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A '''mantra''' (from Sanskri: ''man-'' "to think" and ''-tra'' meaning, tool) literally means "instrument of thought," and refers to a sacred syllable, word or verse utterance or chant, which can be used for various reasons according to the religious school associated with the mantra.  Hence a Mantras are [[sound]] ([[vibration]]). Used predominantly by Eastern religions as aids to meditation and devotion, mantras are seen as spiritual conduits or vibrations that instill one-pointed concentration in the devotee. Other purposes have included religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or even eliminate enemies. Mantras originated in [[India]] with [[Vedic]] [[Hinduism]] and were later adopted by [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and [[Jainism|Jains]] and are now popular in various modern forms of spiritual practice which are loosely based on practices of these Eastern religions.
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[[File:Om symbol.svg.png|175px|right|thumb|The most sacred Hindu mantra "Aum" (Om).]]
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A '''mantra''' (from Sanskrit: ''man-'' "to think" and ''-tra'' meaning, tool) literally means "instrument of thought."  Originating in ancient [[India]] out of [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[Hinduism]], mantras serve a variety of functions and are especially popular as aids to meditation and devotion.  As powerful sound vibrations, mantras encompass various forms of sacred utterance (syllable, scriptural verse, or sacred formula), which can be repeated silently or chanted for different purposes such as instilling concentration, facilitating spiritual growth, and helping to visualize a deity.  It is said that a mantra, when recited with proper understanding and intonation, can revitalize the mind with mystic power and help deliver it from [[illusion]] to enlightenment. Mantras have also been used in religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or even allegedly to eliminate foes.  
  
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A mantra, when recited with devotion, concentration and understanding, revitalizes the body and mind with mystic power, and harmonizes thought and action. It is said that a mantra, when repeated constantly during meditation, first loudly and then through silent and mental chanting, change one's consciousness. They are intended to help deliver the mind from [[illusion]] to enlightenment.
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In addition to [[Hinduism]], mantas are also used by [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Tantra|Tantrikas]], [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] and followers of some new religious movements. The practice of [[prayer]] in the [[Abrahamic religions]] is said in some ways to have a similar function to mantras.
  
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==Overview==
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==History==
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'''Mantras''' have two components of primary importance - ''Meaning'' and ''Sound''.  For the mantra to be effective, great emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and the level of concentration of the mind on the meaning of the word or words that are recited. Great emphasis is put on correct pronunciation (resulting in an early development of a science of [[phonetics]] in India). The purpose to '''mantras''' is to ''deliver the mind from illusion'' and material inclinations and to ''bring concentration and focus to the mind''. Accepted scholarly [[etymology]] links the word with "manas" meaning "mind" and 'trâna' for protection so that a mantra is something which protects the mind — however in practice we will see that mantra is considered to do far more than simply protect the mind.
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The earliest recorded use of mantras is found in the [[Vedas|Vedic]] scriptures of [[Hinduism]], which contain many references to the sacredness of sound. These Hindu texts describe speech itself as a goddess (known as "[[Vac]]") and praise her power and potency.  Additionally, sound became an important part of Hindu rituals and great care was taken to ensure the proper elocution of the Vedic hymns for the efficacy of the [[Yajna|sacrifices]]. The [[Brahmin]] priests were responsible for chanting the sacred Vedic hymns to the gods during the  sacrificial rituals.
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:"With the growing interest in sacrifice came an increasing emphasis on the sound of the sacrifice. Verses once intended as statements of praise such as "You O Agni, are Indra" came to be considered as formulations of truth in sound. Such ritual formulations were called mantras, formulas or verses with special power to bring into reality the truth they expressed. Great importance was thus given to speech and language. Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, "Lord of Prayer," became a prominent deity, and under this name or as Vacaspati "Lord of Speech," was granted priestly status along with Agni. Even speech itself was defined as the goddess Vac. Vac was elevated to the status of supreme ruler of the universe. The special speech of the sacrifice honoured in this manner was Sanskrit (meaning well-formed) and was regarded as the recapitulation in sound of the deep structure of reality." (Higgins and Kachur, 7-19)
  
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Mantras have some features in common with [[Spell (paranormal)|spells]] in general, in that they are a translation of the human will or desire into a form of action. Indeed, Dr. [[Edward Conze]], a [[scholar]] of [[Buddhism]], frequently translated "mantra" as "spell". As symbols, sounds are seen to effect what they symbolise. Vocal sounds are frequently thought of as having magical powers, or even of representing the words or speech of a [[deity]]. For the authors of the Hindu scriptures of the [[Upanishads]], the syllable [[Aum]], itself constituting a mantra, represents [[Brahman]], the [[godhead]], as well as the whole of creation. Merely pronouncing this syllable is to experience the divine in a very direct way. [[Kukai]] suggests that all sounds are the voice of the [[trikaya|Dharmakaya]] [[Buddha]] -- i.e. as in Hindu Upanishadic and Yogic thought, these sounds are manifestations of ultimate reality. We should not think that this is peculiar to Eastern culture, however. Words do have a mysterious power to affect us.  
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A high degree of importance was placed on the correct chanting and pronounciation of Sanskrit sacrificial formulas. Eventually, the sound [[Aum]] became a symbol for ultimate reality itself -the great Brahman- represented by this mantra.  
  
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For many cultures it is the written [[letters]] that have power — the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Kabbalah]] for instance, or the [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Runes]]. Letters can have an oracular function even. But in [[India]] special conditions applied that meant that writing was very definitely inferior to the spoken word. The [[Brahmin]]s were the priestly [[caste]] of the [[Aryan]] peoples. It was they that preserved the holy writings — initially the [[Vedas]], but later also the Upanishads. For years, they were the only ones who knew the mantras or sacred formulas that had to be chanted at every important occasion. However, with the advent of egalitarian Hindu schools of [[Yoga]], [[Vedanta]], [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]], it is now the case that intra-family and community mantras are passed on freely as part of generally practiced Hindu religion. Such was the influence of the more orthodox attitude of the elite nature of mantra knowledge that even the Buddhists, who repudiated the whole idea of caste, and of the efficacy of the old [[ritual]]s, called themselves the shravakas, that is, "the hearers". A wise person in India was one who had "heard much". Mantras then are ''sound symbols''. What they symbolise and how they function depends on the context, and the mind of the person repeating them. The analysis of Kukai, a [[9th century]] [[Japan|Japanese]] Buddhist is revealing. See below.
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In Vedic times, writing was definitely seen as inferior to the spoken word. The [[Brahmin]] priests were charged with preserving the Vedas by oral transmission. For years, they were the only ones who knew the mantras that were chanted to maintain the cosmos and sacred order ([[Rta]] or [[dharma]]). However, with the advent of egalitarian Hindu schools of [[Yoga]], [[Vedanta]], [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]], it is now the case that mantras are passed on freely as part of generally practiced Hindu religion. Such was the influence of the more orthodox attitude of the elite nature of mantra knowledge that even the Buddhists, who repudiated the whole idea of caste, and of the efficacy of the old [[ritual]]s, called themselves the shravakas, that is, "the hearers." A wise person in India was one who had "heard much." Mantras then are ''sound symbols.'' What they symbolize and how they function depends on the context, and the mind of the person repeating them.  
  
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While Hindu [[tantra]]s eventually came to see the letters as well as the sounds as representatives of the divine, it was when Buddhism travelled to [[China]] that a major shift in emphasis towards writing came about. China lacked a unifying, ecclesiastic language like [[Sanskrit]], and achieved its cultural unity by having a written language that was flexible in pronunciation but more precise in terms of the concepts that each character represented. In fact the Indians had several scripts which were all equally serviceable for writing Sanskrit. Hence the Chinese prized written language much more highly than did the Indian Buddhist missionaries, and the writing of mantras became a spiritual practice in its own right. So that whereas Brahmins had been very strict on correct pronunciation, the Chinese, and indeed other Far-Eastern Buddhists were less concerned with this than correctly writing something down. The practice of writing mantras, and copying texts as a spiritual practice, became very refined in Japan, and the writing in the [[Siddham]] script in which the Sanskrit of many Buddhist Sutras were written is only really seen in Japan.
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Since Buddhism arose in India, and was deeply influenced by Hindu teachings, it is not surprising that Buddhism also adopted and inherited the Hindu practice of Mantras. However, the Buddhists put their own distinctive stamp on Mantra practice. When Buddhism travelled to [[China]] a major shift in emphasis towards mantras occurred. China lacked a unifying, ecclesiastic language like [[Sanskrit]], and achieved its cultural unity by having a written language that was flexible in pronunciation but more precise in terms of the concepts that each character represented. Hence the Chinese prized written language much more highly than did the Indian Buddhist missionaries, and the writing of mantras became a spiritual practice in its own right. Thus, whereas the Hindu Brahmins had been very strict on the correct pronunciation and intonation of mantas, the Chinese, and indeed other Far-Eastern Buddhists, were less concerned with the spoken form than correctly writing mantras down. The practice of writing mantras, and copying texts as a spiritual practice, became very refined in China, [[Tibet]] and [[Japan]].
  
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==Mantra in Hinduism==
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==Description and Purpose==
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Mantras were originally conceived in the great Hindu scriptures known as the [[Vedas]]. Within practically all Hindu scriptures, the writing is formed in painstakingly crafted two line "[[shlokas]]" and most mantras follow this pattern, although mantras are often found in single line or even single word combinations.
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Mantras have two components of primary importance - ''Meaning'' and ''Sound.'' For the mantra to be effective, great emphasis is put on both correct pronunciation and the level of concentration of the mind on the meaning of the word or words that are recited. This emphasis on correct pronunciation resulted in an early development of a science of [[phonetics]] in India. It was recognized that words do have a mysterious power to affect human beings.
  
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[[Image:Aum.svg|160px|right|thumb|Aum]]
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Since the term ''mantra'' is derived from the roots: "man" (to think) and the action oriented suffix "tra," a mantra can be translated as a [[Linguistics|linguistic]] device for deepening ones thought, or in the Buddhist context for developing the [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightened]] [[mind]]. However it is also true that mantras have been used as magic spells for very mundane purposes such as attaining [[wealth]] and long life, and eliminating enemies. Indeed, Dr. Edward Conze, a scholar of [[Buddhism]], frequently translated "mantra" as "spell," and one scholarly [[etymology]] links the word mantra with "manas" (meaning "mind") and 'trâna' (for protection) making a mantra something which protects the mind. Indeed, vocal sounds in India are frequently thought of as having magical powers, or even of representing the words or speech of a [[deity]].
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The most basic mantra is ''[[Aum]]'', which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source of all mantras. The philosophy behind this is the Hindu idea of nama-rupa (name-form), which supposes that all things, ideas or entities in existence, within the phenomenological cosmos, have name and form of some sort. The most basic name and form is the primordial vibration of [[Aum]], as it is the first manifested nama-rupa of [[Brahman]], the unmanifest reality/unreality. Essentially, before existence and beyond existence is only One reality, Brahman, and the first manifestation of Brahman in existence is Aum. For this reason, Aum is considered to be the most fundamental and powerful mantra, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. While some mantras may invoke individual Gods or principles, the most fundamental mantras, like 'Aum,' the 'Shanti Mantra,' the '[[Gayatri]] Mantra' and others all ultimately focus on the One reality.
 
  
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In the [[Hindu]] tantras the universe is sound. The supreme (para) brings forth existence through the Word (Shabda). Creation consists of vibrations at various frequencies and amplitudes giving rise to the phenomena of the world. The purest vibrations are the var.na, the imperishable letters which are revealed to us, imperfectly as the audible sounds and visible forms.  
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There are various purposes of mantras depending on the religious school involved, and intention of the practitioner. It is often said that the purpose to mantras is to deliver the mind from illusion and material inclinations and to bring concentration and focus to the mind. It is claimed that a mantras can change one's consciousness, help the devotee attain one-pointedness, or concentration on the chosen deity or principle idea of the mantra. The vibrations and sounds of the mantra are considered extremely important, and thus reverberations of the sound are supposed to awaken the [[prana]] (breath or spiritual life force) and even stimulate [[chakra]]s according to many Hindu schools of thought.
  
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Varnas are the atoms of sound. A complex symbolic association was built up between letters and the elements, gods, signs of the [[zodiac]], parts of the body — letters became rich in these associations. For example in the Aitrareya-aranya-Upanishad we find:
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==Mantra in Hinduism==
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The earliest mantras are found in the Hindu scriptures known as the [[Vedas]]. They contain hymns of praise to various gods and supplications for support and blessings. These mantras or sacred chants were similar to prayers but their efficacy was contingent upon their proper pronunciation and ritual purity of the priests who chanted them. Over time, the most famous of all Hindu mantras became ''[[Aum]],'' which is called the "pranava mantra" (the source of all mantras). Aum is considered to be the most fundamental and powerful mantra, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. It represents the underlying unity of reality, called [[Brahman]], the godhead, as well as the whole of creation. Merely pronouncing this syllable is said to allow one to experience the divine in a very direct way.
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:"The mute consonants represent the earth, the sibilants the sky, the vowels heaven. The mute consonants represent fire, the sibilants air, the vowels the sun? The mute consonants represent the eye, the sibilants the ear, the vowels the mind"
 
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In effect each letter became a mantra and the language of the Vedas, [[Sanskrit]], corresponds profoundly to the nature of things. Thus the Vedas come to represent reality itself. The seed syllable Om represents the underlying unity of reality, which is Brahman.
 
  
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===Mantra Japa===
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Over time, various mantras developed in Hinduism that were dedicated to different gods. It is common in modern Hinduism to form a mantra by taking a Hindu deity's name and saluting it in the following way: "Aum namah (insert deity's name here)" or "Aum Jai (Hail!) ------" or several such permutations. Common examples are "Aum namah Shivaya" (Aum, I bow to Lord Shiva), "Aum Namo [[Narayanaya]]"; or "Aum Namo Bhagavate Vasudevãya," (Salutations to the Universal God Vishnu), "Aum Shri Ganeshaya Namah" (Aum to Shri [[Ganesha]]) and "Aum Kalikayai Namah" and "Aum Hrim Chandikãyai Namah." (i.e., mantras to [[Devi]].) While these mantras invoke individual Gods or principles, the most fundamental mantras, like 'Aum,' the 'Shanti Mantra,' the '[[Gayatri]] Mantra' all ultimately focus on the One underlying reality.  
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Mantra [[Japa]] was a concept of the Vedic sages that incorporates mantras as one of the main forms of [[puja]], or worship, whose ultimate end is seen as [[moksha]]/liberation. Essentially, Mantra Japa means repetition of mantra, and has become an established practice of all Hindu streams, from the various [[Yoga]] to [[Tantra]]. It involves repetition of a mantra over and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in multiples of three), the most popular being [[108 (number)|108]]. For this reason, Hindu [[mala]]s (bead necklaces) developed, containing 108 beads and a head "meru" bead. The devotee performing japa using his/her fingers counts each bead as he/she repeats the chosen mantra. Having reached 108 repetitions, if he/she wishes to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee must turn the mala around without crossing the "meru" bead and repeat.  
 
  
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It is said that through japa the devotee attains one-pointedness, or extreme focus, on the chosen deity or principle idea of the mantra. The vibrations and sounds of the mantra are considered extremely important, and thus reverberations of the sound are supposed to awaken the [[prana]] or spiritual life force and even stimulate [[chakra]]s according to many Hindu schools of thought.
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One of the main forms of [[puja]], or worship, in Hinduism is repetition of mantras (called ''Mantra japna''), which is said to lead to [[moksha]]/liberation. Essentially, Mantra Japa means repetition of mantra, and has become an established practice of all Hindu streams, from the various [[Yoga]] to [[Tantra]]. It involves repetition of a mantra over and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in multiples of three), the most popular being [[108 (number)|108]]. For this reason, Hindu [[mala]]s (bead necklaces) developed, containing 108 beads and a head "meru" bead. The devotee performing japa using his/her fingers counts each bead as he/she repeats the chosen mantra. Having reached 108 repetitions, if he/she wishes to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee must turn the mala around without crossing the "meru" bead and repeat.  
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Any shloka from holy Hindu texts like the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Yoga Sutra]], even the [[Mahabharata]] , [[Ramayana]], [[Durga saptashati]] or [[Chandi]] are considered powerful enough to be repeated to great effect, and have therefore the status of a mantra.
 
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A very common mantra is formed by taking a deity's name. Called Nama japa and saluting it in such a manner: "Aum namah ------" or "Aum Jai (Hail!) ------" or several such permutations. Common examples are "[[Aum namah Shivaya]]" (Aum I bow to Lord Shiva), "Aum Namo [[Narayanaya]]"; or "Aum Namo Bhagavate Vasudevãya," (Salutations to the Universal God Vishnu), "Aum Shri Ganeshaya Namah" (Aum to Shri [[Ganesha]]) and "Aum Kalikayai Namah" and "Aum Hrim Chandikãyai Namah." (i.e., mantras to [[Devi]].)
 
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===Some Hindu mantras===
 
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The most representative mantra of all [[Some Hindu mantras|the Hindu mantras]] is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:
 
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:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: |
 
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:तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् |
 
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:भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि |
 
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:धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
 
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: ''Om Bhūr Buvaḥ Svaḥ''
 
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: ''Tat Savitur Vareṇyaṃ''
 
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: ''Bhargo Devasya Dhīmahi''
 
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: ''Dhiyo Yo Naḥ Pracodayāt''
 
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It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun.
 
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===Lead me from Ignorance to Truth===
 
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āsato ṃā sat gamayā / tamaso ṃā jyotir gamayā / ṃrityor-ṃā āmritam gamayā / Om śānti śānti śāntiḥ
 
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"from non-being to being lead me, from darkness to light lead me, from death to immortality lead me." '''(Insert verse please)'''
 
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===Hare Krishna Maha Mantra===
 
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[[Image:Mahamantra.gif|thumb|right|250px|Hare Krishna Maha Mantra]]
 
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A mantra comprising of the names ''[[Hare]]'', ''[[Krishna]]'' and ''[[Rama]]''. It appears originally in the Kali-saņţāraņa Upanişad (Kali Santarana Upanisad):
 
  
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Any shloka (scriptural verse) from holy Hindu texts like the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Yoga Sutra]], even the [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], [[Durga saptashati]] or [[Chandi]] are considered powerful enough to be repeated to great effect, and have therefore the status of a mantra.
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[[Image:Mahamantra.gif|thumb|right|275px|The famous "Maha Mantra" used by the [[ISKCON]] Movement.]]
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Some other famous Hindu Mantras are the "Gayatri Mantra" invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, and the popular "Maha Mantra" (see insert above) found in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]. Popularized by the modern Hare Krishna movement, this mantra comprises of the names ''[[Hare]],'' ''[[Krishna]]'' and ''[[Rama]]'' sung together.
 
{|
 
{|
 
: ''Hare Krishna Hare Krishna''
 
: ''Hare Krishna Hare Krishna''
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: ''Hare Rama Hare Rama''
 
: ''Hare Rama Hare Rama''
 
: ''Rama Rama Hare Hare''
 
: ''Rama Rama Hare Hare''
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: (Kali-saņţāraņa Upanişad)
 
|}
 
|}
  
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In the 16th century, [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu]] (considered an incarnation of [[Krishna]]), founder of [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], along with his followers, spread this mantra across [[India]] through public congregational chanting ([[kirtan]]). Mahaprabhu and his followers had traveled from town to town singing this mantra, said to bring salvation to whoever happens to hear it. It is often referred to as the '[[Maha Mantra]]' by practitioners.
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In the sixteenth century, [[Caitanya|Caitanya Mahaprabhu]] (considered an incarnation of [[Krishna]]), founder of [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], along with his followers, spread this mantra across [[India]] through public congregational chanting ([[kirtan]]). Caitanya and his followers traveled from town to town singing this mantra, allegedly bringing salvation to whoever happens to hear it. When [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] established [[ISKCON]] (the International Society for Krishna Consciousness), a branch of the [[Brahma]] [[Madhva]] Gaudiya Vaishnava [[sampradaya]], he brought the "Hare Krishna" mantra to the West and spread it around the world as an easy yet sublime way of liberation in the Age of [[Kali]].
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When [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] established [[ISKCON]] (the International Society for Krishna Consciousness), a branch of the [[Brahma]] [[Madhva]] Gaudiya Vaishnava [[sampradaya]], he brought the "[[Hare Krishna]]" mantra to the West and spread it around the world as an easy yet sublime way of liberation in the Age of [[Kali]].
 
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===The shanti mantras===
 
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: ''Om sahanaavavatu''
 
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: ''Sahanau bhunaktu''
 
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: ''Saha viiryan karavaavahai''
 
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: ''Tejasvi naavadhiitamastu''
 
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: ''Maa vidvishhaavahai''
 
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: May we be protected together.
 
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: May we be nourished together.
 
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: May we work together with great vigor.
 
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: May our study be enlightening
 
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: May no obstacle arise between us.
 
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: ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः
 
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: ''Om shaantih shaantih shaantih''
 
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: Om peace, peace, peace.
 
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: — Black[krishna] [[Yajurveda]] [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] 2.2.2
 
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===Universal prayer===
 
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: ''Sarveśāam Svastir Bhavatu''
 
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: ''Sarveśām Sāntir Bhavatu''
 
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: ''Sarveśām Pūrṇam Bhavatu''
 
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: ''Sarveśām ṃangalam Bhavatu''
 
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(May good befall all, May there be peace for all, May all be fit for perfection, and May all experience that which is auspicious.)
 
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: ''Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinaha''
 
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: ''Sarve Santu ṇirāmayaha''
 
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: ''Sarve Badrāṇi Pasyantu''
 
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: ''ṃā Kascidh-dhuhkha Bhāga-Bhavet''
 
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(Om, May all be happy. May all be healthy. May we all experience what is good and let no one suffer. Om, Peace, Peace, Peace!)
 
  
 
==Mantra in Buddhism==
 
==Mantra in Buddhism==
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Buddhism developed its own system and understanding of mantra, which while similar to the previous practices of [[Vedic]] society, also took on its own particularities, especially according to region.
 
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===Mantra in Shingon Buddhism===
 
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'''[[Kukai|Kūkai]]''' advanced a general theory of [[language]] based on his analysis of two forms of Buddhist [[ritual]] language: ''[[dharani]]'' (dhāra.nī) and ''mantra''. Mantra is restricted to [[esoteric]] Buddhist practice whereas dharani is found in both esoteric and [[exoteric]] [[ritual]]. Dharanis for instance are found in the [[Pali Canon]] see below. The term "[[shingon]]" (lit true word) is a Japanese translation of the Chinese term for mantra, chen yen.
 
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The word ''dharani'' derives from a [[Sanskrit]] root dh.r which means to hold, or maintain. [[Ryuichi Abe]] suggests that it is generally understood as a [[mnemonic device]] which encapsulates the meaning of a section or chapter of a [[sutra]]. This is perhaps related to the use of verse summaries at the end of texts as in the [[Udana]] which is generally acknowledged as being in the oldest strata of the [[Pali Canon]]. Dharanis are also considered to protect the one who chants them from malign influences and calamities.
 
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The term ''mantra'' is traditionally said to be derived from two roots: "man", to [[Thought|think]]; and the action oriented (k.rt) suffix "tra". Thus a mantra can be considered to be a [[Linguistics|linguistic]] device for deepening ones thought, or in the Buddhist context for developing the [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightened]] [[mind]]. However it is also true that mantras have been used as [[magic spell]]s for very mundane purposes such as attaining [[wealth]] and long life, and eliminating enemies.
 
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The distinction between dharani and mantra is a difficult one to make. We can say that all mantras are dharanis but that not all dharanis are mantras. Mantras do tend to be shorter. Both tend to contain a number of unintelligible [[Phonics|phonic]] fragments such as Om, or Hu.m which is perhaps why some people consider them to be essentially meaningless. Kukai made mantra a special class of dharani which showed that every [[syllable]] of a dharani was a manifestation of the true nature of [[reality]] — in Buddhist terms that all sound is a manifestation of [[shunyata]] or emptiness of self-nature. Thus rather than being devoid of meaning, Kukai suggests that dharanis are in fact saturated with meaning — every syllable is symbolic on multiple levels.
 
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One of Kūkai's distinctive contributions was to take this symbolic association even further by saying that there is no essential difference between the syllables of mantras and [[sacred text]]s, and those of ordinary language. If one understood the workings of mantra, then any sounds could be a representative of ultimate reality. This emphasis on sounds was one of the drivers for Kūkai's championing of the phonetic writing system, the [[kana]], which was adopted in Japan around the time of Kūkai. He is generally credited with the invention of the kana, but there is apparently some doubt about this story amongst [[scholar]]s.
 
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This mantra-based theory of language had a powerful effect on [[Japan|Japanese]] thought and society which up until Kūkai's time had been dominated by imported [[China|Chinese]] culture of thought, particularly in the form of the Classical Chinese language which was used in the court and amongst the literati, and [[Confucianism]] which was the dominant political [[ideology]]. In particular Kūkai was able to use this new theory of [[language]] to create links between indigenous Japanese culture and Buddhism. For instance, he made a link between the Buddha Mahavairocana and the [[Shinto]] sun Goddess [[Amaterasu]]. Since the emperors were thought to be descended form Amaterasu, Kūkai had found a powerful connection here that linked the emperors with the Buddha, and also in finding a way to integrate [[Shinto]] with Buddhism, something that had not happened with Confucianism. Buddhism then became essentially an indigenous [[religion]] in a way that Confucianism had not. And it was through language, and mantra that this connection was made. Kūkai helped to elucidate what mantra is in a way that had not been done before: he addresses the fundamental questions of what a text is, how signs function, and above all, what language is. In this he covers some of the same ground as modern day [[Structuralism|Structuralists]] and others scholars of language, although he comes to very different conclusions.
 
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In this system of thought all sounds are said to originate from "a" — which is the short ''a'' sound in f<u>a</u>ther. For esoteric Buddhism "a" has a special function because it is associated with Shunyata or the idea that no thing exists in its own right, but is contingent upon causes and conditions. (See [[Dependent origination]]) In Sanskrit "a" is a prefix which changes the meaning of a word into its opposite, so "vidya" is understanding, and "avidya" is ignorance (the same arrangement is also found in many [[Greek language|Greek]] words, like e.g. "atheism" vs. "theism" and "apathy" vs. "pathos"). The letter a is both visualised in the [[Siddham]] script, and pronounced in rituals and [[meditation]] practices. In the [[Mahavairocana Sutra]] which is central to [[Shingon Buddhism]] it says: Thanks to the original vows of the Buddhas and [[Bodhisattva]]s, a [[Miracle|miraculous]] force resides in the mantras, so that by pronouncing them one acquires merit without limits". [in Conze, p.183]
 
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===Mantra in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism===
 
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[[Edward Conze|Conze]] distinguishes three periods in the Buddhist use of mantra. Initially, like their fellow Indians, Buddhists used mantra as protective spells to ward of malign influences. Despite a [[Vinaya]] rule which forbids monks engaging in the Brahminical practice of chanting mantras for material gain, there are a number of protective for a group of ascetic monks. However, even at this early stage, there is perhaps something more than [[animisism|animistic magic]] at work. Particularly in the case of the Ratana Sutta the efficacy of the verses seems to be related to the concept of "[[truth]]". Each verse of the sutta ends with "by the virtue of this truth may there be happiness".
 
−
 
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Later mantras were used more to guard the spiritual life of the chanter, and sections on mantras began to be included in some [[Mahayana]] sutras such as the [[White Lotus Sutra]], and the [[Lankavatara Sutra]]. The scope of protection also changed in this time. In the [[Sutra of Golden Light]] the [[Four Heavenly Kings|Four Great Kings]] promise to exercise sovereignty over the different classes of demigods, to protect the whole of Jambudvipa (the India sub continent), to protect monks who proclaim the sutra, and to protect kings who patronise the monks who proclaim the sutra. The apotheosis of this type of approach is the [[Nichiren]] school of Buddhism that was founded in [[13th century]] Japan, and which distilled all Buddhist practice down to the [[veneration]] of the [[Lotus Sutra]] through recitation of the daimoku: "[[Nam myoho renge kyo]]" which translates as "Homage to the Lotus Sutra".
 
−
 
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Then mantra began, in about the [[7th century]], to take centre stage and become a vehicle for salvation in their own right. [[Tantra]] started to gain momentum in the [[6th Century|6th]] and 7th century, with specifically Buddhist forms appearing as early as 300C.E. ''Mantrayana'' was an early name for the what is now more commonly known as ''[[Vajrayana]]'', which gives us a hint as to the place of mantra in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. The aim of Vajrayana practice is to give the practitioner a direct experience of reality, of things as they really are. Mantras function as [[symbol]]s of that reality, and different mantras are different aspects of that reality — for example wisdom or compassion. Mantras are almost always associated with a particular deity, with one exception being the [[Prajnaparamita mantra]] associated with the [[Heart Sutra]]. One of the key Vajrayana strategies for bringing about a direct experience of reality is to engage the entire psycho-physical organism in the practices. In one Buddhist analysis the person consists of [[body]], [[speech]] and [[mind]]. So a typical sadhana or [[meditation]] practice might include [[mudra]]s, or symbolic [[hand gesture]]s, or even full body prostrations; the recitations of mantras; as well as the visualisation of [[celestial]] beings and visualising the letters of the mantra which is being recited. Clearly here mantra is associated with speech. The meditator may visualise the letters in front of themselves, or within their body. They may pronounced out loud, or internally in the mind only.
 
−
 
−
====Om mani padme hum====
 
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Probably the most famous mantra of Buddhism is [[Om mani padme hum]] (Chn. 唵嘛呢叭咪吽, pronounced the same way), the six syllable mantra of the [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion [[Avalokiteshvara]] (Tibetan: ''[[Chenrezig]]'', Chinese: ''[[Guanyin]]''). This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed Shadakshari form of Avalokiteshvara. The [[Dalai Lama]] is said to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, and so the mantra is especially revered by his devotees.
 
−
 
−
[[Donald Lopez]] gives a good discussion of this mantra and its various interpretations in his book ''Prisoners of Shangri-LA: Tibetan Buddhism and the West''. Lopez is an authoritative writer and challenges the stereotypical analysis of the mantra as meaning "The Jewel in the Lotus", an interpretation that is not supported by either a linguistic analysis, nor by Tibetan tradition, and is symptomatic of the Western [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] approach to the 'exotic' East. He suggests that Manipadma is actually the name of a bodhisattva, a form of Avalokiteshvara who has many other names in any case including Padmapani or ''lotus flower in hand''. The Brahminical insistence on absolutely correct pronunciation of Sanskrit broke down as Buddhism was exported to other countries where the inhabitants found it impossible to reproduce the sounds. So in Tibet, for instance, where this mantra is on the lips of many Tibetans all their waking hours, the mantra is pronounced ''Om mani peme hung''.
 
−
 
 
[[Image:Mantras caved into rock in Tibet.jpg|thumb|250px|In [[Tibet]], many [[Buddhist]]s carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion.]]
 
[[Image:Mantras caved into rock in Tibet.jpg|thumb|250px|In [[Tibet]], many [[Buddhist]]s carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion.]]
 +
Buddhism developed its own system and understanding of mantra, which took on its own particularities. The scholar Edward Conze distinguishes three periods in the Buddhist use of mantra. He states that, initially, like their fellow Hindus, Buddhists used mantras as protective spells to ward of malignant influences. Despite a [[Vinaya]] rule that forbids monks engaging in the Brahminical practice of chanting mantras for material gain, there are a number of protective mantras for a group of ascetic monks.
  
 +
Later mantras were used more to guard the spiritual life of the chanter, and sections on mantras began to be included in some [[Mahayana]] sutras such as the [[White Lotus Sutra]], and the [[Lankavatara Sutra]]. The scope of protection also changed in this time. In the Sutra of Golden Light, the Four Great Kings promise to exercise sovereignty over the different classes of demigods, to protect the whole of Jambudvipa (the Indian subcontinent), to protect monks who proclaim the sutra, and to protect kings who patronize the monks who proclaim the sutra. The culmination of this type of approach is the [[Nichiren]] school of Buddhism, founded in thirteenth century [[Japan]], which distilled all Buddhist practice down to the [[veneration]] of the [[Lotus Sutra]] through recitation of the daimoku: ''"Nam myoho renge kyo"'' (meaning "Homage to the Lotus Sutra").
  
−
==Mantra in Sikhism ==
+
Around the seventh century, mantras began to take centre stage in Buddhism and become a vehicle for salvation in their own right. [[Tantra]] began to flourish in India at that time. ''Mantrayana'' was an early name for the what is now more commonly known as ''[[Vajrayana]].'' The aim of Vajrayana practice is to give the practitioner a direct experience of reality, of things as they really are. Mantras function as symbols of that reality, and different mantras are different aspects of that reality—for example wisdom or compassion. Mantras are almost always associated with a particular deity, with one exception being the [[Prajnaparamita mantra]] associated with the [[Heart Sutra]]. One of the key Vajrayana strategies for bringing about a direct experience of reality is to engage the entire psycho-physical person in the practices. So a typical sadhana or [[meditation]] practice might include [[mudra]]s, or symbolic [[hand gesture]]s, or even full body prostrations; the recitations of mantras; as well as the visualization of celestial beings and visualizing the letters of the mantra which is being recited. Clearly here mantra is associated with speech. The meditator may visualize the letters in front of themselves, or within their body. The sounds may pronounced out loud, or internally in the mind only.
  
−
In the [[Sikh]] religion a "Mantar" or "Mantra" is a [[Shabad]] (Word or [[hymn]]) from [[Gurbani]] to concentrate the mind on God and the message of the [[Ten Gurus]].
+
Probably the most famous mantra of Buddhism is "[[Om mani padme hum]]" the six syllable mantra of the [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion [[Avalokiteshvara]] (Tibetan: ''Chenrezig,'' Chinese: ''[[Guan Yin]]''). The [[Dalai Lama]] is said to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, and so the mantra is especially revered by his devotees. The mantra is usually translated as "The Jewel in the Lotus" ''(meaning what?)''' The Brahminical insistence on absolutely correct pronunciation of Sanskrit broke down as Buddhism was exported to other countries where the inhabitants found it impossible to reproduce the sounds. So in Tibet, for instance, where this mantra is on the lips of many Tibetans all their waking hours, the mantra is pronounced ''Om mani peme hung.''
−
The main mantras of [[Sikhism]] are:  
 
−
* The [[Gurmantar]], which is [[Waheguru]]
 
−
* The [[Mool Mantar]] which start Ek-onkar, Satnam ….
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Chanting]] is the process of the continuous repeating a mantra.When a mantra is sung or chanted, whether by oneself or in a group of devoted aspirants, it is termed as Kirtan — the glorification of God. Prayers or symbolic stories of God may also be sung in a Kirtan. The singing and chanting of Kirtan creates an elevated mental condition for practicing meditation or entering into an intense form of spiritual practice. Kirtan is a powerful and unique method of recharging the subconscious with spiritual vibrations.
 
  
 +
===Mantra in Shingon Buddhism===
  
−
==Mantra in other traditions or contexts==
+
The analysis of Mantras in Buddhism reached new heights in the Japanese school of "[[Shingon]]" (meaning: "true word"), which was the Japanese translation of the Chinese term for mantra ("chen yen"). In the [[Mahavairocana Sutra]] which is central to Shingon Buddhism, it asserts:
−
[[Transcendental Meditation]], also known simply as 'TM', uses what the group refers to as 'simple mantras' - as a meditative focus. TM was founded by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. According to the TM website (see below) the practice can result in a number of material benefits such as relaxation, reduced stress, better health, better self image; but it can also benefit the world by reducing violence and crime, and generally improve quality of life. The founder was well versed in Hindu tradition, but TM attempts to separate itself from that tradition these days. Simple two-syllable mantras are used.
+
<blockquote>"Thanks to the original vows of the Buddhas and [[Bodhisattva]]s, a miraculous force resides in the mantras, so that by pronouncing them one acquires merit without limits" (Conze, 183).</blockquote>
  
−
Mantra practice has also been enthusiastically taken up by various [[New Age]] groups and individuals, although this is typically out of context, and from the point of view of a genuine Hindu or Buddhist practitioner lacks depth. The mere repetition of syllables can have a calming effect on the mind, but the traditionalist would argue that mantra can be an effective way of changing the level of one's consciousness when approached in traditional way.
+
The Shingon philosopher [[Kukai|Kūkai]] (774-835 C.E.) advanced a general theory of language based on his analysis of two forms of Buddhist [[ritual]] language: ''dharani'' (dhāra.nī) and ''mantra.'' The word ''dharani'' derives from a Sanskrit root dh.r which means to hold, or maintain. Ryuichi Abe suggests that it is generally understood as a mnemonic device which encapsulates the meaning of a section or chapter of a [[sutra]]. This is perhaps related to the use of verse summaries at the end of texts as in the Udana which is generally acknowledged as being in the oldest strata of the [[Pali Canon]]. Dharanis are also considered to protect the one who chants them from malign influences and calamities.
  
−
Some forms of Jewish meditation use mantras, although they do not call them by that name. [[Hasidic Jews]] sing phrases from the [[Hebrew Bible]] over and over, in a form of rhythmic chant, often accompanied by drumming on the table. They also use wordless sacred meditation tunes called [[niggun]]im, which are revealed thorugh the higher consciousness of the [[Rebbe]]s (Hasidic leaders, similar to gurus). Some subgroups of the [[Breslov (Hasidic dynasty)|Breslov]] Hasidic movement use the mantra [[Na Nach Nachma]], based on the name of their founder, [[Rabbi Nachman of Breslov]]. All of these practices are done to achieve [[deveikut]] which means "cleaving (holding on) to God." [[Lubavitch]] Hasidim of the [[Messianism|messianic]] faith use the mantra of [[Yechi]] to draw on the power of their [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson|Rebbe]].
+
The distinction between dharani and mantra is a difficult one to make. We can say that all mantras are dharanis but that not all dharanis are mantras. Mantras do tend to be shorter. Both tend to contain a number of unintelligible [[Phonics|phonic]] fragments such as Om, or Hu.m which is perhaps why some people consider them to be essentially meaningless. Kukai made mantra a special class of dharani which showed that every syllable of a dharani was a manifestation of the true nature of reality. Thus rather than being devoid of meaning, Kukai suggests that dharanis are in fact saturated with meaning—every syllable is symbolic on multiple levels.
  
−
The spiritual exercises of [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]] include [[simran]] (repetition, particularly silent repetition of a mantra given at initiation), dhyan (concentration, viewing, or contemplation, particularly on the Inner Master), and [[bhajan]] (listening to the inner sounds of the Shabda or the Shabda Master).
+
One of Kūkai's distinctive contributions was to take this symbolic association even further by saying that there is no essential difference between the syllables of mantras and sacred texts, and those of ordinary language. If one understood the workings of mantra, then any sounds could be a representative of ultimate reality. This emphasis on sounds was one of the drivers for Kūkai's championing of the phonetic writing system, the ''kana,'' which was adopted in Japan around the time of Kūkai. He is generally credited with the invention of the kana, but there is apparently some doubt about this story amongst scholars.
  
−
In the Islamic Sufi tradition, chants of the 99 Names of Allah are popular invocations of attibutes as are the names of the Prophet.
+
This mantra-based theory of language had a powerful effect on [[Japan|Japanese]] thought and society which up until Kūkai's time had been dominated by imported [[China|Chinese]] culture of thought, particularly in the form of the Classical Chinese language which was used in the court and amongst the literati, and [[Confucianism]] which was the dominant political [[ideology]]. In particular Kūkai was able to use this new theory of language to create links between indigenous Japanese culture and Buddhism. For instance, he made a link between the Buddha Mahavairocana and the Shinto sun Goddess [[Amaterasu]]. Since the emperors were thought to be descended form Amaterasu, Kūkai had found a powerful connection here that linked the emperors with the [[Buddha]], and also in finding a way to integrate [[Shintoism|Shinto]] with Buddhism, something that had not happened with Confucianism. Buddhism then became essentially an indigenous [[religion]] in a way that Confucianism had not. It was through language and mantra that this connection was made. Kūkai helped to elucidate what mantra is in a way that had not been done before: he addressed the fundamental questions of what a text is, how signs function, and above all, what language is. In this manner he covered some of the same ground as modern day [[Structuralism|Structuralists]] and others scholars of language, although he came to very different conclusions.
  
−
In [[Neo-Paganism|Neo-Pagan]] ritual, deities may be invoked by a recitation of their many names or aspects.
+
==Mantra in other Religious Traditions==
  
−
In Christianity, repetitive prayer using [[prayer beads]] such as a [[rosary]] or [[chotki]] includes well known mantras such as the [[Jesus prayer]] and [[Hail Mary]]. A form of Christian meditation was taught by Dom [[John Main]] that involves the silent repetition of a mantra.
+
Mantra practice has also been enthusiastically taken up by various [[New Age]] groups and individuals, who often teach that the mere repetition of syllables can have a calming effect on the mind. For example, [[Transcendental Meditation]] (also known simply as 'TM') uses what the group refers to as 'simple mantras' - as a meditative focus. TM was founded by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. According to the TM website (see below) the practice can result in a number of material benefits such as relaxation, reduced stress, better health, better self image; but it can also benefit the world by reducing violence and crime, and generally improve quality of life. Simple two-syllable mantras are used.
  
−
==See also==
+
Mantras are also an important part of [[Sikhism]]. In Sikhism Mantras (or "Mantars") are a [[Shabad]] (Word or [[hymn]]) from [[Gurbani]] to concentrate the mind on God and the message of the [[Ten Gurus]]. The main mantras of Sikhism are the famous "Gurmantar," and the "Mool Mantar." Chanting is the process of the continuous repeating a mantra. When a mantra is sung or chanted, whether by oneself or in a group of devoted aspirants, it is termed as Kirtan—the glorification of God. Prayers may also be sung in a Kirtan. The singing and chanting of Kirtan creates an elevated mental condition for practicing meditation or entering into an intense form of spiritual practice. Kirtan is a powerful and unique method of recharging the subconscious with spiritual vibrations. The Sikh doctrine of "Namm Japna" (meaning "repetition of the name of God) requires Sikhs to cultivate constant remembrance of [[God]] in their daily lives.
−
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
 
−
* [[sound symbolism]]
 
−
* [[tantra]]
 
−
* [[invocation]]
 
  
−
==External links==
+
Some forms of Jewish practice use mantras, although they do not call them by that name. [[Hasidic Jews]] sing phrases from the [[Hebrew Bible]] over and over, in a form of rhythmic chant, often accompanied by drumming on the table. They also use wordless sacred meditation tunes called ''niggunim,'' which are revealed through the higher consciousness of the Rebbes (Hasidic leaders, similar to gurus). Some subgroups of the Breslov Hasidic movement use the mantra ''Na Nach Nachma,'' based on the name of their founder, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov. All of these practices are done to achieve ''deveikut'' (meaning "cleaving (holding on) to God").
−
===Buddhist mantra===
 
−
* [http://www.dharmaling.net/Dorjeling/En/Teachings/ManiBenefit_En.htm The benefits of reciting Chenrezig's mantra] - a teaching by Lama Zopa
 
−
* [http://fpmt.org/teachings/lzr/ommanibenefits.asp The benefits of chanting Om Mani Padme Hum] - another teaching by Lama Zopa
 
−
* [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
 
−
* [http://www.padmaloka.org.uk/aloka.html Paintings of Vajrasattva, Padmasambhava, White Tara and a Mandala]
 
  
−
===Hindu mantra===
+
In the Islamic Sufi tradition, chanting the 99 Names of Allah is an invocation of Allah's attributes.
−
* [http://howtomeditate.tripod.com/ How to meditate] - a beginners guide to mantra meditation according to yogic vedic tradition.
 
−
* [http://www.yogamalika.org/ The resource page for a joyful and secure life]
 
−
* [http://www.rudralife.com/bija mantras for different rudrakshas and other important vedic mantras]
 
−
* [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/bija_mantra.php Bija Mantras]
 
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* [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/saguna_mantra.php Saguna Mantras]
 
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* [http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/nirguna_mantra.php Nirguna Mantras]
 
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* [http://www.krishna.com/main.php?id=316 About the Hare Krishna mantra]
 
−
* [http://www.jswami.info/WhyChant Why chant Hare Krishna?]
 
−
* [http://www.sanskrit-sanscrito.com.ar/english/sanskrit/sacredmantras.html Sacred Mántra-s] - images, sounds and complete explanations by Gabriel Pradiipaka of many important Mantra-s.
 
−
*[http://www.panchamukha.org/ Sri Viswaroopa Panchamukha Hanuman Ashram for propagation of Mantra Shastra]
 
  
−
===Other===
+
In Christianity, repetitive prayer using [[prayer beads]] (such as a [[rosary]] or ''[[chotki]]'') includes well known mantras such as the [[Jesus prayer]] and [[Hail Mary]]. A form of Christian meditation was taught by Dom [[John Main]] that involves the silent repetition of a mantra.
−
* [http://www.mantras.tv/ The resource page on Science, Animation, Arts and Formula 1 racing]
 
−
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_mantra_and_japa.asp The theory of mantra and japa (repetition of a mantra)]
 
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* [http://www.tm.org/ Transcendental Meditation Official Website]
 
−
* [http://swami-center.org/en/chpt/practices/page_36.shtml Cleansing of Chakras. Opening Up of Spiritual Heart] Mantras for clear sensation of our chakras.
 
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* [http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/tantra_practice.html Buddhist Tantra Practice]
 
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* [http://www.rootlight.com/lightandmantra.htm Mantra Testimonials.]
 
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* [http://www.indiadivine.org/hinduism/articles/7/1/The-Vedic-Conception-of-Sound-in-Four-Features The Vedic Conception of Sound (in 4 features)]
 
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* [http://www.maitreya.org/english/Universal%20Mantra.HTM Universal Mantra of the Mission of Maitreya]
 
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* [http://www.geocities.com/mahamrityunjayamantra/index.html World Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra Japa Yajna]
 
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* [http://www.virtuescience.com/mantra.html A Fresh Look at Mantra Yoga]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Abe, R. ''The weaving of mantra : Kukai and the construction of esoteric Buddhist discourse''. (New York : Columbia University Press, 1999.)
+
*Abe, R. ''The weaving of mantra: Kukai and the construction of esoteric Buddhist discourse.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. ISBN 0231112874
−
*Beyer, S. ''Magic and ritual in Tibet : the cult of Tara''. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsisdass, 1996).
+
*Beyer, S. ''Magic and ritual in Tibet: (The cult of Tara).'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsisdass, 2001. ISBN 8120804899
−
*Conze, E. ''Buddhism : its essence and development''. (London : Faber, c1951).
+
*Conze, E. ''Buddhism: its essence and development.'' Windhorse Publications, 2004. ISBN 1899579400
−
*Gelongma Karma Khechong Palmo. ''Mantras On The Prayer Flag''. [[Kailash (journal)|Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies]], Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 168-169).
+
*Gelongma Karma Khechong Palmo. Mantras On The Prayer Flag. ''Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies'' 1 (2) (1973): 168-169.
−
*Gombrich, R. F. ''Theravaada Buddhism : a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo''. (London, Routledge, 1988)
+
*Gombrich, R. F. ''Theravaada Buddhism: a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo.'' London: Routledge, 1988. ISBN 0415075858
−
*Govinda (Lama Anagarika). ''Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism''. (London : Rider, 1959).
+
*Govinda (Lama Anagarika). ''Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism.'' Weiser Books, 1969. ISBN 0877280649
−
*Lopez, D. ''Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West''. (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1998)
+
*Higgins, David and Christine Kachur. "RELST 110.6-World Religions (Extension Division Study Guide)" Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, 2002.
−
*''The Rider Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion''. (London : Rider, 1986).
+
*Lopez, D. ''Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0226493113
−
*Skilton, A. ''A concise history of Buddhism''. (Birmingham : Windhorse Publications, 1994).
+
*''The Rider Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion.'' (London: Rider, 1986.
−
*Sangharakshita. ''Transforming Self and World : themes from the Sutra of Golden Light''. (Birmingham : Windhorse Publications, 1994).
+
*Skilton, A. ''A concise history of Buddhism.'' Birmingham: Windhorse Publications, 2nd edition, 1994. ISBN 0904766926
−
*Walsh, M. ''The Long discourses of the Buddha : a translation of the Digha Nikaya''. (Boston : Wisdom Publications, 1987)
+
*Sangharakshita. ''Transforming Self and World: themes from the Sutra of Golden Light.'' Birmingham: Windhorse Publications, 1996. ISBN 090476673X
 +
*Walsh, M. ''The Long discourses of the Buddha : a translation of the Digha Nikaya.'' Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. ISBN 0861711033
  
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{{Hinduism}}
 
  
 
[[Category:Buddhism]]
 
[[Category:Buddhism]]

Latest revision as of 20:19, 4 December 2015

The most sacred Hindu mantra "Aum" (Om).

A mantra (from Sanskrit: man- "to think" and -tra meaning, tool) literally means "instrument of thought." Originating in ancient India out of Vedic Hinduism, mantras serve a variety of functions and are especially popular as aids to meditation and devotion. As powerful sound vibrations, mantras encompass various forms of sacred utterance (syllable, scriptural verse, or sacred formula), which can be repeated silently or chanted for different purposes such as instilling concentration, facilitating spiritual growth, and helping to visualize a deity. It is said that a mantra, when recited with proper understanding and intonation, can revitalize the mind with mystic power and help deliver it from illusion to enlightenment. Mantras have also been used in religious ceremonies to accumulate wealth, avoid danger, or even allegedly to eliminate foes.

In addition to Hinduism, mantas are also used by Buddhists, Jains, Tantrikas, Sikhs and followers of some new religious movements. The practice of prayer in the Abrahamic religions is said in some ways to have a similar function to mantras.

History

The earliest recorded use of mantras is found in the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism, which contain many references to the sacredness of sound. These Hindu texts describe speech itself as a goddess (known as "Vac") and praise her power and potency. Additionally, sound became an important part of Hindu rituals and great care was taken to ensure the proper elocution of the Vedic hymns for the efficacy of the sacrifices. The Brahmin priests were responsible for chanting the sacred Vedic hymns to the gods during the sacrificial rituals.

"With the growing interest in sacrifice came an increasing emphasis on the sound of the sacrifice. Verses once intended as statements of praise such as "You O Agni, are Indra" came to be considered as formulations of truth in sound. Such ritual formulations were called mantras, formulas or verses with special power to bring into reality the truth they expressed. Great importance was thus given to speech and language. Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati, "Lord of Prayer," became a prominent deity, and under this name or as Vacaspati "Lord of Speech," was granted priestly status along with Agni. Even speech itself was defined as the goddess Vac. Vac was elevated to the status of supreme ruler of the universe. The special speech of the sacrifice honoured in this manner was Sanskrit (meaning well-formed) and was regarded as the recapitulation in sound of the deep structure of reality." (Higgins and Kachur, 7-19)

A high degree of importance was placed on the correct chanting and pronounciation of Sanskrit sacrificial formulas. Eventually, the sound Aum became a symbol for ultimate reality itself -the great Brahman- represented by this mantra.

In Vedic times, writing was definitely seen as inferior to the spoken word. The Brahmin priests were charged with preserving the Vedas by oral transmission. For years, they were the only ones who knew the mantras that were chanted to maintain the cosmos and sacred order (Rta or dharma). However, with the advent of egalitarian Hindu schools of Yoga, Vedanta, Tantra and Bhakti, it is now the case that mantras are passed on freely as part of generally practiced Hindu religion. Such was the influence of the more orthodox attitude of the elite nature of mantra knowledge that even the Buddhists, who repudiated the whole idea of caste, and of the efficacy of the old rituals, called themselves the shravakas, that is, "the hearers." A wise person in India was one who had "heard much." Mantras then are sound symbols. What they symbolize and how they function depends on the context, and the mind of the person repeating them.

Since Buddhism arose in India, and was deeply influenced by Hindu teachings, it is not surprising that Buddhism also adopted and inherited the Hindu practice of Mantras. However, the Buddhists put their own distinctive stamp on Mantra practice. When Buddhism travelled to China a major shift in emphasis towards mantras occurred. China lacked a unifying, ecclesiastic language like Sanskrit, and achieved its cultural unity by having a written language that was flexible in pronunciation but more precise in terms of the concepts that each character represented. Hence the Chinese prized written language much more highly than did the Indian Buddhist missionaries, and the writing of mantras became a spiritual practice in its own right. Thus, whereas the Hindu Brahmins had been very strict on the correct pronunciation and intonation of mantas, the Chinese, and indeed other Far-Eastern Buddhists, were less concerned with the spoken form than correctly writing mantras down. The practice of writing mantras, and copying texts as a spiritual practice, became very refined in China, Tibet and Japan.

Description and Purpose

Mantras have two components of primary importance - Meaning and Sound. For the mantra to be effective, great emphasis is put on both correct pronunciation and the level of concentration of the mind on the meaning of the word or words that are recited. This emphasis on correct pronunciation resulted in an early development of a science of phonetics in India. It was recognized that words do have a mysterious power to affect human beings.

Since the term mantra is derived from the roots: "man" (to think) and the action oriented suffix "tra," a mantra can be translated as a linguistic device for deepening ones thought, or in the Buddhist context for developing the enlightened mind. However it is also true that mantras have been used as magic spells for very mundane purposes such as attaining wealth and long life, and eliminating enemies. Indeed, Dr. Edward Conze, a scholar of Buddhism, frequently translated "mantra" as "spell," and one scholarly etymology links the word mantra with "manas" (meaning "mind") and 'trâna' (for protection) making a mantra something which protects the mind. Indeed, vocal sounds in India are frequently thought of as having magical powers, or even of representing the words or speech of a deity.

There are various purposes of mantras depending on the religious school involved, and intention of the practitioner. It is often said that the purpose to mantras is to deliver the mind from illusion and material inclinations and to bring concentration and focus to the mind. It is claimed that a mantras can change one's consciousness, help the devotee attain one-pointedness, or concentration on the chosen deity or principle idea of the mantra. The vibrations and sounds of the mantra are considered extremely important, and thus reverberations of the sound are supposed to awaken the prana (breath or spiritual life force) and even stimulate chakras according to many Hindu schools of thought.

Mantra in Hinduism

The earliest mantras are found in the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas. They contain hymns of praise to various gods and supplications for support and blessings. These mantras or sacred chants were similar to prayers but their efficacy was contingent upon their proper pronunciation and ritual purity of the priests who chanted them. Over time, the most famous of all Hindu mantras became Aum, which is called the "pranava mantra" (the source of all mantras). Aum is considered to be the most fundamental and powerful mantra, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers. It represents the underlying unity of reality, called Brahman, the godhead, as well as the whole of creation. Merely pronouncing this syllable is said to allow one to experience the divine in a very direct way.

Over time, various mantras developed in Hinduism that were dedicated to different gods. It is common in modern Hinduism to form a mantra by taking a Hindu deity's name and saluting it in the following way: "Aum namah (insert deity's name here)" or "Aum Jai (Hail!) ------" or several such permutations. Common examples are "Aum namah Shivaya" (Aum, I bow to Lord Shiva), "Aum Namo Narayanaya"; or "Aum Namo Bhagavate Vasudevãya," (Salutations to the Universal God Vishnu), "Aum Shri Ganeshaya Namah" (Aum to Shri Ganesha) and "Aum Kalikayai Namah" and "Aum Hrim Chandikãyai Namah." (i.e., mantras to Devi.) While these mantras invoke individual Gods or principles, the most fundamental mantras, like 'Aum,' the 'Shanti Mantra,' the 'Gayatri Mantra' all ultimately focus on the One underlying reality.

One of the main forms of puja, or worship, in Hinduism is repetition of mantras (called Mantra japna), which is said to lead to moksha/liberation. Essentially, Mantra Japa means repetition of mantra, and has become an established practice of all Hindu streams, from the various Yoga to Tantra. It involves repetition of a mantra over and over again, usually in cycles of auspicious numbers (in multiples of three), the most popular being 108. For this reason, Hindu malas (bead necklaces) developed, containing 108 beads and a head "meru" bead. The devotee performing japa using his/her fingers counts each bead as he/she repeats the chosen mantra. Having reached 108 repetitions, if he/she wishes to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee must turn the mala around without crossing the "meru" bead and repeat.

Any shloka (scriptural verse) from holy Hindu texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutra, even the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Durga saptashati or Chandi are considered powerful enough to be repeated to great effect, and have therefore the status of a mantra.

The famous "Maha Mantra" used by the ISKCON Movement.

Some other famous Hindu Mantras are the "Gayatri Mantra" invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, and the popular "Maha Mantra" (see insert above) found in Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Popularized by the modern Hare Krishna movement, this mantra comprises of the names Hare, Krishna and Rama sung together.

Hare Krishna Hare Krishna
Krishna Krishna Hare Hare
Hare Rama Hare Rama
Rama Rama Hare Hare
(Kali-saņţāraņa Upanişad)

In the sixteenth century, Caitanya Mahaprabhu (considered an incarnation of Krishna), founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, along with his followers, spread this mantra across India through public congregational chanting (kirtan). Caitanya and his followers traveled from town to town singing this mantra, allegedly bringing salvation to whoever happens to hear it. When A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada established ISKCON (the International Society for Krishna Consciousness), a branch of the Brahma Madhva Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya, he brought the "Hare Krishna" mantra to the West and spread it around the world as an easy yet sublime way of liberation in the Age of Kali.

Mantra in Buddhism

In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion.

Buddhism developed its own system and understanding of mantra, which took on its own particularities. The scholar Edward Conze distinguishes three periods in the Buddhist use of mantra. He states that, initially, like their fellow Hindus, Buddhists used mantras as protective spells to ward of malignant influences. Despite a Vinaya rule that forbids monks engaging in the Brahminical practice of chanting mantras for material gain, there are a number of protective mantras for a group of ascetic monks.

Later mantras were used more to guard the spiritual life of the chanter, and sections on mantras began to be included in some Mahayana sutras such as the White Lotus Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra. The scope of protection also changed in this time. In the Sutra of Golden Light, the Four Great Kings promise to exercise sovereignty over the different classes of demigods, to protect the whole of Jambudvipa (the Indian subcontinent), to protect monks who proclaim the sutra, and to protect kings who patronize the monks who proclaim the sutra. The culmination of this type of approach is the Nichiren school of Buddhism, founded in thirteenth century Japan, which distilled all Buddhist practice down to the veneration of the Lotus Sutra through recitation of the daimoku: "Nam myoho renge kyo" (meaning "Homage to the Lotus Sutra").

Around the seventh century, mantras began to take centre stage in Buddhism and become a vehicle for salvation in their own right. Tantra began to flourish in India at that time. Mantrayana was an early name for the what is now more commonly known as Vajrayana. The aim of Vajrayana practice is to give the practitioner a direct experience of reality, of things as they really are. Mantras function as symbols of that reality, and different mantras are different aspects of that reality—for example wisdom or compassion. Mantras are almost always associated with a particular deity, with one exception being the Prajnaparamita mantra associated with the Heart Sutra. One of the key Vajrayana strategies for bringing about a direct experience of reality is to engage the entire psycho-physical person in the practices. So a typical sadhana or meditation practice might include mudras, or symbolic hand gestures, or even full body prostrations; the recitations of mantras; as well as the visualization of celestial beings and visualizing the letters of the mantra which is being recited. Clearly here mantra is associated with speech. The meditator may visualize the letters in front of themselves, or within their body. The sounds may pronounced out loud, or internally in the mind only.

Probably the most famous mantra of Buddhism is "Om mani padme hum" the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion Avalokiteshvara (Tibetan: Chenrezig, Chinese: Guan Yin). The Dalai Lama is said to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, and so the mantra is especially revered by his devotees. The mantra is usually translated as "The Jewel in the Lotus" (meaning what?)' The Brahminical insistence on absolutely correct pronunciation of Sanskrit broke down as Buddhism was exported to other countries where the inhabitants found it impossible to reproduce the sounds. So in Tibet, for instance, where this mantra is on the lips of many Tibetans all their waking hours, the mantra is pronounced Om mani peme hung.

Mantra in Shingon Buddhism

The analysis of Mantras in Buddhism reached new heights in the Japanese school of "Shingon" (meaning: "true word"), which was the Japanese translation of the Chinese term for mantra ("chen yen"). In the Mahavairocana Sutra which is central to Shingon Buddhism, it asserts:

"Thanks to the original vows of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, a miraculous force resides in the mantras, so that by pronouncing them one acquires merit without limits" (Conze, 183).

The Shingon philosopher Kūkai (774-835 C.E.) advanced a general theory of language based on his analysis of two forms of Buddhist ritual language: dharani (dhāra.nī) and mantra. The word dharani derives from a Sanskrit root dh.r which means to hold, or maintain. Ryuichi Abe suggests that it is generally understood as a mnemonic device which encapsulates the meaning of a section or chapter of a sutra. This is perhaps related to the use of verse summaries at the end of texts as in the Udana which is generally acknowledged as being in the oldest strata of the Pali Canon. Dharanis are also considered to protect the one who chants them from malign influences and calamities.

The distinction between dharani and mantra is a difficult one to make. We can say that all mantras are dharanis but that not all dharanis are mantras. Mantras do tend to be shorter. Both tend to contain a number of unintelligible phonic fragments such as Om, or Hu.m which is perhaps why some people consider them to be essentially meaningless. Kukai made mantra a special class of dharani which showed that every syllable of a dharani was a manifestation of the true nature of reality. Thus rather than being devoid of meaning, Kukai suggests that dharanis are in fact saturated with meaning—every syllable is symbolic on multiple levels.

One of Kūkai's distinctive contributions was to take this symbolic association even further by saying that there is no essential difference between the syllables of mantras and sacred texts, and those of ordinary language. If one understood the workings of mantra, then any sounds could be a representative of ultimate reality. This emphasis on sounds was one of the drivers for Kūkai's championing of the phonetic writing system, the kana, which was adopted in Japan around the time of Kūkai. He is generally credited with the invention of the kana, but there is apparently some doubt about this story amongst scholars.

This mantra-based theory of language had a powerful effect on Japanese thought and society which up until Kūkai's time had been dominated by imported Chinese culture of thought, particularly in the form of the Classical Chinese language which was used in the court and amongst the literati, and Confucianism which was the dominant political ideology. In particular Kūkai was able to use this new theory of language to create links between indigenous Japanese culture and Buddhism. For instance, he made a link between the Buddha Mahavairocana and the Shinto sun Goddess Amaterasu. Since the emperors were thought to be descended form Amaterasu, Kūkai had found a powerful connection here that linked the emperors with the Buddha, and also in finding a way to integrate Shinto with Buddhism, something that had not happened with Confucianism. Buddhism then became essentially an indigenous religion in a way that Confucianism had not. It was through language and mantra that this connection was made. Kūkai helped to elucidate what mantra is in a way that had not been done before: he addressed the fundamental questions of what a text is, how signs function, and above all, what language is. In this manner he covered some of the same ground as modern day Structuralists and others scholars of language, although he came to very different conclusions.

Mantra in other Religious Traditions

Mantra practice has also been enthusiastically taken up by various New Age groups and individuals, who often teach that the mere repetition of syllables can have a calming effect on the mind. For example, Transcendental Meditation (also known simply as 'TM') uses what the group refers to as 'simple mantras' - as a meditative focus. TM was founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. According to the TM website (see below) the practice can result in a number of material benefits such as relaxation, reduced stress, better health, better self image; but it can also benefit the world by reducing violence and crime, and generally improve quality of life. Simple two-syllable mantras are used.

Mantras are also an important part of Sikhism. In Sikhism Mantras (or "Mantars") are a Shabad (Word or hymn) from Gurbani to concentrate the mind on God and the message of the Ten Gurus. The main mantras of Sikhism are the famous "Gurmantar," and the "Mool Mantar." Chanting is the process of the continuous repeating a mantra. When a mantra is sung or chanted, whether by oneself or in a group of devoted aspirants, it is termed as Kirtan—the glorification of God. Prayers may also be sung in a Kirtan. The singing and chanting of Kirtan creates an elevated mental condition for practicing meditation or entering into an intense form of spiritual practice. Kirtan is a powerful and unique method of recharging the subconscious with spiritual vibrations. The Sikh doctrine of "Namm Japna" (meaning "repetition of the name of God) requires Sikhs to cultivate constant remembrance of God in their daily lives.

Some forms of Jewish practice use mantras, although they do not call them by that name. Hasidic Jews sing phrases from the Hebrew Bible over and over, in a form of rhythmic chant, often accompanied by drumming on the table. They also use wordless sacred meditation tunes called niggunim, which are revealed through the higher consciousness of the Rebbes (Hasidic leaders, similar to gurus). Some subgroups of the Breslov Hasidic movement use the mantra Na Nach Nachma, based on the name of their founder, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov. All of these practices are done to achieve deveikut (meaning "cleaving (holding on) to God").

In the Islamic Sufi tradition, chanting the 99 Names of Allah is an invocation of Allah's attributes.

In Christianity, repetitive prayer using prayer beads (such as a rosary or chotki) includes well known mantras such as the Jesus prayer and Hail Mary. A form of Christian meditation was taught by Dom John Main that involves the silent repetition of a mantra.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Abe, R. The weaving of mantra: Kukai and the construction of esoteric Buddhist discourse. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. ISBN 0231112874
  • Beyer, S. Magic and ritual in Tibet: (The cult of Tara). Delhi: Motilal Banarsisdass, 2001. ISBN 8120804899
  • Conze, E. Buddhism: its essence and development. Windhorse Publications, 2004. ISBN 1899579400
  • Gelongma Karma Khechong Palmo. Mantras On The Prayer Flag. Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies 1 (2) (1973): 168-169.
  • Gombrich, R. F. Theravaada Buddhism: a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. London: Routledge, 1988. ISBN 0415075858
  • Govinda (Lama Anagarika). Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism. Weiser Books, 1969. ISBN 0877280649
  • Higgins, David and Christine Kachur. "RELST 110.6-World Religions (Extension Division Study Guide)" Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, 2002.
  • Lopez, D. Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0226493113
  • The Rider Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion. (London: Rider, 1986.
  • Skilton, A. A concise history of Buddhism. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications, 2nd edition, 1994. ISBN 0904766926
  • Sangharakshita. Transforming Self and World: themes from the Sutra of Golden Light. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications, 1996. ISBN 090476673X
  • Walsh, M. The Long discourses of the Buddha : a translation of the Digha Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. ISBN 0861711033

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