Those I Loved</cite>, Little Brown Company, 1984, hardcover, ISBN 0316325767, 351 pages
 
−
*Graf, Malvina (1989). ''The Kraków Ghetto and the Plaszów Camp Remembered''. Tallahassee: The Florida State University Press. ISBN 0813009057
 
−
*Polanski, Roman. (1984). ''Roman''. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0688026214
 
−
*Katz, Alfred. (1970). ''Poland's Ghettos at War''. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0829001956
 
−
*Weiner, Rebecca. [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Cracow.html Virtual Jewish History Tour]
 
−
 
 
−
==Further reading==
 
−
* Alan Adelson and Robert Lapides, ''Łódź Ghetto : A Community History Told in Diaries, Journals, and Documents'', Viking, 1989. ISBN 0670829838
 
−
* Rings, Werner, ''Life with the Enemy: Collaboration and Resistance in Hitler's Europe, 1939-1945'' (trans. J. Maxwell Brownjohn). Doubleday & Co., 1982. ISBN 0385170823
 
−
* Trunk, Isaiah, ''Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation''. The University of Nebraska Press, 1986. ISBN 080329428X
 
−
* Michal Ungar, ''The Last Ghetto: Life in the Łódź Ghetto 1940-1944'', [[Yad Vashem]], 1995. ISBN 9653080458
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/krakow%20ghetto.html Kraków Ghetto history]
+
All links retrieved April 14, 2023.
−
* [http://www.dws.xip.pl/reich/zaglada/getto3.html About Kraków Ghetto in Polish with valuable historical photos]
 
−
* [http://auschwitz.dk/Schindlerslist.htm Schindler's List] - reproduction of the original list of people protected by Oskar Schindler
 
−
* [http://www.silentwall.com/Schindler.html Schindler's Krakow] - modern-day photographs
 
−
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/lodztoc.html Overview of the ghetto's history]
 
−
* [http://www.datasync.com/~davidg59/rumkowsk.html Full text of Rumkowski's "Give Me Your Children" speech]
 
−
* [http://www.urbanology.org/ENY/ A treatment of ghetto-culture and living conditions at wwww.urbanology.org]
 
−
* [http://www.ceskaghetta.cz/ Initiative to wipe off Czech ghettos]
 
−
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=venice,+italy&ll=45.445274,12.326499&spn=0.003003,0.010274&t=k&hl=en Satellite image from Google Maps] (Campo di Ghetto Nuovo is the large square in the centre)
 
−
*[http://www.jc-r.net/venezia/campi/ghetto-e.htm Ghetto map and history]
 
−
*[http://it.geocities.com/mp_pollett/roma-c9.htm Roman Ghetto described]
 
−
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/chronology/1942-1945/1943/chronology_1943_30.html October 18: Jews of Rome Deported to Auschwitz]
 
−
*[http://www.library.wisc.edu/libraries/dpf/Fascism/Images/FRY63.html Liliana Picciotto Fargion. Il Libro della Memoria. Gli Ebrei deportati dall'Italia (1943-1945). Milan: Mursia, 1991]
 
−
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/warsaw%20ghetto%20liquidation.html Warsaw Ghetto Liquidation]
 
−
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/warsawtoc.html Documents and information about the Warsaw Ghetto] from the Jewish Virtual Library
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
  
 +
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/krakow%20ghetto.html Kraków Ghetto history] ''Death Camps''
 +
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-l-oacute-dz-ghetto Ghettos: The Lódz Ghetto] ''Jewish virtual library''
 +
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/warsaw%20ghetto%20liquidation.html Warsaw Ghetto Liquidation] ''Death Camps''
 +
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-warsaw-ghetto Holocaust Ghettos: The Warsaw Ghetto] ''Jewish virtual library''
 +
* [http://holocaustmusic.ort.org/places/theresienstadt/ Theresienstadt] ''Music and the Holocaust''
  
−
{{Credit6|Ghetto|37543289|Roman_Ghetto|34553665|Venetian_Ghetto|36203521|Warsaw_Ghetto|37575495|Lodz_Ghetto|30603809|Krakow_Ghetto|37277064|}}
+
{{Credits|Ghetto|37543289|Roman_Ghetto|34553665|Venetian_Ghetto|36203521|Warsaw_Ghetto|37575495|Lodz_Ghetto|30603809|Krakow_Ghetto|37277064|}}

Latest revision as of 23:27, 21 October 2023

The main square of the Venetian Ghetto, Italy

A ghetto is an area where people from a specific ethnic background, culture, or religion live in seclusion, voluntarily or more commonly involuntarily with varying degrees of enforcement by the dominant social group. The first ghettos were established to confine Jewish populations in Europe. They were surrounded by walls, segregating and so-called "protecting them" from the rest of society. In the Nazi era these ghettos served to confine and subsequently exterminate Jews in massive numbers.

Today the term ghetto is used to describe a blighted area of a city containing a concentrated and segregated population of a despised minority group. These concentrations of population may be planned, as through government-sponsored housing projects, or the unplanned result of self-segregation and migration. Often municipalities will build highways and set up industrial districts around the ghetto to further isolate it from the rest of the city. The continued existence of ghettos in many parts of the world is a blight upon humanity that requires resolution.

Origin and definition of term

Did you know?
Historically, the term "ghetto" referred to restricted housing zones where Jews were required to live

Historically, the term "ghetto" referred to restricted housing zones where Jews were required to live. The original ghetto was formed by the Jewish immigrants to Venice in the fourteenth century, who settled in the place where a former iron foundry (getto) used to be. Other suggested etymologies include Ghetonia, the Greek word for "neighborhood," borghetto, Italian for "small neighborhood," or the Hebrew word get, literally meaning a "bill of divorce."

Ghettos are characterized by four specific conditions present in varying degrees of severity: "social ostracism," "economic hardship," "legal arbitrariness from the side of authorities," and "security," which term has taken on different meanings in different historical eras and geographical locations.

The term "ghetto" has come to label any poverty-stricken or sociologically defined urban minority area whose population lives differently from the rest of the larger society due to the conditions that characterize ghettos. In the United States, the word "ghetto" has also come to be used as an adjective to describe a certain way of dressing, speaking, and behaving. In this sense, "Ghetto" constitutes a subculture, especially among teenagers in urban centers, associated with hip-hop music and a rebellious attitude. As it has become a slang term of art among young people, the meaning of the term morphs constantly.

Jewish Ghettos in Europe

Thirteenth–Nineteenth Centuries

The first ghettos appeared in Italy, Germany, Spain, and Portugal in the thirteenth century following the recommendation of Pope Pius V that all the bordering states should set up ghettos. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, all the main towns (with exception of Livorno and Pisa) had complied. In medieval Central Europe, ghettos existed in Paris, Frankfurt, Mainz, Prague, and even further East, in Poland and Russia. The treatment of Jews in those more easterly regions was more arbitrary and harsher, as the authorities often left the ghettos open and therefore vulnerable to attack by those, sometimes even more impoverished, who lived outside the ghettos.

The character of ghettos also varied. There were times in which a ghetto featured relative affluence (e.g. in sixteenth century Venice and in Prague in the fifteenth century). At other times, even a relatively affluent ghetto became impoverished, having lost political concessions or (as in Prague) trading privileges. Their character also depended on the circumstances in which the ghettos were established. While some ghettos (e.g. Venice) were established after negotiations between the city and the Jews, others (e.g. Frankfurt) obliged the Jews to move there by a city ordinance.

Since Jews could not acquire land outside the ghetto, the landscape was transformed into narrow streets and tall, crowded houses. Walls and gates stood around the ghetto and were closed and locked from the inside (during Easter week) and from the outside (during Christmas) to prevent anti-Semitic violence or pogroms.

Social ostracism often resulted in residents being required to obtain passes to go outside the ghetto boundaries. They were socially isolated, although not necessarily culturally and intellectually, since they had their own school system based on synagogues, and they set up their own communal authority to improve security. Thus, in some ways, the segregation sometimes benefited both sides.

Jewish ghettos were progressively abolished in the 19th century following the ideals of the French Revolution. This started in Western European countries when the establishment of tolerant governments, such as Napoleon's France and the United Kingdom, encouraged industrious Jews to immigrate. In 1870, after the Papal States were overthrown, the last ghetto in Western Europe was abolished; the walls physically torn down in 1888. In Russia, however, the Jewish Pale continued to exist until the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Venetian Ghetto

The Venetian Ghetto was the area in Venice in which Jewish people were required to live under the government of the Venetian Republic.

Restrictions on their movement and permitted trades varied, but money-lending, running pawnshops, dealing in second hand goods, and tailoring were common occupations. In 1516, they were moved to the area known as the Ghetto Nuovo, Surrounded by canals, this area was linked to the rest of the city by only two bridges, which were closed at night and during certain Christian festivals, when all Jews were required to stay in the Ghetto.

In 1541, the quarter was enlarged to cover the neighboring Ghetto Vecchio, and in 1633, the Ghetto Nuovissimo was also added. Due to population density, buildings rose to six or more stories.

The area is still home to five synagogues connected by a secret corridor. They are known for their interiors, the oldest (Schola Grande Tedesca) dating from 1528. The Scola Spagnola now houses the Museum of Hebrew Art.

Roman Ghetto

Detail from the Arch of Titus showing spoils from the Sack of Jerusalem

The Roman Ghetto was located in the area close to the river Tiber and the Theater of Marcellus in Rome, Italy.

Papal decree Cum nimis absurdum, promulgated by Pope Paul IV in 1555, segregated the Jews in a walled quarter with gates that were locked at night, and subjected them to various restrictions (e.g. limits on permitted professions) and degradations (e.g. compulsory Catholic sermons on the Jewish shabbat), although to a lesser degree than in other European countries. The district lacked a well and flooded every winter.

When Napoleonic forces occupied Rome, the Ghetto was legally abolished, in 1808, but it was reinstated as soon as the Papacy regained control. In 1848, during the brief revolution, the ghetto was abolished once more, again temporarily. The Jews had to petition annually for permission to live there, and were restricted from owning any property, even within the ghetto. They paid an annual tax for the privilege of living there and annually had to swear loyalty to the Pope by the Arch of Titus, which celebrates the Roman sack of Jerusalem.

Pope Leo XIII was less intransigent than Pius IX. The city of Rome was able to tear down the ghetto's walls in 1888 and demolish some houses before the area was reconstructed around the new synagogue.

World War II

The Ghetto Heroes' Memorial

The Nazis re-instituted Jewish ghettos in Eastern Europe before and during World War II. However, the nature of these ghettos was dramatically different. Explicit anti-Semitism in Nazi ideology developed into an official state policy requiring Jews to be confined in the ghettos and later shipped to concentration camps. The same policy was instituted in all countries under the Third Reich's control, with most of the Jews confined into tightly packed areas in the cities of Eastern Europe. Some of the more notorious ghettos were in Warsaw, Lublin, Lodz, Tuliszhkow, Radom, Opole, Kielce, Bialystok, and Krakow in Poland, Riga, Vilno, Vitebsk, Pinsk, Lvov, and Smolensk in Russia, and Budapest in Hungary. All social, economic, and legal privileges ceased to exist there and were supplanted by state control.

Starting in 1939, the Nazi regime began moving Polish Jews into designated ghettos in Tuliszkow (in December, 1939), in Lodz (in April, 1940), in Warsaw (in October, 1940), and into many other ghettos throughout 1940 and 1941. The ghettos were walled off, just like in medieval times, except that any Jew found leaving was shot.

The situation in the ghettos was brutal. As the Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, they had to rely on food supplied by the Nazis. With crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and little sanitation (in the Lodz Ghetto a full 95 percent of the apartments had no sanitation or running water), hundreds of thousands of Jews died of disease and starvation. In 1942, the Nazi government began "Operation Reinhard," which was the systematic deportation of Jews to extermination camps. During the Holocaust, the authorities deported Jews from everywhere in Europe to these ghettos, or directly to the camps. In some ghettos local resistance organizations started uprisings. However, none were successful, and the Jewish population of the ghettos was almost entirely annihilated.

Warsaw Ghetto

The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of the Jewish ghettos in World War II. In the three years of its existence, starvation, disease, and deportations to concentration camps dropped the population of this ghetto from an estimated 450,000 to 37,000.

The Warsaw Ghetto was opened on October 16, 1940 to receive about 380,000 people, approximately 30 percent of the population of Warsaw despite being only 2.4 percent of its area. The Nazis then built a wall, effectively closing off the Warsaw ghetto from the outside world on November 16, 1940.

In early 1942, the Nazis began to exterminate the Jews of Europe. The first phase was to eliminate the Jews in Poland. After the construction of extermination camps was completed in July 1942, the wholesale liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto was set to begin.

On January 18, 1943, armed resistance started. There was some initial success, which was followed by three months of fighting. The final battle started on the eve of Passover, April 19, 1943. During the fighting approximately 7,000 Jewish partisans were killed and 6,000 were burned alive or gassed in bunkers. The remaining 50,000 people were sent to German concentration camps.

Lodz Ghetto

Jews using a wooden bridge to cross from one section of the Lódz Ghetto to the other. Entering the non-ghetto thoroughfare was forbidden to Jews.
Children being marched to the trains that will take them to their death

The Lodz Ghetto was the second-largest ghetto (after the Warsaw Ghetto) established for Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland. Situated in the town of Lódz, with 672,000 inhabitants and originally intended as a temporary gathering point for Jews, the ghetto was transformed into a major industrial center, providing much needed supplies for Nazi Germany and especially for the German Army. It transformed the Jewish population (reduced from 233,000 to about 164,000) into a slave labor force. Over the years, Jews from Central Europe and as far away as Luxembourg were deported to the ghetto. A small Roma population was also resettled there.

Even though the work was essential to the ghetto's survival, and despite the Third Reich's Armaments Minister Albert Speer advocating the ghetto's continued existence as a source of cheap labor, in the summer of 1944 the final order came to start gradual liquidation of the remaining population. By late August of that year, the last ghetto in Europe was eliminated.

The peculiar situation of the Lódz Ghetto, namely conviction that productivity would ensure survival, coupled with brutal Nazi administration, prevented any manifestations of armed resistance such as in the Warsaw ghetto uprising. However, defensive resistance in the ghetto saved many Jews from final transportation.

Krakow Ghetto

Deportation of Jews from the Kraków Ghetto, March 1943

The Jewish ghetto in Kraków (Cracow) was one of the five main ghettos created by the Nazis during their occupation of Poland during World War II. Before the war, Kraków was an influential cultural center for the 60,000-80,000 Jews that resided there. However, in May 1940, the Nazis announced that Kraków should become the "cleanest" city in the General Government and ordered a massive deportation of Jews from the city. Of the more than 68,000 Jews in Kraków, only 15,000 workers and their families, all crammed into 30 streets, 320 residential buildings, and 3,167 rooms, were permitted to remain due to the policy of separating "able workers" from those who would later be exterminated.

The armed underground resistance in the ghetto had some success, but, unlike in Warsaw, their efforts did not lead to a general uprising before the ghetto was liquidated.

From May 30, 1942 onward, the Nazis implemented systematic deportations from the ghetto to surrounding concentration camps. Thousands of Jews were transported over the succeeding months. The final 'liquidation' of the ghetto came in March 13 - March 14, 1943 when 8,000 Jews, deemed able to work, were transported to the Kraków-Płaszów labor camp. Any remaining were killed or sent to die in Auschwitz.

Post-War Ghettos in the World

South African and African ghettos

Johannesburg, including Soweto, from the International Space Station

In South Africa under the apartheid policies, The Group Areas Act of April 27, 1950 barred people of particular races from residing in various urban areas. One of the most notorious “black ghettos” was Soweto, a mostly black urban area to the south west of Johannesburg. During apartheid regime, Soweto was constructed for the specific purpose of housing African people who were then living in areas designated by the government for white settlement, such as the multi-racial area called Sophiatown. Today, Soweto is among the poorest parts of Johannesburg. However, there have been signs of economic improvement, and Soweto has become a center of nightlife.

There are other "ghettos" in South Africa, such as KwaMashu in Durban in the KZN province. Resettlements, comparable to forced deportations in Poland, into specific, ghetto-like areas were quite common elsewhere in Africa, especially along the Zambezi River. Before the Kariba Dam was constructed in 1956, whole tribes were forcibly moved into economically inhospitable inland areas.

Ghettos in the United States

In the United States, during the period between the abolition of slavery and the passing of the civil rights laws in the 1960s, discriminatory notions, sometimes codified in law, forced many urban African Americans to live in specific neighborhoods, such as Bronzeville in Chicago and Harlem in New York City, which became known as "ghettos." The Civil Rights Act allowed wealthier African Americans to move to formerly all-white areas. The result of this was that the economic bases of many ghettos collapsed, leaving them as zones of below-average income, poorly-maintained housing, and high crime. For example, by the 1970s, the Robert Taylor Homes, located in Chicago's Bronzeville, was home to the poorest and third-poorest census tracts in the United States.

The formation of the ghettos and the black underclass forms one of most controversial issues in sociology. One of the earliest studies of the modern phenomenon of ghetto formation was Daniel Patrick Moynihan's 1965 work The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, often referred to as the "Moynihan Report." This report noted that the number of black welfare cases was rising, while employment was falling. It also pointed out that a quarter of all black children were born to unmarried women, and that this percentage was rising. The ghetto was described as a "tangle of pathologies," and Moynihan predicted that conditions would only worsen.

In the 1980s, a revival of all "ghetto-encompassing" questions occurred, as well as the development of new theories on why these ghettos emerged. Charles Murray argued in Losing Ground that "Great Society" liberalism created the hopeless poor. Murray claimed that the eligibility of single women for welfare encouraged women to have babies out of wedlock, and that welfare discouraged all from working. Murray concluded his book with a call for the abolition of welfare. On the other hand, William Julius Wilson argued in The Truly Disadvantaged that easy access to welfare had little effect on women's decisions on childbearing. Wilson claimed, instead, that the flight of low-skilled manufacturing jobs to the suburbs and the Southern states left blacks economically isolated in the ghettos due to their "spatial mismatch." Wilson thus explained the high percentage of out-of-wedlock births by the lack of "marriageable" (i.e. employed and single) men.

Yet another theory of ghetto formation was offered by Roger Waldinger in Still the Promised City?, which detailed a mismatch between the wages that blacks desire and the wages which low-skilled jobs actually pay. In looking at New York City, Waldinger pointed out that new immigrants living in similar “ghettos” (Koreans, Chinese, Pakistanis, Dominicans, etc.) often fared better than American-born blacks. Waldinger also noticed that southern-born and Caribbean-born blacks had higher incomes than northern-born blacks. Waldinger argued that immigrant groups benefited by establishing nepotistic niches for themselves, and used niches for mutual help, something blacks in most cases were unable to do. Waldinger also noted that even though hotels and restaurants may offer very low wages, they still outclass wages in Mexico, rural China, or Africa. Thus, immigrants readily accept them. By contrast, unskilled northern-born blacks, who hope to do something better than their parents, disdain these jobs and may often wind up working outside the legitimate economy.

Thus, despite various attempts to improve social and economic conditions, although the legal arbitrariness practically disappeared in post-1964 American ghettos, the ghetto attributes of social ostracism and economic hardship are still generally held. In terms of the security aspect, apart from addressing the alarmingly high crime rate, there has not been any state intrusion into life in these ghettos whatsoever, meaning that residents are not legally or physically restricted from leaving. This constitutes the specifically "American way" of ghetto life, which differs from that found in other parts of the world.

While the American “melting pot” lessened the importance of ethnic origin, culture, and religion—although some of it returned as “ethnic profiling” after 9/11—quite different situations developed in Europe.

European Ghettos

Based on the four definitional attributes, ghettos exist in most, if not all, of the industrialized European countries even in the twenty-first century. There are, of course, no more Jewish ghettos. Contemporary European problems involve visible minorities, namely recent, and second, if not third, generation immigrants.

In France, the poorer banlieues, or suburbs, especially those of Paris, house an impoverished population, largely of North African Muslim and black African origin, in large high-rise building developments known as Cités. These were built in the 1960s and 1970s in the industrial suburbs to the north and east of Paris, especially in the Seine-St-Denis area, as well as in other French cities like Villeurbanne near Lyon. They are similar in style to the large, inner-city, urban renewal projects in the United States, such as the former Cabrini Green in Chicago, and have similar problems. Though most of the young people were born in France, and are citizens, this North-African and African population has suffered routine discrimination in the job market as well as by the police. The 2005 riots in France originated within these ghettos as a reaction to legal discrimination and the attitude of French society that the minorities in ghettos threaten their secularism. Thus, although the generally poor economic situation aggravated social hardship, it was mostly the legal and security attributes that incited the unrest. On the other hand, most of the recent African immigrants, from places such as Cote d'Ivoire and Dakar, Senegal, prefer the biased, but functioning, legal system in the French ghettos over the complete breakdown and chaos in their home countries.

In Germany, the “post-war economic miracle” happened with considerable help from Turkish immigrants. They came, officially invited in, to boost a much-needed labor force in the heavy machinery sectors and, as in France, they settled in ghettos. They did not seem to mind, and certainly their social, economic and overall way of life dramatically improved, as long as the “economic miracle” lasted. With increasing unemployment in the machinery sector and other industries, the state had to step in and, to preempt riots, offered the Turkish families reasonable settlements if they returned to their homeland.

Roma Problem: Czech Republic and Slovakia

Roma, or Gypsies—with their basically nomadic way of life, their reluctance to stay and try to become assimilated into any one country, their absence of a common language, and their lack of marketable skills—have caused problems for Eastern and Central European governments for centuries. Their nomadic way of life saved them from being put into ghettos (or worse still, concentration camps) until after the Second World War. Then, the Eastern European states were forced to act. They categorized the Roma as a "social group" or "problem" and thus legitimized intrusive state intervention to deal with them.

Another aspect of this redefinition of Roma identity was the transformation of their ethnic and cultural difference into social deviance. Roma children who did not speak the host language very well were treated as mentally deficient and put into special classes within which they could advance only to the fourth grade. Young Roma thus became increasingly alienated and isolated from the host society, experiencing an enforced "social retardation," which led to withdrawal, aggression, and other forms of antisocial behavior. Perhaps the most radical instance of such intervention was the policy of sterilization adopted by the Slovak government between 1980 and 1990 to curb what it called "unhealthy high fertility rates" among the Roma.

After the Communist regimes ended in Eastern Europe, prejudice towards the Roma increased. For example, a 1991 Times Mirror survey found that Europeans in overwhelming numbers expressed contempt for Roma: 59 percent of Germans, 91 percent of Czechoslovaks, 71 percent of Bulgarians, 79 percent of Hungarians, and 50 percent of Spaniards. Other polls showed similar negative views of Roma.

By the end of the twentieth century, Roma ghettos had appeared in the Czech Republic. The Roma moved there, both voluntarily and involuntarily, when municipalities forcibly relocated them from other areas. The majority of those living there are unemployed and uneducated, and the crime rate is high. As the ghetto develops, non-Roma people move away. The most infamous ghetto in the Czech Republic is Chánov, in the city of Most.

In the case of the Roma, all four ghetto attributes are in evidence: they have a tentative legal status, social and economic hardships are on the rise, and they are relocated into ghettos by the state, allegedly to protect them from the prejudice and harassment of the society, but in reality to deal with a problem to which they have no other solution.

Cultural Life and the Ghetto

It is often said that great art is born out of suffering, and so it is not necessarily a coincidence that great artists lived, and still live, in ghettos. Ghettos often became known as vibrant cultural centers, for example Harlem in New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Artists such as Bob Marley, Ice Cube, John Lee Hooker, Cab Calloway, and Tupac Shakur were born and raised in ghettos, and much of their music comes from their own suffering, experiences, and life in the ghetto.

Even in Nazi-run ghettos during the Second World War cultural events did take place: lectures, concerts, theater, and art exhibits. In many cases, the artists and performers were prominent figures in Polish cultural life. Movie director Roman Polanski, a survivor of the ghetto, recalled his experience in his memoirs, Roman. In the Theresienstadt ghetto, in the fortress of Terezín in former Czechoslovakia, the inhabitants formed orchestras as well as chamber groups and jazz ensembles. Several stage performances were produced and attended by camp inmates, although they were often coerced into performing by the Nazis for propaganda purposes. Many of the composers and other artists were subsequently sent to Auschwitz where they died in the gas chambers. Karel Ancerl escaped this fate, although his family did not, becoming a world-renowned conductor of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and later the Toronto Symphony Orchestra.

It is acknowledged that the "renaissance," and even the "golden era," of Czech and Slovak literature of the post-war period occurred during the 1970s and 1980s in Czechoslovakia under the Communist regime. There, several hundred intellectuals (writers, scientists and artists), who signed the anti-communist proclamation “Chartist Movement,” suffered at the hands of the Czech State Security Police. They lost their jobs, were forbidden to publish or exhibit their work, were shadowed by agents constantly, and, hence, ostracized by the general public because of the police presence. All the definitional properties of the classic ghetto were in force, and they even used the term themselves to describe their situation. And yet, the best works by writer Ludvik Vaculik, by playwrights Pavel Kohout and former Czech president, Vaclav Havel, by scientist Vaclav Cerny, and many others, were done during this “ghetto period.”

Conclusion

The occasional eruption of artistic flourishing notwithstanding, the most significant feature of ghettos is the cold and inhuman logic that led to their creation. In each case, the purpose was to move a minority, deemed troublesome to the authorities, within protective walls, real or virtual, without any legal recourse. Those authorities used all means—killing included—to prevent residents inside the ghetto from emerging back into the general society. The magnitude of moral reprehensibility for such intolerant policies, that led to inhumane and eventually murderous acts, was not evident to the those responsible for the creation and enforcement of ghettos. The realization of a peaceful world of prosperity for all can only happen when the establishment, and continued presence, of ghettos are no longer deemed justifiable.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Murray, Charles. 1984. Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465042317
  • Polanski, Roman. 1984. Roman. New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0688026214
  • Silverman, Carol. 1995. "Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of Eastern Europe." Nationalism in Eastern Europe 19.2. Retrieved April1 14, 2023.
  • Waldinger, Roger. 1996. Still the Promised City? : African-Americans and New Immigrants in Postindustrial New York. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674838610
  • Wilson, William Julius. 1990. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226901319

External links

All links retrieved April 14, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Ghetto&oldid=1125591

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki