Pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated, is the art or science of teaching children. In modern day usage, it is a synonym for "teaching" or "education", and is used extensively in scholarly articles. Throughout history, educators and philosophers have discussed different pedagogical approaches to education, and numerous theories and techniques have been proposed. Educators use a variety of research and discussion about learning theories to create their personal pedagogy, and are often faced with the challenge of incorporating new technology into their teaching style.

Definition

Pedagogy, literally translated, is the art or science of teaching children. The word comes from the ancient Greek paidagogos, a compound comprised of "paidos" (child) and "agogos" (leader). While the term is often used to mean the art of teaching in general, some prefer to make the distinction between pedagogy (teaching children) and andragogy (teaching adults). The terms "pedagogy" and "andragogy" are also used to describe teacher/subject based instruction and student centered/directed instruction, respectively.

The term "critical pedagogy," coined by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, is traditionally defined as educational theory and teaching/learning practices designed to raise learners' critical consciousness regarding oppressive social conditions. Critical pedagogy is particularly concerned with reconfiguring the traditional teacher/student relationship using meaningful dialog.

An honorary degree, Ped.D. (Doctor of Pedagogy), is awarded by some American universities to distinguished educators. The term is also used with earned degrees to denote an emphasis in education within a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree "in piano pedagogy").

The History of Pedagogy in Education

From the very beginning, educators have tried to find specific, interesting ways to bring out the possibilities of intelligence and a love of learning from their pupils. The advent of writing circa 3000 B.C.E. resulted in a style of education that was more self-reflective, with specialized occupations requiring particular skills and knowledge: scribes, astronomers, and so forth. In ancient Greece, philosophy helped questions of educational methods enter national discourse. In both Republic and Dialogues, Plato advocated a system of instruction using the Socratic method of teaching through questions. Through the clever use of questions and answers, Plato's teacher, Socrates, was able to show even an uneducated slave boy how the logic leading to the Pythagorean Theorem was within him.

During the mid 1600s in what is now the Czech Republic, the educator Comenius wrote the first children's textbook containing vivid illustrations, entitled The Visible World in Pictures. Known as the "Father of Modern Education," Comenius believed in a holistic approach to education. He taught that education began in the earliest days of childhood and continued throughout life, and that learning, spiritual, and emotional growth were all woven together. Unlike most of society at the time, he also advocated the formal education of women. Well respected throughout northern Europe, he was asked to restructure the entire Swedish school system.

During the 1700s, the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented his methodology on the education of children in his novel Emile, the story of the education of a young boy. Within his novel, Rousseau described the importance of having a focus on both environment and personal experience. Different learning stages are described: for example, during the "The age of Nature" (from ages 2 to 12), Rousseau argued that a boy should receive no moral instruction or verbal learning, as the mind should be "left undisturbed until its faculties have developed." Instead, education during this stage is focused on physical and sensory development. Books are eschewed during Emile's education, with the exception of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, a novel that reinforced Rousseau's ideal of the solitary, self-sufficient man.

Learning Theories and Pedagogy

In psychology and education, theories of learning have been developed to describe how people learn; these theories aid in the development of various pedagogical approaches to learning. There are three main perspectives in learning theories: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism, a term coined by American psychologist John B. Watson, is based around the idea of a stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. One of the most famous experiments in classical conditioning was performed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. By introducing the sound of a bell before placing food in front of a dog, Pavlov was able to create a conditioned response in the dog where the dog would salivate at the ringing of the bell alone.

Some of the most important developments in behaviorism, especially as it relates to pedagogy, occurred in the mid-twentieth century with the work of B. F. Skinner. Skinner studied operant, or voluntary, behaviors, and called his approach "operant conditioning." Skinner's mechanisms included: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, non-reinforcement, and punishment. In a classroom setting, negative reinforcement might consist of being excused from writing a paper because of previous good work, while non-reinforcement might consist of ignoring misbehavior in the hope that lack of reinforcement would stop the behavior.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late twentieth century, replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding the learning process. Cognitive theory is not a refutation of behaviorism, but rather an expansion that uses changes in behavior as indicators for processes within a learner's mind. The concept of cognitive theory utilizes the concept of "schema," a structure of internal knowledge, as well as the concept of short and long term memory. Cognitive theory suggests that meaningful information is easier to retain, and new information is affected by context, environment, and previous schemata.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. It values developmentally appropriate teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student.

According to the constructivist approach, learners construct and interpret their individual realities based on their perceptions of experiences. Learning is regarded as a process in which the learner actively constructs new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge and beliefs. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. The teacher acts as a facilitator, encouraging students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Working with other students enables the sharing of viewpoints and an emphasis on collaborative learning. Constructivist theories are behind many modern teaching styles, such as Generative Learning, Inquiry-based instruction, Discovery Learning, and knowledge building, and promote a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.

Learning Styles

The idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and has gained popularity. A learning style is the method of learning particular to an individual that is presumed to allow that individual to learn best. With this concept, each individual processes information in one of several manners (or a combination thereof.) It has been proposed that teachers should assess the learning styles of their students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style.

Auditory learners process information and learn best through hearing, while visual learners process information best through seeing it. Kinesthetic learners process information best when it is combined with physical movement. Teachers can use techniques like role-playing or historical reenactment in the classroom to reinforce information through kinesthetic learning, or graphic organizers such as diagrams and concept maps for visual learners. Older students, once aware of which learning style fits them best, can use a variety of techniques in their studies to help them learn. For example, auditory learners may find that reading aloud works well for them. Many students use a combination of auditory/visual/kinesthetic learning styles.

Learning in Different Age Groups

Because of the differences in cognitive, physical, and social abilities of different age groups, different pedagogical approaches are used when working with various ages of children. A technique that works well with a five year old might not be successful with a fourth grader. Similarly, teaching adults requires a different approach than the education of high school teenagers, even when the subject matter is the same. Pedagogical approaches and learning theories may be numerous in nature, but the desire of educators to examine and discuss these varied approaches and theories will hopefully help create the best possible learning environment for students, from preschool through adult.

Preschool

One of the most important debates regarding teaching preschool children is over work versus play. While some educators advocate the beginnings of formal education, including mathematics, reading, and foreign languages, most advocate imaginative play (activity) over academic learning at such an early age. Physical development is often stressed, and children are engaged in group activities that aid in socialization. Some preschool programs may be very structured, while others allow the children more choice in their activities.

Elementary School

From kindergarten through grade six, generally known as elementary education, students learn most of their basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills. Education within the public school system is generally more traditional in nature (teacher-directed learning). Many public schools tailor their pedagogical approaches to include different learning styles as well as cultural responsiveness. For parents looking for a more student-directed pedagogical approach, private schools like Montessori and Waldorf, as well as open and free schools, offer a variety of approaches to childhood education.

Middle and High School

Educators in many middle and high school programs often use a traditional pedagogical approach to learning, with lectures and class discussion providing the core of instruction. Standardized testing, while used occasionally in the lower grades, is much more prevalent in high school. Technology is often an integral part of instruction; in addition to multimedia and educational presentations, computer programs have replaced activities like animal dissection in science classes. For those seeking a less teacher-directed approach, alternative high schools generally provide a smaller class size and more student-directed learning. Other types of private schools, such as military schools, offer a rigidly structured approach to education that is almost exclusively teacher-directed.

College

While there are some "free" or alternative colleges that offers self-directed learning and non-graded, narrative evaluations, most colleges and universities primarily employ lectures, laboratories, and discussions as their primary teaching method. Similarly to pedagogical approaches in high school, technology provides additional presentation material, as well as impacting the way faculty and students communicate. Online discussion groups are common; students often have access to an online message board where they can discuss a covered topic with other students and the professor, and email contact between students and professors can supplement office hours. Professors are often challenged to find new ways to address students' different learning styles, as well as creating a learning environment that is accessible to those with learning disabilities.

Adult Learners

Remedial programs for adult learners (such as literacy programs) not only focus on the acquisition of knowledge, but also must deal with the biases and sensitive emotional issues that may face adults in these situations. Adult educators often use students' life experiences to connect them with the material. Adult learners interested in continuing higher education often find that online or distance learning is easier to fit into a busy schedule than physically attending classes.

Modern Teaching Methods

During the twentieth century, the work of Paulo Freire and others within the learning community began to have an impact on the way the learning was perceived, and pedagogical approaches began to become widely discussed in the educational world. In many countries, the traditional method of education is the "banking method of education," a concept perhaps most famously criticized in Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed. With the "banking" method, teachers lecture and bestow knowledge upon the student, who then passively receives, or "banks" it. In the United States, John Dewey had significant influence with his concept of progressive education. Dewey believed that students needed to integrate skills and knowledge into their lives through experience, rather than just be taught dead facts. He also coined the phrase "learning by doing," a phrase that has become the hallmark of experiential learning. For instance, Dewey's students learned biology, chemistry, and physics though activities such as cooking breakfast.

In particular, the concepts behind cognitivism and social constructivism have led to the development of schools like Montessori and Waldorf schools; private schools that allow children to direct their own education, and encourage hands-on and active learning, while minimizing the amount of technology and teacher-directed learning. Constructivism has also led to the development of educational styles like service learning, where students participate in and reflect upon participation in community service, using their experience to make meaningful connections between what they are studying and its applications. Other types of schooling, such as free schools, open schools, and democratic schools function almost completely without the traditional student/teacher hierarchy.

Many current day educators are focusing on ways to incorporate technology into the classroom. Television, computers, radio, and other forms of media are being utilized in an educational context, often in an attempt to involve the student actively in their own education. Some educators, on the other hand, believe that the use of technology can facilitate learning, but is not the most effective means of encouraging critical thinking and a desire to learn, and prefer the use of physical objects. It is undeniable that technology has revolutionized many approaches to education, including distance learning, computer assisted instruction, and homeschooling.

While new approaches and pedagogical techniques are constantly being developed, some older ones are being questioned. For example, many educators question the value of standardized testing, particularly in younger children. While such techniques are still a major part of many educational systems, there is a push to discontinue their use in favor of more student centered, hands on evaluation. Thus, as all those involved in educational theory and practice continue to advance their knowledge and techniques, and our knowledge and technology continues to develop, pedagogy also is in a state of continuous change and improvement in an effort to provide the best education to all people.

Further Reading

• Freire, Paulo. 2000 (original work published 1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0826412769
• Highet, Gilbert. 1989. The Art of Teaching, Vintage. ISBN 0679723145
• Knowles, M. (1975). Self-Directed Learning. Chicago: Follet. ISBN 0-8428-2215-1
• Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing. ISBN 0-88415-115-8
• Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0-608-21794-8
• Martin, Everett Dean. 1926. The Meaning of a Liberal Education, Norton.
• Monroe, Paul. 1915. A Text-Book in the History of Education, Macmillan.

External links

• Pedagogy.ir - Iranian Pedagogy Portal
• Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, Culture
• Rethinkingschools.org - Rethinking Schools Magazine
• Statement of principles by Dr. Knowles
• Description of Andragogy from the encyclopaedia of informal education and lifelong learning
• Learning Theories
• Creating Learning Centered Classrooms. What Does Learning Theory Have To Say? ERIC Digest.
• How People Learn (and What Technology Might Have To Do with It). ERIC Digest.
• About Learning 12 Learning Theories Described
• Theory Into Practice (TIP) database brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction
• Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind (pp. 493-519). New York: Guilford Publications. A paper from the perspective of evolutionary developmental psychology.
• Teaching in a Computer Lab
• Educational CyberPlayGround Online Curriculum
• Encyclopaedia of Informal Education
• The Aesthetic Realism Teaching Method.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Pedagogy  ^history
• Andragogy  ^history
• Learning_theory_(education)  ^history
• Teaching_method  ^history
• Instructional_theory  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Pedagogy"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.