Difference between revisions of "Burial" - New World Encyclopedia

Revision as of 07:53, 15 August 2007

Burial is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object inside, and replacing the soil on top of the site. Objects are sometimes buried in order to hide them against removal or tampering. For wire cables and pipelines, burial provides protection. The most common use of the term burial refers to human burial, or the placement of a body into the ground. Human burial prevents the emission of unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial decomposition after a body has begun to decay. While it is not necessarily a public health requirement, burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial. [1] [2]

Reasons for Burial

Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in Broome, Western Australia

Human burial practices are believed to be the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." Among many cultures, respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If a body is to be left lying above ground, scavenging animals may eat the corpse, an act considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many cultures. Burial can also be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceased's family and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the pain of losing a loved one may often be lessened. Other cultures believed burial to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife, while even other religious cultures may prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to the disposal of the dead.

The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun during the Paleolithic period. Historically, mounds of earth, temples, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying the dead below ground with a stone marker to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture. Some burial practices are heavily ritualized; others are simply practical.

Methods of Burial

Most burials occur in graves, structures designed to house the remains of the dead dug into a plot of earth. Graves are designed by an initial grave cut which removes a section of earthen topsoil in order for subsequent burial. A vault structure is then often built within the grave to receive the body; such structures are used to prevent the crushing of the remains or to allow for multiple burials, such as a family vault. After the remains have been laid, the soil is returned to the grave to complete the burial process. A monument or general marker, such as a headstone, may then be placed above the grave for identification or celebratory purposes.

Personal Effects

In many cultures, the body is dressed in nice or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, belonging to the deceased may be included with the body. The inclusion of such grave goods, serves several purposes. Firstly, in many funeral services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest, and dress the body in such ways. In other cultures, the inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the afterlife. The inclusion of personal effects may also be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have with them.

Positioning

Buried corpses may be placed in a number of different positions. Christian burials are made extended, with the corpse lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest. The eyes and mouth of the deceased are kept closed. Extended burials may also be supine, lying on one’s back, or prone, lying on one’s front. Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian churches, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgement day (Eschaton).

Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched. In some ancient societies, warriors were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the face of the body is turned toward Mecca, the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures believe the placement of the dead in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or due to considerations of time and space.

Location

Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations. In some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; other cultures may keep the remains close for surviving generations.

Religious rules may also prescribe a specific zone of burial. Within the Christian religion, the deceased must be buried in "consecrated ground," often a cemetery. An earlier Christian practice specifying burial to be in or very near the church, has been generally abandoned with individual exceptions such as a high posthumous honor. Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral ^[1].

Burial Markings

Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, or a "city of the dead", paralleling the community of the living.

Embalming

A naturally mummified body in the British Museum.

Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin. A larger container may be used, such as a ship. Coffins are usually covered by a burial liner or a burial vault, which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.

These containers slow the decomposition process by physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a natural process, the corpse will not be exposed to open air.

In some cultures the goal of burial is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose or return to the Earth naturally. In Orthodox Judaism embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the Earth as soon as possible. Such coffins are made of wood, and have no metal parts at all. Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails. Followers of the Islamic faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition. Normally, instead of using coffins the deceased are buried in a shroud, and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.

Types of Burial

Natural Burial

A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of natural burial. Popularized in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment. With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a biodegradable coffin or shroud. Native vegetation, often a memorial tree, is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve. Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.

Multiple Burials

Some couples or groups of people, such as married couples or family members, may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins, or urns, may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first.

Mass Grave Burials

File:Mass Grave Bergen Belsen May 1945.jpg

Mass grave at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in May 1945

Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting genocide often employ mass burial for such victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a natural disaster, an act of terrorism, an epidemic, or an accident. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of genetic testing.

Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, U.S. Navy policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of any remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony. Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves.

Catacombs also comprise a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, such as the Roman Catacombs, were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the catacombs of Paris, only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.

Premature Burial

Live burial sometimes occurs in which individuals are buried while still alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by asphyxiation, dehydration, starvation, or exposure. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways. An individual may be intentionally buried alive as a method of execution or murder. A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an earthquake or other natural disaster. Live burial may also occur due to avalanches on mountain slopes. In rare cases, people have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced dead by a coroner or other official, when they were in fact still alive.

Animal Burials

File:Dog cemetary.jpg

Soldiers' dog cemetery at Edinburgh Castle

In addition to burying human remains, many cultures also regularly bury animal remains. Pets and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with any type of container serving as a coffin. The Ancient Egyptians are known to have mummified and buried cats, which they considered deities. Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. Chimpanzees and elephants are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.

Cultural Differences and Burial

African American Slaves

In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from a nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.

At death, a slave’s body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of Gabriel’s trumpet. Gabriel’s trumpet would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also was the direction of home, Africa.

Burial in the Bahá'í Faith

Bahá'í burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate." The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead [3] is ordained. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[4]

Exhumation

The digging up of a buried body is called exhumation, and is considered sacrilege by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there do exist a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated. If an individual is believed to have died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency, such as a police agency, may exhume the body to determine the cause of death. Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may also be exhumed if survivors so wish.[5] Certain remains may also be exhumed in order to be re-interred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of Nicholas II of Russia and his family were exhumed from their resting place near Yekaterinburg so that they could be re-interred in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Remains may also be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated. [6] In rare cases, such as that of Oliver Cromwell, a body may be exhumed for posthumous execution or dissection. The remains of various historical figures of note may also be exhumed in order to ascertain the answers to certain historical questions. Tutankhamen's remains were exhumed in 2005 in order to determine his cause of death.

Once human remains reach a certain age many cultures consider the remains to have no communal provenance, making exhumation acceptable. This serves several purposes including the reallocation of land within overcrowded cemeteries. Once all plots are full, older remains are typically moved to an ossuary to accommodate more bodies. This type of exhumation may also occur to enable archaeologists to search for human remains in order to better understand human culture.

Alternatives to Burial

Adashino Nembutsuji in Kyoto, Japan stands on a site where Japanese people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial.

Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Most alternatives to burial are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains. Within an alternative ceremony known as an Ash jump, skydivers often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall. Burials at sea involve the practice of depositing a body into an ocean or other large body of water instead of soil. In such circumstances, the body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one. Funerary cannibalism, another alternative to burial, is the practice of eating the bodily remains. This may be for many reasons, for example to partake of the departed's strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The Yanomami have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with banana paste.

Cremation, one of the more popularized alternatives to burial, is the incineration of the remains. In cremation, the body of the deceased is burned in a special oven. Most of the body is burnt during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of bone fragments. Bodies of small children and infants often produce very little in the way of "ashes," as ashes are composed of bone, and young people have softer bones, largely cartilage. Often these fragments are processed into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called ashes. In recent times, cremation has become a popular option in the western world. Ashes can also be buried either underground or in a columbarium niche.

Excarnation is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The Zoroastrians have traditionally left their dead on Towers of Silence, where the flesh of the corpses is let to be devoured by vultures and other carrion-eating birds. Alteratively, it can also mean butchering the corpse by hand to remove the flesh, a practice ometimes referred to as "defleshing." The ancient practice of Gibbeting, the practice of publicly displaying the remains of criminals, was also used as an alternative to burial. Other forms include Hanging coffins which are coffins placed on cliffs. They can be found in various locations, including China and the Philippines.Similarly, the practice of Sky burial involves placing the body on a mountaintop. Space burial is the practice of firing the coffin into space; the coffin may be placed into orbit, sent off into space, or incinerated in the sun. Space burial is still largely in the realm of science fiction as the cost of getting a body into space is prohibitively large, although several prominent figures have had a sample of their ashes launched into space after cremation.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Encyclopedia Britannica. Burial. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 June 2007.
Berenbaum, Michael. Witness to the Holocaust. New York: HarperCollins. 1997.
Krupa, Frederique. Paris: Urban Sanitation Before the 20th Century.
Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Judaism. Life Cycle Celebrations. Retrieved 10 June 2007.
God Web. Burial. Bible Dictionary. Retrieved 10 June 2007.

External Links

Backyard Burials. The Straight Dope
Museum of Funeral Customs
Waking the Dead. Blather.net
Green Burial. Forest of Memories
Mass Graves After the 2003 Iran Earthquake.
Mass Graves. Antiwar.com

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↑ examples on Heraldica.org

[1] xamples on Heraldica.org

[1]

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Claimed}}{{Started}}{{Contracted}}
-'''Burial''', or internment or, when applied to humans inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object in it, and replacing the [[soil]] on top of the site. Objects are sometimes buried in order to hide them against removal or tampering. For [[cable]]s and [[pipeline transport|pipeline]]s, burial provides protection. The most common use of the term burial refers to [[human]] burial, or the placement of a body into the ground. Human burial prevents the emission of unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial [[decomposition]] after a body has begun to decay. While it is not necesarily a [[public health]] requirement, burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] advises that only corpses carrying an [[infectious disease]] strictly require burial. [http://publications.paho.org/english/dead_bodies.pdf] [http://publications.paho.org/english/editorial_dead_bodies.pdf] {{seealso|Health risks from dead bodies}}
+'''Burial''' is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object inside, and replacing the [[soil]] on top of the site. Objects are sometimes buried in order to hide them against removal or tampering. For wire [[cable]]s and [[pipeline transport|pipeline]]s, burial provides protection. The most common use of the term burial refers to [[human]] burial, or the placement of a body into the ground. Human burial prevents the emission of unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial [[decomposition]] after a body has begun to decay. While it is not necessarily a [[public health]] requirement, burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] advises that only corpses carrying an [[infectious disease]] strictly require burial. [http://publications.paho.org/english/dead_bodies.pdf] [http://publications.paho.org/english/editorial_dead_bodies.pdf] {{seealso|Health risks from dead bodies}}
 ==Reasons for Burial==
-Human burial practices are believed to be the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." Among many cultures, respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If a body is to be left laying above ground, scavenging animals may eat the corpse, an act considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many cultures. Burial can also be seen as an attempt to bring [[closure (psychology)|closure]] to the deceased's family and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the pain of losing a loved one may often be lessened. Other cultures believed burial to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife, while even other religious cultures may prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to disposal of the dead.
+[[Image:Japanese Cemetery - Broome.JPG|thumb|Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in [[Broome, Western Australia]]]]
+Human burial practices are believed to be the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." Among many cultures, respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If a body is to be left lying above ground, scavenging animals may eat the corpse, an act considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many cultures. Burial can also be seen as an attempt to bring [[closure (psychology)|closure]] to the deceased's family and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the pain of losing a loved one may often be lessened. Other cultures believed burial to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife, while even other religious cultures may prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to the disposal of the dead.
-==Burial Methods==
-In many [[culture]]s, human [[Dead body|corpse]]s were usually buried in soil. The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun around 200,000 years ago during the [[Paleolithic]] period by [[homo sapiens]], before spreading out from Africa. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world.  [[tumulus|Mounds of earth]], [[temple]]s, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of [[ancestor]]s. In modern times, the [[Norm (sociology)|custom]] of burying the dead below ground with a [[headstone|stone marker]] to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture, although other means such as [[cremation]] are becoming more popular in the west (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in Japan). Some burial practices are heavily [[ritual]]ized; others are simply practical.
-Most burials occur in [[grave]]s, structures designed to house the remains of the dead, most often dug into a plot of earth. Graves are designed by an initial [[grave cut]] which removes a section of earthen topsoil in order for subsequent burial. A vault structure is then often built within the grave to receive the body; such structures are used to prevent the crushing of the remains or to allow for multiple burials such as a family vault. After the remains have been laid, the soil is usually returned to the grave to complete the burial process. A monument or general marker, such as a headstone, may then be placed above the grave for identification or celebratory purposes.
-===Natural Burial===
-A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of [[natural burial]]. Popularised in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment. With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a [[biodegradable]] [[coffin]] or [[shroud]]. Native vegetation (often a memorial tree) is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional cemetery monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve. Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.
-===Embalming===
+The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun during the [[Paleolithic]] period. Historically, [[tumulus|mounds of earth]], [[temple]]s, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of [[ancestor]]s. In modern times, the [[Norm (sociology)|custom]] of burying the dead below ground with a [[headstone|stone marker]] to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture. Some burial practices are heavily [[ritual]]ized; others are simply practical.
-[[Image:The Thing 2.JPG|250px|right|thumb|A naturally [[mummified]] body in the [[British Museum]].]]
-[[Embalming]] is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. [[Mummy|Mummification]] is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a [[shroud]] or placed in a [[coffin]] (also called a '''casket'''). A larger container may be used, such as a [[Ship burial|ship]]. Coffins are usually covered by a [[burial liner]] or a [[burial vault (enclosure)|burial vault]], which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
-These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a [[flood]] or some other natural process, the corpse will still not be exposed to open air. In some cultures however the goal is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose&mdash;or return to the [[Earth]]&mdash;naturally.  In [[Orthodox Judaism]] embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the Earth as soon as possible.  Such coffins are made of wood, and have no metal parts at all.  Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails.  Followers of the [[Islamic]] faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition.  Normally, instead of using coffins the deceased are buried in a shroud, and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.
+==Methods of Burial==
+Most burials occur in [[grave]]s, structures designed to house the remains of the dead dug into a plot of earth. Graves are designed by an initial [[grave cut]] which removes a section of earthen topsoil in order for subsequent burial. A vault structure is then often built within the grave to receive the body; such structures are used to prevent the crushing of the remains or to allow for multiple burials, such as a [[family vault]]. After the remains have been laid, the soil is returned to the grave to complete the burial process. A monument or general marker, such as a headstone, may then be placed above the grave for identification or celebratory purposes.
 ===Personal Effects===
-The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelery or photograph, of the deceased may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of [[grave goods]], serves several purposes:
+In many cultures, the body is dressed in nice or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, belonging to the deceased may be included with the body. The inclusion of such [[grave goods]], serves several purposes.
-*In [[funeral]] services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest.
+Firstly, in many [[funeral]] services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest, and dress the body in such ways. In other cultures, the inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the [[afterlife]]. The inclusion of personal effects may also be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have with them.
-*The inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the [[afterlife]].
-*The inclusion of personal effects may be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have with them what was important to them on earth. Alternatively, in some cultures it is felt that when a person dies, their possessions (and sometimes people connected to them such as wives) should go with them out of loyalty or ownership. {{see|sati (practice)}}
-*Though not generally a motivation for the inclusion of grave goods with a corpse, it is worth considering that future [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] may find the remains (compare [[time capsule]]). [[Artifact (archaeology)|Artifacts]] such as clothing and objects provide insight into how the individual lived. This provides a form of [[immortality]] for the deceased.
-===Body Positioning===
-Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. [[Christianity|Christian]] burials are made '''extended''', i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the [[eye]]s and [[mouth]] closed. Extended burials may be '''supine''' (lying on the back) or '''prone''' (lying on the front). Other [[ritual]] practices place the body in a '''flexed''' position with the legs bent or '''crouched''' with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an '''upright''' position.  In [[Islam]], the head is pointed toward and the face is turned toward [[Mecca]], the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as [[mass burial]], the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space. Historically, Christian burials were made supine '''east-west''', with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian [[church]]es, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on [[Judgement day]] ([[Christian eschatology|Eschaton]]).
-For humans, maintaining an '''upside down''' position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic.  Occasionally [[suicide]]s were buried upside down, as a post mortem punishment and (as with [[#Burial at cross-roads|burial at cross-roads]]) to inhibit the activities of the resulting [[undead]].
-==Locations==
+=== Positioning===
-===Where to bury===
+Buried corpses may be placed in a number of different positions. [[Christianity|Christian]] burials are made '''extended''', with the corpse lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest. The [[eye]]s and [[mouth]] of the deceased are kept closed. Extended burials may also be '''supine''', lying on one’s back, or '''prone''', lying on one’s front. Historically, Christian burials were made supine '''east-west''', with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian [[church]]es, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on [[Judgement day]] ([[Christian eschatology|Eschaton]]).
-Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations.
-Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations.
+Other [[ritual]] practices place the body in a '''flexed''' position with the legs bent or '''crouched'''. In some ancient societies, warriors were buried in an '''upright''' position.  In [[Islam]], the face of the body is turned toward [[Mecca]], the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures believe the placement of the dead in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as [[mass burial]], the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or due to considerations of time and space.
-Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. a Christian must be buried in "[[consecration|consecrated ground]]," usually a [[cemetery]]; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use.
+===Location===
+Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations. In some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; other cultures may keep the remains close for surviving generations.
-Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral; see [http://www.heraldica.org/faqs/landmark.html examples on Heraldica.org].
+Religious rules may also prescribe a specific zone of burial. Within the Christian religion, the deceased must be buried in "[[consecration|consecrated ground]]," often a [[cemetery]]. An earlier Christian practice specifying burial to be in or very near the church, has been generally abandoned with individual exceptions such as a high posthumous honor. Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral <ref>[http://www.heraldica.org/faqs/landmark.html examples on Heraldica.org]</ref>.
 ===Burial Markings===
-[[Image:Japanese Cemetery - Broome.JPG|thumb|Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in [[Broome, Western Australia]]]]
+Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a [[headstone]]. This serves two purposes. First, the [[grave (burial)|grave]] will not accidentally be [[exhumed]]. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of [[immortality]]. Such [[monumental inscription]]s may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a [[necropolis]], or a "city of the dead",  paralleling the community of the living.
-Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a [[headstone]]. This serves two purposes. First, the [[grave (burial)|grave]] will not accidentally be '''exhumed'''. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of [[immortality]], especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such [[monumental inscription]]s may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a [[necropolis]], a "city of the dead" parallelling the community of the living.
-====Anonymous Burial====
+===Embalming===
-Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple [[crucifix]]; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument.  This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in [[potter's field]]s, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media.
+[[Image:The Thing 2.JPG|250px|right|thumb|A naturally [[mummified]] body in the [[British Museum]].]]
+[[Embalming]] is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. [[Mummy|Mummification]] is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a [[shroud]] or placed in a [[coffin]]. A larger container may be used, such as a [[Ship burial|ship]]. Coffins are usually covered by a [[burial liner]] or a [[burial vault (enclosure)|burial vault]], which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
-Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The [[United Kingdom]]'s Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in [[Westminster Abbey]], [[France]]'s is buried underneath the [[Arc de Triomphe]], [[Italy]]'s is buried in the [[Monumento al Milite Ignoto]] in [[Rome]], [[Canada]]'s is buried at the [[National War Memorial (Canada)|National War Memorial]] in Ottawa, [[Australia]]'s [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is located at the [[Australian War Memorial]] in [[Canberra]] and the United States' [[Tomb of the unknowns|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is located at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].
+These containers slow the decomposition process by physically blocking decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a natural process, the corpse will not be exposed to open air.
-Many cultures practise anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in parts of eastern Germany, up to 43% of burials are anonymous.[http://www.stonereport.com/ihtm/detail-e.htm?aclnews=10:0:294:::0:242:] According to ''[[Christian Century]]'' magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God, but others claim that the practice relates more to the exorbitant cost of grave markers and the solitary nature of German life. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n17_v113/ai_18311722]
+In some cultures the goal of burial is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose or return to the [[Earth]] naturally.  In [[Orthodox Judaism]] embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the Earth as soon as possible.  Such coffins are made of wood, and have no metal parts at all.  Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails.  Followers of the [[Islamic]] faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition.  Normally, instead of using coffins the deceased are buried in a shroud, and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.
-====Secret burial====
+==Types of Burial==
-In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid [[desecration]] of the corpse, [[grave robbing]], or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a [[tourism|tourist]] attractions or a destination of [[pilgrimage]]. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker.
+===Natural Burial===
+A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of [[natural burial]]. Popularized in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment. With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a [[biodegradable]] [[coffin]] or [[shroud]]. Native vegetation, often a memorial tree, is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve. Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.
-When [[Walt Disney]] was [[cremation|cremated]] his ashes were buried in a secret location in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]], California. Some burial sites at Forest Lawn, such as those of [[Humphrey Bogart]] and [[Mary Pickford]], are secluded in private gated gardens with no public access. A number of tombs are also kept from the public eye. Forest Lawn's Court of Honour indicates that some of its crypts have plots which are reserved for individuals who may be "voted in" as "Immortals"; no amount of money can purchase a place. Photographs taken at Forest Lawn are not permitted to be published, and their information office usually refuses to reveal exactly where the remains of famous people are buried. Although the cemetery's owners state that this is meant to deter gravesite tourism, some critics say that the cemetery wishes visitors to purchase memorabilia at the funeral home's numerous gift shops instead of taking photographs for free, especially in the case of grave markers notable for their beauty.[http://beneathlosangeles.com/]
-====Multiple bodies per grave====
-Some couples or groups of people (such as a [[Marriage|married couple]] or other family members) may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins (or urns) may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first. In many states in Australia all graves are designated two or three depth (depending of the water table) for multiple burials, at the discretion of the burial rights holder, with each new interment atop the previous coffin separated by a thin layer of earth. As such all graves are dug to greater depth for the initial burial than the traditional six feet to facilitate this practice.
-Judaism does not generally allow multiple bodies in a grave.  An exception to this is a grave in the military cemetery in Jerusalem where there is a "kever ah-chim" (Heb. "grave of brothers") where two soldiers were killed together in a tank and are buried in one grave.  As the bodies fused together with the metal of the tank to a point that they could not be separately identified, they were buried in one grave (along with parts of the tank).
+===Multiple Burials===
+Some couples or groups of people, such as married couples or family members, may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins, or urns, may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first.
-====Mass Graves====
+===Mass Grave Burials===
 [[Image:Mass_Grave_Bergen_Belsen_May_1945.jpg|thumb|right|Mass grave at [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]] in May 1945]]
-Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting [[genocide]] often employ mass burial for victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a [[natural disaster]], an act of [[terrorism]], an [[epidemic]], or an [[accident]]. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of [[genetic testing]], but even in the 21st century remains which are unidentifiable by current methods may be buried in a mass grave.
+Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting [[genocide]] often employ mass burial for such victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a [[natural disaster]], an act of [[terrorism]], an [[epidemic]], or an [[accident]]. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of [[genetic testing]].
-Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in [[potter's field]]s may be buried in mass graves. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] is believed to have been buried in such a manner. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.
-Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, [[U.S. Navy]] policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony. Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves. [[Douaumont ossuary]] is one such mass grave, and it contains the remains of 130,000 soldiers from both sides of the [[battle of Verdun]].
-[[Catacombs]] also comprise a form of mass grave.  Some catacombs, for example [[Catacombs of Rome|those in Rome]], were designated as a communal burial place.  Some, such as the [[catacombs of Paris]], only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
-In Paris, the practice of mass burial, and in particular, the condition of the infamous cemetary [[Les Innocents]], led [[Louis XVI]] to eliminate Parisian cemetaries.  The remains were removed and dumped into the Paris underground forming the early [[Catacombs]].  Les Innocents alone had 6,000,000 dead to remove.  Burial commenced outside of the city limits in what is now [[Pere Lachaise]] cemetary.
-Mass graves are usually created after a large number of people die or are killed, and there is a desire to bury the corpses quickly. In [[disaster]]s, mass graves are used for [[infection]] and [[disease]] control.
-The debate surrounding mass graves amongst [[epidemiologist]]s includes whether or not, in a natural disaster, to leave corpses for individual traditional burials, or to bury corpses in mass graves: for example, if an epidemic occurs during [[winter]], flies are less likely to infest corpses, reducing the risk of outbreaks of [[dysentery]], [[diarrhea]], [[diphtheria]], or [[tetanus]], so the use of mass graves is less important. Recent research indicates that the [[health risks from dead bodies]] in mass casualty events are very limited and that mass graves might cause more harm than good.
-Although mass graves can be used during major conflicts, they are more usually seen after natural disasters such as a major [[famine]], [[epidemic]], or [[natural disaster]].  In such cases, there is a breakdown of the social infrastructure that would enable disposal of bodies.
-===Live burial===
-{{Main|Premature burial}}
-Live burial sometimes occurs, in which individuals are buried while still alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by [[asphyxia]]tion, [[dehydration]], [[starvation]], or (in cold climates) [[exposure]]. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways:
+Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, [[U.S. Navy]] policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of any remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony. Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves.
-*An individual may be ''intentionally'' buried alive as a method of [[Execution (legal)|execution]] or [[murder]].
-*A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an [[earthquake]] or other [[natural disaster]]. Live burial may also occur due to [[avalanche]]s on mountain slopes.
-*People have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced [[dead]] by a [[coroner]] or other official, when they were in fact still alive.
-===Burial at cross-roads===
+[[Catacombs]] also comprise a form of mass grave.  Some catacombs, such as the [[Roman Catacombs]], were designated as a communal burial place.  Some, such as the [[catacombs of Paris]], only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
-Historically, '''burial at [[Crossroads (culture)|cross-roads]]''' was the method of disposing of executed [[Crime|criminal]]s and [[suicide]]s. At the cross-roads a rude cross usually stood, and this gave rise to the belief that these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. The real explanation is that the ancient [[Teutonic]] peoples often built their altars at the cross-roads, and as human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of [[Christianity]], criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the [[paganism|pagans]]. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn]] in [[London]], which stood on the spot where the [[Roman road]] to [[Edgware]] and beyond met the Roman road heading west out of London.
-Superstition also played a part in the selection of cross-roads in the burial of suicides. Folk belief often held such individuals could rise as some form of [[undead]] (such as a [[vampire]]) and burying them at cross-roads would inhibit their ability to find and wreak havoc on their living relations and former associates.
+===Premature Burial===
+Live burial sometimes occurs in which individuals are buried while still alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by [[asphyxia]]tion, [[dehydration]], [[starvation]], or [[exposure]]. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways. An individual may be ''intentionally'' buried alive as a method of [[Execution (legal)|execution]] or [[murder]]. A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an [[earthquake]] or other [[natural disaster]]. Live burial may also occur due to [[avalanche]]s on mountain slopes. In rare cases, people have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced [[dead]] by a [[coroner]] or other official, when they were in fact still alive.
-===Burial of Animals===
+===Animal Burials===
-[[Image:Dog cemetary.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Soldiers' [[dog]] cemetery at [[Edinburgh Castle]]]]
+[[Image:Dog cemetary.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Soldiers' [[dog]] cemetery at [[Edinburgh Castle]]]]
-In addition to burying human remains, many human cultures also regularly bury [[animal]] remains. [[Pet]]s and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with a [[shoe box]] or any other type of container served as a [[coffin]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians are known to have [[Mummy|mummified]] and buried [[cat]]s, which they considered [[deity|deities]]. Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. [[Chimpanzee]]s and [[elephant]]s are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
+In addition to burying human remains, many cultures also regularly bury [[animal]] remains. [[Pet]]s and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with any type of container serving as a [[coffin]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians are known to have [[Mummy|mummified]] and buried [[cat]]s, which they considered [[deity|deities]]. Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. [[Chimpanzee]]s and [[elephant]]s are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.
-{{sectstub}}
 ==Cultural Differences and Burial==
 ===African American Slaves===
-In the [[History of slavery in the United States|African-American slave]] community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from the nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.
+In the [[History of slavery in the United States|African-American slave]] community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from a nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.
 At death, a slave’s body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of [[Gabriel]]’s trumpet. Gabriel’s trumpet would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also was the direction of home, [[Africa]].
 ===Burial in the Bahá'í Faith===
-[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and  precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "''I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate''." The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-14.html] is ordained. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[http://bahai-library.com/?file=compilation_bahai_burial]
+[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "''I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate''." The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-14.html] is ordained. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[http://bahai-library.com/?file=compilation_bahai_burial]
 ==Exhumation==
-The digging up of a buried body is called exhumation or disinterration, and is considered [[sacrilege]] by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there do exist a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated. If an individual is believed to have died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency, such as a [[police]] agency, may exhume the body to determine the cause of death. Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may also be exhumed if survivors so wish.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/5153864.stm] Certain remains may also be exhumed in order to be re-interred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of [[Nicholas II of Russia]] and his family were exhumed from their resting place near [[Yekaterinburg]] so that they could be re-interred in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[St. Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]].
+The digging up of a buried body is called exhumation, and is considered [[sacrilege]] by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there do exist a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated. If an individual is believed to have died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency, such as a [[police]] agency, may exhume the body to determine the cause of death. Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may also be exhumed if survivors so wish.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/5153864.stm] Certain remains may also be exhumed in order to be re-interred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of [[Nicholas II of Russia]] and his family were exhumed from their resting place near [[Yekaterinburg]] so that they could be re-interred in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[St. Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]].
 Remains may also be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated. [http://www.chicora.org/cemtery_relocation.htm] In rare cases, such as that of [[Oliver Cromwell]], a body may be exhumed for [[posthumous execution]] or dissection. The remains of various historical figures of note may also be exhumed in order to ascertain the answers to certain historical questions. [[Tutankhamen]]'s remains were exhumed in 2005 in order to determine his cause of death.
@@ Line 119: / Line 79: @@
 ==Alternatives to Burial==
 [[Image:AdashinoNembutsuji.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Adashino Nembutsuji]] in [[Kyoto]], [[Japan]] stands on a site where [[Japanese person|Japanese]] people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial.]]
-Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Most alternative to burial are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains. Within an alternative ceremony known as an [[Ash jump]], [[Parachuting|skydivers]] often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall. [[Burials at sea]] involve the practice of depositing a body into an [[ocean]] or other large body of water instead of soil. The body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one. Funerary [[cannibalism]], another alternative to burial, is the practice of eating the bodily remains. This may be for many reasons, for example to partake of the departed's strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The [[Yanomami]] have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with [[banana]] paste.
+Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Most alternatives to burial are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains. Within an alternative ceremony known as an [[Ash jump]], [[Parachuting|skydivers]] often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall. [[Burials at sea]] involve the practice of depositing a body into an [[ocean]] or other large body of water instead of soil. In such circumstances, the body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one. Funerary [[cannibalism]], another alternative to burial, is the practice of eating the bodily remains. This may be for many reasons, for example to partake of the departed's strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The [[Yanomami]] have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with [[banana]] paste.
 [[Cremation]], one of the more popularized alternatives to burial, is the incineration of the remains. In cremation, the body of the deceased is burned in a special [[oven]].  Most of the body is [[combustion|burnt]] during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of [[bone]] fragments. Bodies of small [[children]] and [[infants]] often produce very little in the way of "ashes," as ashes are composed of bone, and young people have softer bones, largely [[cartilage]]. Often these fragments are processed into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called ''ashes''.  In recent times, cremation has become a popular option in the western world. Ashes can also be buried either underground or in a [[columbarium]] niche.