Difference between revisions of "Literacy" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
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[[Category:Education]]
 
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[[File:Figure 5 Literacy has rapidly spread Reading the past writing the future.png|right|350px|thumb|Literacy rapidly spread in several regions from 1990-2015]]
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'''Literacy''' is usually defined as the ability to [[Reading|read]] and [[writing|write]], or the ability to use [[language]] to read, write, [[Listening|listen]], and [[Speech|speak]]. In modern contexts, the word refers to reading and writing at a level adequate for [[communication]], or at a level that lets one understand and communicate ideas in a literate [[society]], so as to take part in that society. Literacy can also refer to proficiency in a number of fields, such as [[art]] or physical activity.
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Literacy rates are a crucial measure of a region's [[human capital]]. This is because literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people, generally have a higher socio-economic status, and enjoy better health and employment prospects. Literacy is part of the development of individual maturity, allowing one to attain one's potential as a person, and an essential skill that allows one to be a fully functioning member of society able to contribute one's abilities and talents for the good of all. Thus, one of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] of the [[United Nations]] is to achieve universal [[primary education]], a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy, thus ensuring that all people throughout the world are able to participate in society in a fuller way.
  
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==Definitions of literacy==
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Traditional definitions of literacy consider the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak."<ref> L.C. Moats, ''Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers'' (Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000, ISBN 1557663874).</ref> 
  
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The standards for what constitutes "literacy" vary, depending on social, cultural, and political context. For example, a basic literacy standard in many societies is the ability to read the [[newspaper]]. Increasingly, many societies require literacy with [[computer]]s and other digital technologies.
  
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[[Image:Literacy rate world.svg|right|300px|thumb|World literacy rates by country]]
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Being literate is highly correlated with [[wealth]], but it is important not to conflate the two. Increases in literacy do not necessarily cause increases in wealth, nor does greater wealth necessarily improve literacy.  
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The traditional definition of '''literacy''' is considered to be the ability to read and write, or the ability to use [[language]] to [[Reading (activity)|read]], [[Writing|write]], [[Listening|listen]], and [[Speech communication|speak]]. In modern contexts, the word refers to reading and writing at a level adequate for [[communication]], or at a level that lets one understand and communicate ideas in a literate [[society]], so as to take part in that society. The [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]] has drafted the following definition:  "Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts.  Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society."
 
  
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Many policy analysts consider literacy rates a crucial measure of a region's [[human capital]]. This claim is made on the grounds that literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people, generally have a higher socio-economic status and enjoy better health and employment prospects. Policy makers also argue that literacy increases job opportunities and access to [[higher education]]. In [[Kerala]], [[India]], for example, female and child mortality rates declined dramatically in the 1960s, when girls who were educated in the [[education reform]]s after 1948 began to raise families. Recent researchers, however, argue that correlations such as the one listed above may have more to do with the effects of schooling rather than literacy in general. Regardless, the focus of educational systems worldwide include a basic concept around communication through text and print, which is the foundation of most definitions of literacy.
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Some have argued that the definition of literacy should be expanded. For example, in the United States, the [[National Council of Teachers of English]] and the [[International Reading Association]] have added "visually representing" to the traditional list of competencies. Similarly, Literacy Advance offers the following definition:
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<blockquote>Literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen, and use numeracy and technology, at a level that enables people to express and understand ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, to achieve their goals, and to participate fully in their community and in wider society. Achieving literacy is a lifelong learning process.
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<ref> [https://www.literacyadvance.org/About_Us/Defining_Literacy/ Defining Literacy] Literacy Advance. Retrieved May 11, 2019.</ref></blockquote>
  
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==World literacy rates==
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Along these lines, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) has defined literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society."<ref>UNESCO, [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246e.pdf The Plurality of Literacy and its implications for Policies and Programs] Education Sector Position Paper, 2004. Retrieved May 11, 2019.</ref>
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{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
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:''See also: [[List of countries by literacy rate]]''
 
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Asian, Arab and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n countries are regions with the lowest literacy rates at about 10% to 12%. [[East Asia]] and [[Latin America]] have illiteracy rates in the 10 to 15% region while developed countries have illiteracy rates of a few percent.
 
  
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Within ethnically homogeneous regions, literacy rates can vary widely from country or region to region. This often coincides with the region's [[wealth]] or [[urbanization]], though many factors play a role.
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Other ideas about expanding literacy are described below.
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===Information and communication technology literacy===
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Since the [[computer]] and the [[Internet]] developed in the 1990s, some have asserted that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use and communicate in a diverse range of technologies. Modern [[technology]] requires mastery of new tools, such as [[internet browser]]s, word processing programs, and [[text message]]s. This has given rise to an interest in a new dimension of communication called [[multimedia literacy]].<ref>Gunther Kress, ''Literacy in the New Media Age'' (London: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0415253551).</ref>
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For example, Doug Achterman has said:
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<blockquote>Some of the most exciting research happens when students collaborate to pool their research and analyze their data, forming a kind of understanding that would be difficult for an individual student to achieve.<ref>Doug Achterman, "Beyond Wikipedia: Using Wikis to Connect Students and Teachers to the Research Process and to One Another" ''Teacher Librarian'', 34(2), 19-22 (2006, December).</ref></blockquote>
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===Art as a form of literacy===
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Some schools in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, as well as Finland and the U.S. have become "arts-based" or "arts integrated" schools. These schools teach students to communicate using any form humans use to express or receive thoughts and feelings. [[Music]], visual [[art]], [[drama]]/[[theater]], and [[dance]] are mainstays for [[teaching]] and [[learning]] in these schools. The Kennedy Center Partners in Education, headquartered in Washington, DC, is one organization whose mission is to train teachers to use an expanded view of literacy which includes the [[fine arts]].
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===Postmodernist concepts of literacy===
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Some scholars argue that literacy is not autonomous or a set of discrete technical and objective skills that can be applied across context. Instead, they posit that literacy is determined by the [[culture|cultural]], [[politics|political]], and [[history|historical]] contexts of the community in which it is used, drawing on academic disciplines including [[cultural anthropology]] and [[linguistic anthropology]] to make the case.<ref>Michele Knobel, ''Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse, and Social Practice'' (New York: Lang, 1999, ISBN 0820439703). </ref> In the view of these thinkers, definitions of literacy are based on [[ideology|ideologies]]. New literacies such as [[critical literacy]], [[media literacy]], [[technacy]], [[visual literacy]], [[computer literacy]], [[multimedia literacy]], [[information literacy]], [[health literacy]], and [[digital literacy]] are all examples of new literacies that are being introduced in contemporary literacy studies and media studies.<ref>C. Zarcadoolas, A. Pleasant, and D. Greer, ''Advancing Health Literacy: A Framework for Understanding and Action'' (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006, ISBN 0787984337).</ref>
  
 
== Literacy throughout history ==
 
== Literacy throughout history ==
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{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
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The history of literacy goes back several thousand years, but before the [[industrial revolution]] finally made cheap [[paper]] and cheap [[book]]s available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of the population in these countries were literate. Up until that point, materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions. For example, in England in 1841, 33 percent of men and 44 percent of women signed [[marriage]] certificates with their "mark," as they were unable to write a complete signature. Only in 1870 was government-financed public education made available in England.
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[[Image:World-Literacy-Rate-1970to2015.TC.png|thumb|right|300px|Graph of declining illiteracy rates world-wide from 1970 to 2015]]
 
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The history of literacy goes back several thousand years, but before the [[industrial revolution]] finally made cheap paper and cheap books available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of the population in these countries were literate. Up until that point, materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions. For example, in England in 1841, 33% of men and 44% of women signed marriage certificates with their [[signature#Function and types of signatures|mark]] as they were unable to write. Only in 1870 was government-financed public education made available in England.
 
  
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What constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. It has only recently become expected and desirable to be fully literate and undesirable to be illiterate.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other points, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin (regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular), or by the ability to read the Bible. The [[benefit of clergy]] in [[common law]] systems became dependent on reading a particular passage.
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What constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other points, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write [[Latin]] (regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular), or by the ability to read the [[Bible]]. The [[benefit of clergy]] in [[common law]] systems became dependent on reading a particular passage.
  
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Literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power. Because literacy permits learning and communication that oral and sign language alone cannot, illiteracy has been enforced in some places as a way of preventing unrest or revolution. During the Civil War era in the United States, white citizens in many areas banned teaching slaves to read or write presumably understanding the power of literacy. In the years following the Civil War, the ability to read and write was used to determine whether one had the right to vote. This effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo. In 1964, educator [[Paulo Freire]] was arrested, expelled, and exiled from his native Brazil because of his work in teaching Brazilian peasants to read.
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Literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power. Because literacy permits [[learning]] and [[communication]] that oral and sign language alone cannot, illiteracy has been enforced in some places as a way of preventing unrest or revolution. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] era in the United States, white citizens in many areas banned teaching [[slavery|slaves]] to read or write presumably understanding the power of literacy. In the years following the Civil War, the ability to read and write was used to determine whether one had the right to vote. This effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo. In 1964, educator [[Paulo Freire]] was arrested, expelled, and [[exile]]d from his native [[Brazil]] because of his work in teaching Brazilian [[peasant]]s to read.
  
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From another perspective, the historian [[Harvey Graff]] has argued that the introduction of mass schooling was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. That is, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. Mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.  
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From another perspective, the historian [[Harvey Graff]] has argued that the introduction of mass [[school]]ing was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. That is, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. Mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.  
  
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=== Examples of highly literate cultures in the past===<!-- This section is linked from [[Reading]] —>
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) projected worldwide literacy rates until 2015. This organization argues that rates will decline steadily through this time due to higher birth rates among the [[poverty|impoverished]], mostly in developing countries who do not have access to schools or the time to devote to studies.
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{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
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{{main|History of writing}}
 
  
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[[Science and technology in ancient India|India]] and China were advanced in literacy and made many scientific advancements. Many universities like [[Nalanda]] provided education to pupils and scholars from all around the world.
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=== Examples of highly literate cultures in the past===
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[[India]] and [[China]] were advanced in literacy in early times and made many scientific advancements.  
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[[Image:Literacy.PNG|thumb|350px|The slow spread of literacy in the ancient world. The dark blue areas were literate at around [[24th century B.C.E.|2300 B.C.E..]]. The dark green areas were literate at around [[14th century B.C.E.|1300 B.C.E..]]. The light green areas were literate at around [[4th century B.C.E.|300 B.C.E..]]. Note that other Asian societies were literate at these times, but they are not included on this map. Note also that even in the colored regions, functional literacy was usually restricted to a handful of ruling elite.]]
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[[Image:Literacy.PNG|thumb|350px|The slow spread of literacy in the ancient world. The dark blue areas were literate at around 2300 B.C.E. The dark green areas were literate at around 1300 B.C.E. The light green areas were literate at around 300 B.C.E. Note that other Asian societies were literate at these times, but they are not included on this map. Note also that even in the colored regions, functional literacy was usually restricted to a handful of ruling elite.]]
  
 
The large amount of [[graffiti]] found at [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sites such as [[Pompeii]], shows that at least a large minority of the population would have been literate.
 
The large amount of [[graffiti]] found at [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sites such as [[Pompeii]], shows that at least a large minority of the population would have been literate.
  
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Because of its emphasis on the individual reading of the [[Qur'an]] in the original [[Arabic alphabet]] many [[Islamic]] countries have known a comparatively high level of literacy during most of the past twelve centuries. In Islamic edict (or [[Fatwa]]), to be literate is an individual religious obligation.
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Because of its emphasis on the individual reading of the [[Qur'an]] in the original [[Arabic alphabet]] many [[Islam]]ic countries have known a comparatively high level of literacy during most of the past twelve centuries. In Islamic edict (or [[Fatwa]]), to be literate is an individual religious obligation.
  
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In the Middle Ages, literacy rates among [[Jew]]s in Europe were much higher than in the surrounding Christian populations. Most Jewish males at least learned to read and write Hebrew. Judaism places great importance on the study of holy texts, the [[Tanakh]] and the [[Talmud]].
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In the [[Middle Ages]], literacy rates among [[Jew]]s in [[Europe]] were much higher than in the surrounding [[Christian]] populations. Most Jewish males at least learned to read and write [[Hebrew]]. Judaism places great importance on the study of holy texts, the [[Tanakh]] and the [[Talmud]].
  
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In [[New England]], the literacy rate was over 50 percent during the first half of the 17th century, and it rose to 70 percent by 1710. By the time of the [[American Revolution]], it was around 90 percent. This is seen by some as a [[Unintended consequence|side effect]] of the [[Puritan]] belief in the importance of [[Bible]] reading.
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In [[New England]], the literacy rate was over 50 percent during the first half of the seventeenth century, and it rose to 70 percent by 1710. By the time of the [[American Revolution]], it was around 90 percent. This is seen by some as a [[Unintended consequence|side effect]] of the [[Puritan]] belief in the importance of [[Bible]] reading.
  
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In [[Wales]], the literacy rate rocketed during the 18th century, when [[Griffith Jones (Llanddowror)|Griffith Jones]] ran a system of circulating schools, with the aim of enabling everyone to read the [[Bible]] (in Welsh). It is claimed that, in 1750, Wales had the highest literacy rate of any country in the world.
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In [[Wales]], the literacy rate rocketed during the eighteenth century, when [[Griffith Jones (Llanddowror)|Griffith Jones]] ran a system of circulating schools, with the aim of enabling everyone to read the Bible (in Welsh). It is claimed that in 1750, Wales had the highest literacy rate of any country in the world.
  
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Historically, the literacy rate has also been high in the [[Lutheran]] countries of [[Northern Europe]]. The 1686 church law ''(kyrkolagen)'' of the Kingdom of [[Sweden]] (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, [[Finland]], and [[Estonia]]) enforced literacy on the people and a hundred years later, by the end of the 18th century, the literacy rate was close to 100 percent. Even before the 1686 law, literacy was widespread in Sweden. However, the ability to read did not automatically imply ability to write, and as late as the [[19th century]] many Swedes, especially women, could not write. This proves even more difficult, because many literary historians measure literacy rates based on the ability that people had to sign their own names.
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Historically, the literacy rate has also been high in the [[Lutheran]] countries of [[Northern Europe]]. The 1686 church law ''(kyrkolagen)'' of the Kingdom of [[Sweden]] (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, [[Finland]], and [[Estonia]]) enforced literacy on the people and a hundred years later, by the end of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate was close to 100 percent. Even before the 1686 law, literacy was widespread in Sweden. However, the ability to read did not automatically imply ability to write, and as late as the nineteenth century many Swedes, especially women, could not write. This proves even more difficult, because many literary historians measure literacy rates based on the ability that people had to sign their own names.<ref>Children of the Code, [http://www.childrenofthecode.org/Tour/c5/viral.htm Online Video: The Spread, Rise and Fall of Early Literacy.] Retrieved May 11, 2019.</ref>
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[http://www.childrenofthecode.org/Tour/c5/viral.htm Online Video: The Spread, Rise and Fall of Early Literacy]
 
  
 
== Teaching literacy ==
 
== Teaching literacy ==
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Literacy comprises a number of subskills, including [[phonological awareness]], [[phonics|decoding]], [[fluency]], [[comprehension]], and [[vocabulary]]. Mastering each of these subskills is necessary for students to become proficient readers.
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[[File:Brain pathways for mirror discrimination learning during literacy acquisition.jpg|thumb|250px|Brain pathways for mirror discrimination learning during literacy acquisition. Upper: The Visual Word Form Area [VWFA] (in red) presents mirror invariance before alphabetization and mirror discrimination for letters after alphabetization.]]
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Literacy comprises a number of sub-skills, including [[phonological awareness]], [[phonics|decoding]], [[fluency]], [[comprehension]], and [[vocabulary]]. Mastering each of these sub-skills is necessary for students to become proficient readers.
  
 
===Alphabetic principle and English orthography===
 
===Alphabetic principle and English orthography===
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Beginning readers must understand the concept of the ''alphabetic principle'' in order to master basic reading skills. A writing system is said to be ''alphabetic'' if it uses symbols to represent individual language sounds. <ref>Wren, Sebastian.  Phonics Rules, Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL), 1999.  http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/read07.html, retrieved July 7, 2007. </ref>  In contrast, logographic writing systems (such as [[Written Chinese|Chinese]]) use a symbol to represent an entire word, and syllabic writing systems (such as [[Japanese]] [[kana]]) use a symbol to represent a single syllable. 
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Beginning readers must understand the concept of the ''alphabetic principle'' in order to master basic reading skills. A writing system is said to be ''alphabetic'' if it uses [[symbol]]s to represent individual language sounds. In contrast, [[logograph]]ic writing systems such as [[Written Chinese|Chinese]]) use a symbol to represent an entire [[word]], and syllabic writing systems (such as [[Japan]]ese [[kana]]) use a symbol to represent a single [[syllable]].  
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Alphabetic writing systems vary in complexity.  For example, Spanish is an alphabetic writing system that has a nearly perfect one-to-one correspondence of symbols to individual sounds.  In Spanish, most of the time words are spelled the way they sound, that is, word spellings are almost always regular.  English, on the other hand, is far more complex in that it does not have a one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds.  English has individual sounds that can be represented by more than one symbol or symbol combination.  For example, the long |a| sound can be represented by a-consonant-e as in ate, -ay as in hay, -ea as in steak, -ey as in they, -ai as in pain, and -ei as in vein.  In addition, there are many words with irregular spelling and many homophones (words that sound the same but have different meanings and often different spellings as well).  Pollack Pickeraz (1963) asserted that there are 45 phonemes in the English language, and that the 26 letters of the English alphabet can represent the 45 phonemes in about 350 ways.  <ref>Ibid</ref>
 
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It should be noted that the irregularity of English spelling is largely an artifact of how the language developed.  English is a Germanic language; however, it has substantial influences from Latin, Greek, and French, among others.  Over its history, English adopted vocabulary from many languages, and the imported words usually follow the spelling patterns of their language of origin.  Advanced phonics instruction includes studying words according to their origin, and how to determine the correct spelling of a word using its language of origin. 
 
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Clearly, the complexity of English orthography makes it more difficult for children to learn decoding and encoding rules, and more difficult for teachers to teach them. However, effective word recognition relies on the basic understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoken language, that is, word recognition relies on the reader's understanding of the alphabetic principle. 
 
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====Phonics====
 
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[[Phonics]] is an instructional technique that teaches readers to attend to the letters or groups of letters that make up words.  So, to read the word ''throat'' using phonics, each grapheme (a letter or letters that represent one sound) is examined separately:  ''th'' says /θ/, ''r'' says /ɹ/, ''oa'' says /oʊ/, and ''t'' says /t/.  There are various methods for teaching phonics. A common way to teach this is to have the novice reader pronounce each individual sound and "blend" them to pronounce the whole word. This is called synthetic phonics.
 
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There are many programs that use this approach.  A widely-known program is [[SRA]]/McGraw-Hill's [[DISTAR]] program (now called Reading Mastery). The [[Orton-Gillingham]] method, [[Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing (LiPS) Program|Lindamood-Bell Phoneme Sequencing Program]], and the [[Wilson reading system]] are other phonics programs.  [[United Kingdom|British]] educator [[Nellie Dale]] is credited with creating one of the earliest programs designed to teach basic reading skills, in the late 19th century.<ref>Dale, Nellie. (1898) ''On the Teaching English Reading''. J M Dent & Co, London; Dale, Nellie. (1902) ''Further Notes on the Teaching of English Reading.'' George Philip & Son Ltd, London.</ref>
 
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====Whole language====
 
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Because English spelling has so many irregularities and exceptions, advocates of the crab people recommend that novice readers should learn a little about the individual letters in words, especially the consonants and the "short vowels."  Teachers provide this knowledge opportunistically, in the context of stories that feature many instances of a particular letter.  This is known as "embedded phonics."  Children use their letter-sound knowledge in combination with context to read new and difficult words.<ref>Tompkins, G. 2006.  ''Literacy for the 21st Century.'' Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.</ref>
 
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Programs that use a whole language approach include [[Reading Recovery]] and [[Guided reading]].<ref>Fountas, I. & Pinnell, G.S. 1996,  Guiding Readers and Writers Grades 3 – 6:  Teaching Comprehension, Genre and Content Literacy.</ref>
 
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====Which approach is better?====
 
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{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
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The answer to this question is often debated.  Scientific research in reading has tended to support the value of teaching phonics, although reading experts from all perspectives believe that time spent reading—a key element of whole language—is very important.  Advocates of whole language have dismissed this scientific research for many different reasons.  One common complaint is that scientific education researchers rely on randomized studies (similar in design to those done in medicine) and do not value descriptive research that has demonstrated the value of whole language approaches.  In the United States, the [[National Reading Panel]] was an attempt to determine which approach was best.  It found that phonics was more effective than embedded phonics or no phonics, but it only used [[experimental research|experimental]] and [[Empirical research|quasi-experimental research]] (it did not include [[qualitative research]]), so the whole language community remained skeptical of its conclusions.  The debate continues.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Consideration should be given to alternative methods of teaching reading since neither the phonics method, the whole word or whole language method, nor any combination of them is completely successful with every student. See [[Reading education]].
 
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===Why learning to read is hard===
 
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Many children of average and above average intelligence experience difficulty when learning to read.  According to Dr. Grover Whitehurst, Assistant Secretary, U.S. Department of Education, learning to read is difficult for several reasons.  First, reading requires the mastery of a code that maps human speech sounds to written symbols, and this code is not readily apparent or easy to understand.  Second, reading is not a natural process; it was invented by humans fairly recently in our development.  The human brain is wired for spoken language, but it is not wired to process the code of written language.  Third, confusion can be introduced at the time of instruction by teachers who do not understand what the code is or how it needs to be taught. <ref>Dr. Grover  Whitehurst, Assistant Secretary, U.S. ED Department - Dir., Institute of Education Sciences. Children of the Code interview. http://www.childrenofthecode.org/interviews/whitehurst.htm Retrieved June 30, 2007. </ref>
 
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One reason that mastery of the code that maps human speech sounds to written symbols is so difficult is that English spelling contains so many irregularities and exceptions to the rules. However, when English spelling rules take into account syllable structure, phonetics, and accents, there are literally dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable. See reference -Abbott, M. (2000). Identifying reliable generalizations for spelling words: The importance of multilevel analysis. The Elementary School Journal 101(2), 233-245.
 
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Some phonics spelling advocates will claim that English is more than 80 percent phonetic. This is only possible, however, if you allow more than one grapheme for a phoneme. If you allow only one grapheme for every phoneme as logic and ease-of-learning demands, English is only a little more than 20 percent phonetic. The problem is that there is absolutely no way of knowing which word is spelled phonemically and which is not. '''''There are absolutely NO invariable spelling rules in English—-every “rule” has exceptions and some of the exceptions have exceptions!'''''<ref>Edward Rondthaler of the American Language Academy in a personal letter to Bob Cleckler, author of ''Let’s End Our Literacy Crisis,'' stated, “A 1986 round table of British linguists called by eminent scholars to discuss the underlying pattern of English spelling concluded, not surprisingly, that only one rule in our spelling is not watered down with exceptions: No word in English ends with the letter V.” Since ''Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary'' includes the words ''rev'' and ''spiv'' there are therefore NO invariable spelling rules.</ref>
 
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In addition, Dr. Diane McGuinness’ book ''Why Our Children Can’t Read'' explains the complex logic that is required to learn to read English. Unlike many alphabetic languages, there are tens of thousands of different syllables in English, with sixteen different syllable patterns in English: (C=consonant, V=vowel) CV, CCV, CCCV, CVC, CCVC, CCCVC, CVCC, CVCCC, CCVCC, CCVCCC, CCCVCCC, CCCVCC, VCCC, VCC, VC, and V. There are two or more syllables in most English words.<ref>Diane McGuinness, ''Why Our Children Can’t Read'' (New York: Touchstone, 1997), p. 78.</ref> Each syllable can have one of the sixteen syllable patterns. If each vowel and each consonant in each of these patterns consistently represented the same phoneme (one-to-one mapping), there would be nothing in the logic of these syllables that would be beyond the abilities of most four- or five-year-olds. But they do not. English spelling also has one-to-many and many-to-one mapping. This requires a type of logic that most children do not develop until they are eleven or twelve years old.
 
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The types of logic required for one-to-many and many-to-one mapping are: (1) the logic of “classes” (categories where objects or events that are similar are grouped) and “relations” (where objects share some features but not all features, e.g. all poodles are dogs, but not all dogs are poodles) and (2) “propositional logic,” which involves combining both the classes and relations types of logic. This requires the ability to think of the same item in more than one way at the same time. These combinations require the use of relational terms such as “and,” “or,” “not,” “if—then,” and “if and only if” in formal statements of propositional logic, e.g. '''if''' an ''H'' follows the ''T,'' '''then''' say ''/TH/''  as in ''thin'' or ''then;'' but '''if''' any other letter or no letter follows the ''T,'' '''then''' say ''/T/'' as in ''top'' or ''ant.''<ref>Diane McGuinness, ''Why Our Children Can’t Read'' (New York: Touchstone, 1997) pp. 156-169</ref>
 
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It takes most students learning to read English at least two to two-and-one-half years to learn enough words so that they can read most written material easily enough that they enjoy reading, read often, and thereby become fluent readers.
 
  
−
===Beyond the basics: Comprehension===
+
Alphabetic writing systems vary in complexity. For example, Spanish is an alphabetic writing system that has a nearly perfect one-to-one correspondence of symbols to individual sounds. In Spanish, most of the time, words are spelled the way they sound, that is, word spellings are almost always regular. English, on the other hand, is far more complex in that it does not have a one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds. English has individual sounds that can be represented by more than one symbol or symbol combination. For example, the long |a| sound can be represented by a-consonant-e as in ate, -ay as in hay, -ea as in steak, -ey as in they, -ai as in pain, and -ei as in vein. In addition, there are many words with irregular spelling and many [[homophone]]s (words that sound the same but have different meanings and often different spellings as well). Pollack Pickeraz  asserted that there are 45 phonemes in the English language, and that the 26 letters of the English alphabet can represent the 45 phonemes in about 350 ways.
−
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
  
−
Many educators in the USA believe that children need to learn to analyze text (comprehend it) even before they can read it on their own, and [[comprehension]] instruction generally begins in pre-Kindergarten or Kindergarten. But other US educators consider this reading approach to be completely backward for very young children, arguing that the children must learn how to decode the words in a story through phonics before they can analyze the story itself.
+
Clearly, the complexity of English [[orthography]] makes it more difficult for children to learn decoding and encoding rules, and more difficult for teachers to teach them. However, effective word recognition relies on the basic understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoken language, that is, word recognition relies on the reader's understanding of the alphabetic principle.
  
−
During the last century comprehension lessons usually comprised students answering teachers' questions, writing responses to questions on their own, or both. The whole group version of this practice also often included "round robin reading," wherein teachers called on individual students to read a portion of the text (and sometimes following a set order). In the last quarter of the 20th century, evidence accumulated that the read-test methods assessed comprehension more than they taught it. The associated practice of "round robin" reading has also been questioned and eliminated by many educators.  
+
===Phonics===
 +
[[Phonics]] is an instructional technique that teaches readers to attend to the letters or groups of letters that make up words. So, to read the word ''throat'' using phonics, each [[grapheme]] (a letter or letters that represent one sound) is examined separately: ''Th'' says /θ/, ''r'' says /ɹ/, ''oa'' says /oʊ/, and ''t'' says /t/. There are various methods for teaching phonics. A common way to teach this is to have the novice reader pronounce each individual sound and "blend" them to pronounce the whole word. This is called synthetic phonics.  
  
−
Instead of using the prior read-test method, research studies have concluded that there are much more effective ways to teach comprehension. Much work has been done in the area of teaching novice readers a bank of "reading strategies," or tools to interpret and analyze text.<ref>Pressley, M. (2006). ''Reading Instruction That Works:  The Case for Balanced Teaching''. New York: Guilford Press.</ref> There is not a definitive set of strategies, but common ones include summarizing what you have read, monitoring your reading to make sure it is still making sense, and analyzing the structure of the text (e.g., the use of headings in science text).  Some programs teach students how to self monitor whether they are understanding and provide students with tools for fixing comprehension problems.
+
===Whole language===
 +
Because English spelling has so many irregularities and exceptions, advocates of [[whole language]] recommend that novice readers should learn a little about the individual letters in words, especially the consonants and the "short vowels." Teachers provide this knowledge opportunistically, in the context of stories that feature many instances of a particular letter. This is known as "embedded phonics." Children use their letter-sound knowledge in combination with context to read new and difficult words.<ref>Gail Tompkins, ''Literacy for the 21st Century'' (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006, ISBN 1428819460).</ref>
  
−
Instruction in comprehension strategy use often involves the gradual release of responsibility, wherein teachers initially explain and model strategies. Over time, they give students more and more responsibility for using the strategies until they can use them independently. This technique is generally associated with the idea of [[self-regulation]] and reflects [[social cognitive theory]], originally conceptualized by [[Albert Bandura]].
+
===Why learning to read is difficult===
−
 
+
Many children of average and above average intelligence experience difficulty when learning to read. According to Grover Whitehurst, Assistant Secretary, U.S. Department of Education, learning to read is difficult for several reasons. First, reading requires the mastery of a code that maps human speech sounds to written symbols, and this code is not readily apparent or easy to understand. Second, reading is not a natural process; it was invented by humans fairly recently in their development. The human brain is wired for spoken language, but it is not wired to process the code of written language. Third, confusion can be introduced at the time of instruction by teachers who do not understand what the code is or how it needs to be taught.<ref>Grover Whitehurst, [http://www.childrenofthecode.org/interviews/whitehurst.htm Children of the Code interview.] Retrieved May 11, 2019. </ref>
−
==What does it mean to be literate?==
 
−
 
 
−
The standards for what constitutes "literacy" vary, depending on social, cultural and political context. For example, a basic literacy standard in many societies is the ability to read the newspaper. Increasingly, many societies require literacy with computers and other digital technologies (see: [http://www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/8100051e.pdf Literacy in the Information Age: Final Report of the International Adult Literacy Survey, OECD 2000. PDF]).
 
−
 
 
−
Being literate is related to wealth. The higher a person's level of literacy, the higher their [http://www.thephonicspage.org/On%20Phonics/profitable.html potential earnings]. The conditions of wealth and literacy are highly correlated, but it is important not to conflate literacy with wealth. Increases in literacy do not necessarily cause increases in wealth, nor does greater wealth necessarily improve literacy. Therefore, wealth is probably not a good barometer of "what it means to be literate."
 
  
 
==Illiteracy==
 
==Illiteracy==
−
Illiteracy is the condition of not being able to read or write.
+
Illiteracy is the condition of not being able to read or write. Functional illiteracy refers to the inability of an individual to use [[reading]], [[writing]], and [[computational]] skills efficiently in everyday life situations.  
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
−
Many have been concerned about the illiteracy in the world population, despite the fact that literacy rates have increased steadily over the past few decades, especially in the third world. Third world nations which adopted Marxist ideology ([[China]], [[Cuba]], and [[Vietnam]], for example), experienced some of the most dramatic growth of literacy, approaching Canadian and European rates. The [[United Nations]] defines illiteracy as the inability to read and write a simple sentence in any language. Figures of 1998 show that 20% of the world population is illiterate (by the UN definition).
 
−
 
 
−
===United States===
 
−
{{tone}}
 
−
There are various definitions of literacy. Governments may label individuals who can read a couple of thousand simple words they learned by sight in the first four grades in school as literate. But the most comprehensive study of U.S. adult literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government proves that such adults are ''functionally'' illiterate—they cannot read well enough to hold a good job. Several studies have shown that millions of Americans never read another book after leaving school.
 
−
 
 
−
A five-year, $14 million study of U.S. adult literacy involving lengthy interviews of U.S. adults, the most comprehensive study of literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government,<ref>http://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93275.pdf</ref> was released in September 1993 revealing the shocking details. It involved lengthy interviews of over 26,700 adults statistically balanced for age, gender, ethnicity, education level, and location (urban, suburban, or rural) in twelve states across the U.S. and was designed to represent the U.S. population as a whole. This study showed the percentages of U.S. adults who worked full-time, part-time, were unemployed, or who had given up looking for a job and were no longer in the work force, and it showed the average hourly wages for those who were employed. These data were grouped by literacy level—how well the interviewees responded to material written in English—and indicated that 40 to 44 million of the 191 million U.S. adults (21 to 23 percent of them) in the least literate group earned a yearly average of $2105 and about 50 million adults (25 to 28 percent of them) in the next-least literate of the five literacy groups earned a yearly average of $5225 at a time when the U.S. Census Bureau considered the poverty level threshold for an individual to be $7363 per year.<ref>http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld/thresh93.html</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The report of a follow-up study by the same group of researchers using a smaller database (19,714 interviewees) was released in 2006 that showed no statistically significant improvement in U.S. adult literacy.<ref> http://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470.PDF</ref> These studies prove that a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 51 percent of U.S. adults read so poorly that they earn ''significantly'' below the threshold poverty level for an individual. The only reason we do not see that number of families in poverty is that most low-income families have more than one employed adult and almost all low-income families receive financial assistance from the government, family, friends, or charitable organizations.
 
−
 
 
−
Many U.S. citizens believe that the U.S. literacy rate is much higher than these reports would indicate.  The World Fact Book prepared by the CIA<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/us.html</ref> claims that the U.S. literacy rate is 99 percent, but defines literacy as being able to read and write when a person is 15 years old or older. A person who can only read a few hundred—or even a couple of thousand—simple words learned in the first four grades in school, is only marginally literate.
 
−
 
 
−
Jonathan Kozol, in his book ''Illiterate America,'' states that there may not be any intentional deception, but explains<ref>Jonathan Kozol, ''Illiterate America'' (New York: New American Library, 1985), pp. 37-39</ref> that the census bureau reported literacy rates of 99 percent based on personal interviews of a relatively small portion of the population and on written responses to census bureau mailings. If the interviewees or written responders had completed fifth grade they were considered literate. In the 1970 census, for example, five percent had less than a fifth grade education. The census bureau considered eighty percent of those with less than a fifth grade education as being literate and reported a 99 percent literacy rate. In the 1980 and 1990 censuses, most of the census bureau calculations of literacy were based upon grade completion. They used written questionnaires and a small number of home visits and telephone interviews. If a respondent stated that they had completed less than five grades, they were asked if they could read and write, and their unsubstantiated answer was recorded as a fact. Kozol explains that this method of determining literacy is quite certain to underestimate illiteracy for the following reasons:
 
−
 
 
−
*Illiterates would not respond to written forms and their family members—also likely to be illiterate—would not either.
 
−
*Illiterates are less likely to have telephones than the general public, because of unemployment or low paying jobs.
 
−
*Illiterates may distrust anyone knocking on their door or calling on the telephone and seeking information because they are often hounded by bill collectors, salesmen, and others because of their financial condition and because they may have been cheated as a result of their illiteracy. Therefore they cannot be expected to give accurate answers to questions asked by census bureau workers they do not know, especially if the answers are embarrassing.
 
−
*Grade level completion does not equal grade level competence.
 
−
*Those who have no permanent home address, no telephone, no post office box, and no regular job—a condition shared by more than six million adults, most of whom are illiterate—cannot be found by the census bureau in time to be included in the count.
 
−
 
 
−
===Other countries===
 
−
 
 
−
Among the [[Arab]] states, 19.8% of men and 41.1% of women were not literate as of 2006.<ref>UNESCO Institute for Statistics: [http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=6706_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC Literacy rates, youth (15-24) and adult (15+), by region and gender] (September 2006 Assessment)</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
As per the 2001 India census, [[Literacy in India|India's national literacy]] is only 65.2 percent.<ref>[http://www1.uni-hamburg.de/UNESCO-UIE/literacyexchange/india/indiadata.htm Literacy Facts] University of Hamburg</ref> <ref>[http://www.censusindia.net/maps/literacy.html Literacy, Indian Census]</ref> Literacy drive is spreading slowly to other states.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2005/06/wu.htm The Quiet Revolution] IMF</ref> India's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate was 76.4% between 2000 and 2004.<ref>[http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/population-health/variable-499.html Population, Health and Human Well-being ]</ref>  At current rates India will take no less than 20 years for a literacy of 95%.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/special/india/mg18524876.800 India special, New Scientist]</ref>. Literacy in India is not homogeneous, some states in India have more impressive literacy rates than others. [[Kerala]], a south-Indian state widely recognized as the most well-educated state in India, recorded an impressive 90.92% literacy rate in 2001. <ref>[http://www.kerala.gov.in/education/status.htm Kerela literacy]</ref> On the other hand the north-Indian state of [[Bihar]] lags behind with 47.53%.<ref>[http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/CensusStats-03.htm Literacy, Census Statistics]</ref>  India's adult literacy rates (61.3% in 2002), is just a little better compared to other nations in South Asia except [[Sri Lanka]]'s 92%, <ref> ''Economic Survey 2004-05'', Economic Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, quoting UNDP Human Development Report 2004. </ref> with [[Nepal]] next at 44%, [[Pakistan]] at 50-54% [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/pakistan_pakistan_statistics.html][http://pakistantimes.net/2004/07/15/national4.htm] and [[Bangladesh]] the lowest at 43.1% [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/bg.html]
 
−
Many Indians have argued that  illiteracy, especially in the rural areas, gives undue advantage to contemporary politicians, who can keep on neglecting real issues of socio-economic development, and continue with corruption [http://www.writerstoyou.com/books/readonline.asp?locid=4322&title=Vasudha+Pande+-+Illiteracy+in+India+(disadvantages%3B+propositions)].
 
−
 
 
−
==Diverse definitions of literacy==
 
−
 
 
−
Traditional definitions of literacy consider the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak."<ref>Moats, L.C. Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers, p. 3. Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000</ref> 
 
−
 
 
−
Some have argued that the definition of literacy should be expanded.  For example, in the United States, the [[National Council of Teachers of English]] and the [[International Reading Association]] have added "visually representing" to the traditional list of competencies.  Similarly, in Scotland, literacy has been defined as: "The ability to read and write and use numeracy, to handle information, to express ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, as family members, workers, citizens and lifelong learners."<ref>[http://www.communitiesscotland.gov.uk/stellent/groups/public/documents/webpages/cs_008875.pdf Curriculum Framework for Adult Literacy in Scotland] (pdf)</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Other ideas about expanding literacy are described below.
 
−
 
 
−
===Information and communication technology literacy===
 
−
Since the computer and the Internet developed widespread use in the 1990s, some have asserted that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use and communicate in a diverse range of technologies.  Modern technology requires mastery of new tools—such as internet browsers, word processing programs, and text messages.  This has given rise to an interest in a new dimension of communication called [[multimedia literacy]].<ref>Kress, G. (2003). ''Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.</ref>
 
−
Doug Achterman (2006) said in his article "Beyond Wikipedia: Using Wikis to Connect Students and Teachers to the Research Process and to One Another" that "Some of the most exciting research happens when students collaborate to pool their research and analyze their data, forming a kind of understanding that would be difficult for an individual student to achieve." Furthermore he noted "the read/write web, also called web 2.0, offers powerful tools to aid in this kind of collaborative process."(Achterman 2006)
 
−
 
 
−
References
 
−
 
 
−
Achterman, D. (2006, December). Beyond wikipedia. Teacher Librarian, 34(2), 19-22.  Retrieved July 11, UNO, Information Science &Technology Abstracts database.
 
−
 
 
−
===Art as a form of literacy===
 
−
{{Unreferencedsection|date=June 2007}}
 
−
Some schools in the UK, Australia, Canada and Finland and the US have become "arts-based" or "arts integrated" schools. These schools teach students to communicate using any form humans use to express or receive thoughts and feelings. Music, visual art, drama/theatre and dance are mainstays for teaching and learning in these schools. The Kennedy Center Partners in Education, headquartered in Washington, DC, is one organization whose mission is to train teachers to use an expanded view of literacy that includes the fine arts. At the state level there are arts-based literacy projects like ABC school in South Carolina, A Plus schools in a half dozen states and Value Plus in Tennessee.
 
−
 
 
−
===Postmodernist concepts of literacy===
 
−
 
 
−
Some scholars argue that literacy is not autonomous or a set of discrete technical and objective skills that can be applied across context. Instead, they posit that literacy is determined by the cultural, political, and historical contexts of the community in which it is used, drawing on academic disciplines including [[cultural anthropology]] and [[linguistic anthropology]] to make the case.<ref>Knobel, M. (1999). ''Everyday literacies: Students, discourse, and social practice.'' New York: Lang; Gee, J. P. (1996). ''Social linguistics and literacies: Ideologies in Discourses.'' Philadelphia: Falmer.</ref>  In the view of these thinkers, definitions of literacy are based on ideologies. New literacies such as [[critical literacy]], [[media literacy]], [[technacy]], [[visual literacy]], [[computer literacy]], [[multimedia literacy]], [[information literacy]], [[health literacy]],<ref>Zarcadoolas, C., Pleasant, A., & Greer, D. (2006). Advancing health literacy: A framework for understanding and action. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA.</ref> and [[digital literacy]] are all new literacies that are being introduced in contemporary literacy studies and media studies.<ref>Street, B. V. (1995). ''Social literacies.'' London and New York: Longman.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Functional illiteracy==
 
−
'''Functional illiteracy''' refers to the inability of an individual to use [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[computational]] skills efficiently in everyday life situations.  Illiteracy is the inability to read or write simple sentences in any language.
 
−
 
 
−
===Characteristics===
 
−
 
 
−
Unlike an illiterate, one who is functionally illiterate is able to read and write text in his/her native language.  However, he/she does so with a variable degree of [[grammar|grammatical]] correctness, and style, and cannot perform fundamental tasks such as: filling out an employment application; following written instructions; reading a [[newspaper]] article; reading traffic signs; consulting a [[dictionary]]; or understanding a [[bus]] schedule. In short, when confronted with printed materials, adults without basic [[literacy]] skills cannot function effectively in modern society.
 
−
 
 
−
Functional illiteracy also severely limits interaction with [[information and communication technologies]] (i.e. using a [[personal computer]] to work with a [[word processor]], a [[web browser]], a [[spreadsheet]] application, or using a [[mobile phone]] efficiently).
 
−
 
 
−
===Links with poverty and crime===
 
−
 
 
−
Those who are functionally illiterate may be subject to social intimidation, health risks, stress, low income, and other pitfalls associated with their inability.
 
−
 
 
−
The correlation between crime and functional illiteracy is well-known to [[criminology|criminologists]] and [[sociologists]] throughout the world. In the early [[2000's]], it was estimated that 60% of adults in federal and state prisons in the [[United States]] were functionally or marginally illiterate, and 85% of juvenile offenders had problems associated with reading, writing, and basic mathematics.
 
−
 
 
−
===Prevalence===
 
−
 
 
−
In the United States, according to ''Business'' magazine, an estimated 15 million functionally illiterate adults held jobs at the beginning of the [[21st century]]. The [[American Council of Life Insurers]] reported that 75% of the [[Fortune 500]] companies provide some level of remedial training for their workers. 
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], according to the ''Daily Telegraph'' (14&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006) "one in six British adults lacks the literacy skills of an 11-year-old." The UK government's Department for Education reported in 2006 that 47 percent of school children left school at age 16 without having achieved a basic level in functional maths, and 42 percent fail to achieve a basic level of functional English.
 
  
−
===Research findings===
+
===Functional illiteracy===
 +
Unlike an illiterate, one who is functionally illiterate is able to read and write text in his/her native language. However, he/she does so with a variable degree of [[grammar|grammatical]] correctness, and style, and cannot perform fundamental tasks such as: Filling out an employment application, following written instructions, reading a [[newspaper]] article, reading traffic signs, consulting a [[dictionary]], or understanding a [[bus]] schedule. In short, when confronted with printed materials, adults without basic literacy skills cannot function effectively in modern society. Functional illiteracy also severely limits interaction with [[information and communication technologies]] (using a [[personal computer]] to work with a [[word processor]], a [[web browser]], a [[spreadsheet]] application, or using a [[mobile phone]] efficiently).
  
−
A Literacy at Work study, published by the Northeast Institute in 2001, found that business losses attributed to basic skill deficiencies run into billions of dollars a year due to low productivity, errors, and accidents attributed to functional illiteracy.
+
Those who are functionally illiterate may be subject to social intimidation, [[health]] risks, [[stress]], low income, and other pitfalls associated with their inability.
−
 
 
−
[[Sociology|Sociological]] research has demonstrated that countries with lower levels of functional illiteracy among their adult populations tend to be those with the highest levels of scientific literacy among the lower stratum of young people nearing the end of their formal academic studies. This correspondence suggests that a contributing factor to a society's level of civic literacy is the capacity of schools to assure the students attaining the functional literacy required to comprehend the basic texts and documents associated with competent citizenship. <ref> [http://www.sase.org/conf2001/papers/milner_henry.pdf SASE - Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics] &mdash; Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work Henry Milner, Umeå University and Université Laval, accessed May 2006</ref>
 
  
 +
The correlation between [[crime]] and functional illiteracy is well-known to [[criminology|criminologists]] and [[sociology|sociologists]] throughout the world. In the early 2000s, it was estimated that 60 percent of adults in federal and state [[prison]]s in the [[United States]] were functionally or marginally illiterate, and 85 percent of [[juvenile delinquency|juvenile offenders]] had problems associated with reading, writing, and basic mathematics.<ref>BeginToRead, [http://www.begintoread.com/research/literacystatistics.html Literacy Statistics] Retrieved May 11, 2019.</ref>
  
 +
A ''Literacy at Work'' study, published by the Northeast Institute in 2001, found that [[business]] losses attributed to basic skill deficiencies run into billions of dollars a year due to low productivity, errors, and accidents attributed to functional illiteracy.
  
 +
[[Sociology|Sociological]] research has demonstrated that countries with lower levels of functional illiteracy among their adult populations tend to be those with the highest levels of scientific literacy among the lower stratum of young people nearing the end of their formal academic studies. This correspondence suggests that a contributing factor to a society's level of civic literacy is the capacity of schools to assure the students attaining the functional literacy required to comprehend the basic texts and documents associated with competent citizenship.<ref>Henry Milner, ''Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work'' (Tufts, 2002, ISBN 978-1584651734).</ref>
  
 +
==Efforts to improve literacy rates==
 +
{{readout||right|250px|One of the [[United Nations]] Millennium Development Goals was to achieve universal [[primary education]], a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy}}
 +
It is generally accepted that literacy brings benefits to individuals, communities, and nations. Individuals have a sense of personal accomplishment, feelings of social belonging as they can better understand the world around them, and more access to employment. Communities gain greater integration and nations improve their output and place in global standings. As such, many organizations and governments are devoted to improving literacy rates around the world. The largest of these is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO tracks education statistics around the world, develops strategies for providing access to education, develops lessons and guides, and releases international standards. One of the Millennium Development Goals of the [[United Nations]] was to achieve universal [[primary education]], a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy by the year 2015. Although not achieving 100 percent success, the United Nations reported that "Among youth aged 15 to 24, the literacy rate has improved globally from 83 per cent to 91 per cent between 1990 and 2015, and the gap between women and men has narrowed."<ref>United Nations, [http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/education.shtml Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015.] Retrieved May 11, 2019.</ref>
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
−
 
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
* Biller, Peter. ''Heresy and Literacy, 1000-1530.'' Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521575761
 +
* Bowman, Alan. ''Literacy and Power in the Ancient World.'' Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 0521587360
 +
* Clanchy, M.T. ''From Memory to Written Record: England 1066-1307.'' Blackwell Publishing, 1993. ISBN 0631168575
 +
* Hirsch, E.D., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. ''The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know.'' Houghton Mifflin, 2002. ISBN 0618226478
 +
* Hobart, Michael. ''Information Ages: Literacy, Numeracy, and the Computer Revolution.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. ISBN 0801864127
 +
* Hoggart, Richard. ''The Uses of Literacy.'' Transaction Publishers, 1998. ISBN 0765804212
 +
* Knobel, Michele. ''Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse, and Social Practice''. New York: Lang, 1999. ISBN 0820439703
 +
* Kress, Gunther. ''Literacy in the New Media Age''. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415253551
 +
* Milner, Henry. ''Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work''. Tufts, 2002. ISBN 978-1584651734
 +
* Moats, L.C. ''Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers''. Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000. ISBN 1557663874
 +
* Pinnell, Gay. ''The Continuum of Literacy Learning, Grades K-8: Behaviors and Understandings to Notice, Teach, and Support.'' Heinemann, 2007. ISBN 0325012393
 +
* Prothero, Stephen. ''Religious Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know—And Doesn't.'' HarperOne, 2007. ISBN 0060846704
 +
* Rubinger, Richard. ''Popular Literacy in Early Modern Japan.'' University of Hawaii Press, 2007. ISBN 0824830261
 +
* Stock, Brian. ''The Implications of Literacy.'' Princeton University Press, 1987. ISBN 0691102279
 +
* Thomas, Rosalind. ''Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece.'' Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0521377420
 +
* Tompkins, Gail. ''Literacy for the 21st Century''. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2009. ISBN 978-0135028926
 +
* Tompkins, Gail. ''50 Literacy Strategies: Step-by-Step.'' Prentice Hall, 2008. ISBN 0135158168
 +
* Zarcadoolas, Christina, Andrew Pleasant, and David Greer. ''Advancing Health Literacy: A Framework for Understanding and Action''. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787984337
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
 
+
All links retrieved October 29, 2022.
−
===Government entities related to literacy===
+
* [https://www.nala.ie/literacy Literacy in Ireland] National Adult Literacy Agency.
−
* [http://www.nala.ie National Adult Literacy Agency]—Information about adult literacy in Ireland
+
* [http://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/ National Center for Education Statistics] Literacy statistics for the United States.  
−
* [http://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/ National Center for Education Statistics] Literacy statistics for the United States
+
* [http://lincs.ed.gov/ Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS)]—initiative of the U.S. Department of Education to support adult literacy
−
* [http://www.nifl.gov National Institute for Literacy]—Supports literacy in the United States
+
* [http://www.unesco.org/education/literacy United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Literacy Portal].
−
* [http://www.nifl.gov/lincs NIFL LINCS: Literacy Information and Resources]
+
* [http://proliteracy.org/ Proliteracy Worldwide].  
−
* [http://w-w-c.org/Topic.asp?tid=01&ReturnPage=default.asp What Works Clearinghouse from the Institute of Education Sciences]—Research-based best practices in literacy in the United States
+
* [https://www.literacyworldwide.org/ International Literacy Association].  
−
 
+
* [http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/ National Literacy Trust (UK)] (NLT) - registered charity.  
−
===Major non-profit organizations related to literacy===
+
* [http://www.fcrr.org/ Florida Center for Reading Research].  
−
* [http://www.unesco.org/education/literacy United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Literacy Portal]
 
−
* [http://proliteracy.org/ Proliteracy Worldwide]
 
−
* [http://www.reading.org International Reading Association].
 
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* [http://www.sil.org/literacy/ Literacy in SIL]—Promotes literacy in minority languages.
 
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* [http://www.ncte.org National Council of Teachers of English]—United States.
 
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* [http://www.teachforamerica.org Teach For America]—Recruits and trains teachers to work in urban and rural schools in the United States.
 
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* [http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/ National Literacy Trust (UK)] (NLT) - registered charity.
 
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* [http://www.fcrr.org/ Florida Center for Reading Research]
 
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===Other non-profit organizations related to literacy===
 
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* [http://www.readingwindow.org/ Reading Window techniques]—Methods for preventing and reversing schoolroom failure.
 
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* [http://www.cllrnet.ca Canadian Language & Literacy Research Network]—Scientific research and knowledge focused on language and literacy development in Canada.
 
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* [http://www.realyouth.org REAL: Youth to Youth]—Supports literacy in rural India.
 
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* [http://wiki.literacytent.org/index.php/Main_Page Adult Literacy Education]
 
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* [http://literacynetwork.verizon.org/ Verizon Literacy Network]—Free, online resource that leverages technology to deliver needed and valued training and information to anyone interested in improving literacy.
 
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* [http://www.rereadingtoronto.com Rereading Toronto, promoting literacy by reusing, recycling, and rereading learning materials]
 
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* [http://www.thencbla.org The National Children's Book and Literacy Alliance USA]
 
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* [http://www.lituraterre.org Lituraterre.org]—European psychoanalytic group for research on the causes of illiteracy.
 
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* [http://www.mtcorps.net Mississippi Teacher Corps]
 
−
* [http://worldwidebookdrive.org Worldwide Book Drive]—A company dedicated to promoting global literacy and the environment through a specialized collection and sorting model.
 
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* [http://www.rowa.org.uk  Read On - Write Away!]—An independent partnership, whose aims are to make significant improvements in the levels of literacy, especially of those most disadvantaged; to promote a culture celebrating literacy in all its forms; and to contribute to the economic development of the region by improving the skills of the current and future workforce.
 
−
* [http://www.famlit.org National Center for Family Literacy]—Provides training & materials to over 6,000 U.S. literacy programs.
 
−
* [http://www.booksforafrica.org Books for Africa]—Collects, sends & distributes literacy materials to over 27 African countries.
 
−
 
 
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===Further information on literacy===
 
−
 
 
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* [http://www.childrenofthecode.org Children of the Code]—A Social-Education Project about the "code and the challenge of learning to read it"
 
−
* [http://www.knowledgeloom.org Knowledge Loom]—A research site for schoolwide literacy from the Education Alliance at Brown University.
 
−
* [http://www.parl.gc.ca/InfoComDoc/37/2/HUMA/Studies/Reports/humarp03/08-ch1-e.htm#TOCLink_08_1 A Profile of Low Literacy Skills in Canada]
 
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* [http://www.neuron-reading.org/home.htm Neuron Learning Fast ForWord Reading Programmes]
 
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* [http://www.literacyonline.org/ literacyonline.org]
 
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* [http://www.worldliteracy.org/ World Literacy Crusade (WLC)] - a 501(c)3 grassroots literacy movement formed in 1992 by the Rev. Alfreddie Johnson, Jr.
 
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* [http://www.terrynorm.ic24.net/education%20in%20ammanford%20circulating.htm Griffith Jones's circulating schools] in 18th-Century Wales
 
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* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/poverty.htm Poverty, Racism and Literacy. ERIC Digest.]
 
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* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/low-resources.html Literacy Interventions in Low Resource Environments: An International Perspective. ERIC Digest.]
 
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* [http://www.opednews.com/articles/life_a_c__ikeha_060123_reading_in_the_21st_.htm "Reading in the 21st-Century"]
 
−
* [http://www.sandinovive.org/cna/ History of the Literacy Campaign in Nicaragua -in Spanish]
 
−
* [http://www.espindle.org/literacy_facts.html Literacy facts with focus on the US]—An assortment of literacy facts with sources
 
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* [http://www.espindle.org/literacy_quotes.html Literacy and learning quotes]
 
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* [http://www.ronald-kaiser.com/film.htm "Reading grabs your attention"—advertising spot for literacy]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
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* [http://www.lituraterre.org Lituraterre.org] - European psychoanalytic group for research on the causes of illiteracy
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
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{{Credits|Literacy|156097875|Functional_illiteracy|156171709|}}
 
{{Credits|Literacy|156097875|Functional_illiteracy|156171709|}}

Latest revision as of 04:28, 29 October 2022


Literacy rapidly spread in several regions from 1990-2015

Literacy is usually defined as the ability to read and write, or the ability to use language to read, write, listen, and speak. In modern contexts, the word refers to reading and writing at a level adequate for communication, or at a level that lets one understand and communicate ideas in a literate society, so as to take part in that society. Literacy can also refer to proficiency in a number of fields, such as art or physical activity.

Literacy rates are a crucial measure of a region's human capital. This is because literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people, generally have a higher socio-economic status, and enjoy better health and employment prospects. Literacy is part of the development of individual maturity, allowing one to attain one's potential as a person, and an essential skill that allows one to be a fully functioning member of society able to contribute one's abilities and talents for the good of all. Thus, one of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations is to achieve universal primary education, a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy, thus ensuring that all people throughout the world are able to participate in society in a fuller way.

Definitions of literacy

Traditional definitions of literacy consider the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak."[1]

The standards for what constitutes "literacy" vary, depending on social, cultural, and political context. For example, a basic literacy standard in many societies is the ability to read the newspaper. Increasingly, many societies require literacy with computers and other digital technologies.

Being literate is highly correlated with wealth, but it is important not to conflate the two. Increases in literacy do not necessarily cause increases in wealth, nor does greater wealth necessarily improve literacy.

Some have argued that the definition of literacy should be expanded. For example, in the United States, the National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association have added "visually representing" to the traditional list of competencies. Similarly, Literacy Advance offers the following definition:

Literacy is the ability to read, write, speak and listen, and use numeracy and technology, at a level that enables people to express and understand ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, to achieve their goals, and to participate fully in their community and in wider society. Achieving literacy is a lifelong learning process. [2]

Along these lines, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has defined literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society."[3]

Other ideas about expanding literacy are described below.

Information and communication technology literacy

Since the computer and the Internet developed in the 1990s, some have asserted that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use and communicate in a diverse range of technologies. Modern technology requires mastery of new tools, such as internet browsers, word processing programs, and text messages. This has given rise to an interest in a new dimension of communication called multimedia literacy.[4]

For example, Doug Achterman has said:

Some of the most exciting research happens when students collaborate to pool their research and analyze their data, forming a kind of understanding that would be difficult for an individual student to achieve.[5]

Art as a form of literacy

Some schools in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, as well as Finland and the U.S. have become "arts-based" or "arts integrated" schools. These schools teach students to communicate using any form humans use to express or receive thoughts and feelings. Music, visual art, drama/theater, and dance are mainstays for teaching and learning in these schools. The Kennedy Center Partners in Education, headquartered in Washington, DC, is one organization whose mission is to train teachers to use an expanded view of literacy which includes the fine arts.

Postmodernist concepts of literacy

Some scholars argue that literacy is not autonomous or a set of discrete technical and objective skills that can be applied across context. Instead, they posit that literacy is determined by the cultural, political, and historical contexts of the community in which it is used, drawing on academic disciplines including cultural anthropology and linguistic anthropology to make the case.[6] In the view of these thinkers, definitions of literacy are based on ideologies. New literacies such as critical literacy, media literacy, technacy, visual literacy, computer literacy, multimedia literacy, information literacy, health literacy, and digital literacy are all examples of new literacies that are being introduced in contemporary literacy studies and media studies.[7]

Literacy throughout history

The history of literacy goes back several thousand years, but before the industrial revolution finally made cheap paper and cheap books available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid-nineteenth century, only a small percentage of the population in these countries were literate. Up until that point, materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions. For example, in England in 1841, 33 percent of men and 44 percent of women signed marriage certificates with their "mark," as they were unable to write a complete signature. Only in 1870 was government-financed public education made available in England.

What constitutes literacy has changed throughout history. At one time, a literate person was one who could sign his or her name. At other points, literacy was measured only by the ability to read and write Latin (regardless of a person's ability to read or write his or her vernacular), or by the ability to read the Bible. The benefit of clergy in common law systems became dependent on reading a particular passage.

Literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power. Because literacy permits learning and communication that oral and sign language alone cannot, illiteracy has been enforced in some places as a way of preventing unrest or revolution. During the Civil War era in the United States, white citizens in many areas banned teaching slaves to read or write presumably understanding the power of literacy. In the years following the Civil War, the ability to read and write was used to determine whether one had the right to vote. This effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo. In 1964, educator Paulo Freire was arrested, expelled, and exiled from his native Brazil because of his work in teaching Brazilian peasants to read.

From another perspective, the historian Harvey Graff has argued that the introduction of mass schooling was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. That is, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. Mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) projected worldwide literacy rates until 2015. This organization argues that rates will decline steadily through this time due to higher birth rates among the impoverished, mostly in developing countries who do not have access to schools or the time to devote to studies.

Examples of highly literate cultures in the past

India and China were advanced in literacy in early times and made many scientific advancements.

The slow spread of literacy in the ancient world. The dark blue areas were literate at around 2300 B.C.E. The dark green areas were literate at around 1300 B.C.E. The light green areas were literate at around 300 B.C.E. Note that other Asian societies were literate at these times, but they are not included on this map. Note also that even in the colored regions, functional literacy was usually restricted to a handful of ruling elite.

The large amount of graffiti found at Roman sites such as Pompeii, shows that at least a large minority of the population would have been literate.

Because of its emphasis on the individual reading of the Qur'an in the original Arabic alphabet many Islamic countries have known a comparatively high level of literacy during most of the past twelve centuries. In Islamic edict (or Fatwa), to be literate is an individual religious obligation.

In the Middle Ages, literacy rates among Jews in Europe were much higher than in the surrounding Christian populations. Most Jewish males at least learned to read and write Hebrew. Judaism places great importance on the study of holy texts, the Tanakh and the Talmud.

In New England, the literacy rate was over 50 percent during the first half of the seventeenth century, and it rose to 70 percent by 1710. By the time of the American Revolution, it was around 90 percent. This is seen by some as a side effect of the Puritan belief in the importance of Bible reading.

In Wales, the literacy rate rocketed during the eighteenth century, when Griffith Jones ran a system of circulating schools, with the aim of enabling everyone to read the Bible (in Welsh). It is claimed that in 1750, Wales had the highest literacy rate of any country in the world.

Historically, the literacy rate has also been high in the Lutheran countries of Northern Europe. The 1686 church law (kyrkolagen) of the Kingdom of Sweden (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, Finland, and Estonia) enforced literacy on the people and a hundred years later, by the end of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate was close to 100 percent. Even before the 1686 law, literacy was widespread in Sweden. However, the ability to read did not automatically imply ability to write, and as late as the nineteenth century many Swedes, especially women, could not write. This proves even more difficult, because many literary historians measure literacy rates based on the ability that people had to sign their own names.[8]

Teaching literacy

Brain pathways for mirror discrimination learning during literacy acquisition. Upper: The Visual Word Form Area [VWFA] (in red) presents mirror invariance before alphabetization and mirror discrimination for letters after alphabetization.

Literacy comprises a number of sub-skills, including phonological awareness, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary. Mastering each of these sub-skills is necessary for students to become proficient readers.

Alphabetic principle and English orthography

Beginning readers must understand the concept of the alphabetic principle in order to master basic reading skills. A writing system is said to be alphabetic if it uses symbols to represent individual language sounds. In contrast, logographic writing systems such as Chinese) use a symbol to represent an entire word, and syllabic writing systems (such as Japanese kana) use a symbol to represent a single syllable.

Alphabetic writing systems vary in complexity. For example, Spanish is an alphabetic writing system that has a nearly perfect one-to-one correspondence of symbols to individual sounds. In Spanish, most of the time, words are spelled the way they sound, that is, word spellings are almost always regular. English, on the other hand, is far more complex in that it does not have a one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds. English has individual sounds that can be represented by more than one symbol or symbol combination. For example, the long |a| sound can be represented by a-consonant-e as in ate, -ay as in hay, -ea as in steak, -ey as in they, -ai as in pain, and -ei as in vein. In addition, there are many words with irregular spelling and many homophones (words that sound the same but have different meanings and often different spellings as well). Pollack Pickeraz asserted that there are 45 phonemes in the English language, and that the 26 letters of the English alphabet can represent the 45 phonemes in about 350 ways.

Clearly, the complexity of English orthography makes it more difficult for children to learn decoding and encoding rules, and more difficult for teachers to teach them. However, effective word recognition relies on the basic understanding that letters represent the sounds of spoken language, that is, word recognition relies on the reader's understanding of the alphabetic principle.

Phonics

Phonics is an instructional technique that teaches readers to attend to the letters or groups of letters that make up words. So, to read the word throat using phonics, each grapheme (a letter or letters that represent one sound) is examined separately: Th says /θ/, r says /ɹ/, oa says /oʊ/, and t says /t/. There are various methods for teaching phonics. A common way to teach this is to have the novice reader pronounce each individual sound and "blend" them to pronounce the whole word. This is called synthetic phonics.

Whole language

Because English spelling has so many irregularities and exceptions, advocates of whole language recommend that novice readers should learn a little about the individual letters in words, especially the consonants and the "short vowels." Teachers provide this knowledge opportunistically, in the context of stories that feature many instances of a particular letter. This is known as "embedded phonics." Children use their letter-sound knowledge in combination with context to read new and difficult words.[9]

Why learning to read is difficult

Many children of average and above average intelligence experience difficulty when learning to read. According to Grover Whitehurst, Assistant Secretary, U.S. Department of Education, learning to read is difficult for several reasons. First, reading requires the mastery of a code that maps human speech sounds to written symbols, and this code is not readily apparent or easy to understand. Second, reading is not a natural process; it was invented by humans fairly recently in their development. The human brain is wired for spoken language, but it is not wired to process the code of written language. Third, confusion can be introduced at the time of instruction by teachers who do not understand what the code is or how it needs to be taught.[10]

Illiteracy

Illiteracy is the condition of not being able to read or write. Functional illiteracy refers to the inability of an individual to use reading, writing, and computational skills efficiently in everyday life situations.

Functional illiteracy

Unlike an illiterate, one who is functionally illiterate is able to read and write text in his/her native language. However, he/she does so with a variable degree of grammatical correctness, and style, and cannot perform fundamental tasks such as: Filling out an employment application, following written instructions, reading a newspaper article, reading traffic signs, consulting a dictionary, or understanding a bus schedule. In short, when confronted with printed materials, adults without basic literacy skills cannot function effectively in modern society. Functional illiteracy also severely limits interaction with information and communication technologies (using a personal computer to work with a word processor, a web browser, a spreadsheet application, or using a mobile phone efficiently).

Those who are functionally illiterate may be subject to social intimidation, health risks, stress, low income, and other pitfalls associated with their inability.

The correlation between crime and functional illiteracy is well-known to criminologists and sociologists throughout the world. In the early 2000s, it was estimated that 60 percent of adults in federal and state prisons in the United States were functionally or marginally illiterate, and 85 percent of juvenile offenders had problems associated with reading, writing, and basic mathematics.[11]

A Literacy at Work study, published by the Northeast Institute in 2001, found that business losses attributed to basic skill deficiencies run into billions of dollars a year due to low productivity, errors, and accidents attributed to functional illiteracy.

Sociological research has demonstrated that countries with lower levels of functional illiteracy among their adult populations tend to be those with the highest levels of scientific literacy among the lower stratum of young people nearing the end of their formal academic studies. This correspondence suggests that a contributing factor to a society's level of civic literacy is the capacity of schools to assure the students attaining the functional literacy required to comprehend the basic texts and documents associated with competent citizenship.[12]

Efforts to improve literacy rates

Did you know?
One of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals was to achieve universal primary education, a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy

It is generally accepted that literacy brings benefits to individuals, communities, and nations. Individuals have a sense of personal accomplishment, feelings of social belonging as they can better understand the world around them, and more access to employment. Communities gain greater integration and nations improve their output and place in global standings. As such, many organizations and governments are devoted to improving literacy rates around the world. The largest of these is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO tracks education statistics around the world, develops strategies for providing access to education, develops lessons and guides, and releases international standards. One of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations was to achieve universal primary education, a level of schooling that includes basic literacy and numeracy by the year 2015. Although not achieving 100 percent success, the United Nations reported that "Among youth aged 15 to 24, the literacy rate has improved globally from 83 per cent to 91 per cent between 1990 and 2015, and the gap between women and men has narrowed."[13]

Notes

  1. ↑ L.C. Moats, Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers (Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000, ISBN 1557663874).
  2. ↑ Defining Literacy Literacy Advance. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  3. ↑ UNESCO, The Plurality of Literacy and its implications for Policies and Programs Education Sector Position Paper, 2004. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  4. ↑ Gunther Kress, Literacy in the New Media Age (London: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0415253551).
  5. ↑ Doug Achterman, "Beyond Wikipedia: Using Wikis to Connect Students and Teachers to the Research Process and to One Another" Teacher Librarian, 34(2), 19-22 (2006, December).
  6. ↑ Michele Knobel, Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse, and Social Practice (New York: Lang, 1999, ISBN 0820439703).
  7. ↑ C. Zarcadoolas, A. Pleasant, and D. Greer, Advancing Health Literacy: A Framework for Understanding and Action (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006, ISBN 0787984337).
  8. ↑ Children of the Code, Online Video: The Spread, Rise and Fall of Early Literacy. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  9. ↑ Gail Tompkins, Literacy for the 21st Century (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006, ISBN 1428819460).
  10. ↑ Grover Whitehurst, Children of the Code interview. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  11. ↑ BeginToRead, Literacy Statistics Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  12. ↑ Henry Milner, Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work (Tufts, 2002, ISBN 978-1584651734).
  13. ↑ United Nations, Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015. Retrieved May 11, 2019.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Biller, Peter. Heresy and Literacy, 1000-1530. Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521575761
  • Bowman, Alan. Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 0521587360
  • Clanchy, M.T. From Memory to Written Record: England 1066-1307. Blackwell Publishing, 1993. ISBN 0631168575
  • Hirsch, E.D., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Houghton Mifflin, 2002. ISBN 0618226478
  • Hobart, Michael. Information Ages: Literacy, Numeracy, and the Computer Revolution. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. ISBN 0801864127
  • Hoggart, Richard. The Uses of Literacy. Transaction Publishers, 1998. ISBN 0765804212
  • Knobel, Michele. Everyday Literacies: Students, Discourse, and Social Practice. New York: Lang, 1999. ISBN 0820439703
  • Kress, Gunther. Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415253551
  • Milner, Henry. Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work. Tufts, 2002. ISBN 978-1584651734
  • Moats, L.C. Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers. Paul H. Brookes Co., 2000. ISBN 1557663874
  • Pinnell, Gay. The Continuum of Literacy Learning, Grades K-8: Behaviors and Understandings to Notice, Teach, and Support. Heinemann, 2007. ISBN 0325012393
  • Prothero, Stephen. Religious Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know—And Doesn't. HarperOne, 2007. ISBN 0060846704
  • Rubinger, Richard. Popular Literacy in Early Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press, 2007. ISBN 0824830261
  • Stock, Brian. The Implications of Literacy. Princeton University Press, 1987. ISBN 0691102279
  • Thomas, Rosalind. Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece. Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0521377420
  • Tompkins, Gail. Literacy for the 21st Century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2009. ISBN 978-0135028926
  • Tompkins, Gail. 50 Literacy Strategies: Step-by-Step. Prentice Hall, 2008. ISBN 0135158168
  • Zarcadoolas, Christina, Andrew Pleasant, and David Greer. Advancing Health Literacy: A Framework for Understanding and Action. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787984337

External links

All links retrieved October 29, 2022.


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