Difference between revisions of "Book of Esther" - New World Encyclopedia

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Traditionalists argue that Esther derives from real history. Morever, because the feast of Purim (which involves a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in ''Esther'' have been noted. Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote ''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of [[Artaxerxes II]] Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic [[Zoroastrianism]] and those who wanted to bring back the [[Magi]]an worship of [[Mithra]] and [[Anahita]].  
 
Traditionalists argue that Esther derives from real history. Morever, because the feast of Purim (which involves a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in ''Esther'' have been noted. Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote ''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of [[Artaxerxes II]] Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic [[Zoroastrianism]] and those who wanted to bring back the [[Magi]]an worship of [[Mithra]] and [[Anahita]].  
  
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Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the [[Song of Solomon]]. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow:
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Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]]. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]] and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the [[Shekinah]].
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==Historical reading==
 
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Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]] (ruled [[486 B.C.E.|486]] - [[465 B.C.E.|465 B.C.E.]]) or occasionally with [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (ruled [[405 B.C.E.|405]] - [[359 B.C.E.|359 B.C.E.]]).
 
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The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ahasuerus'' is most likely derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Khshayarsha'', the origin of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Xerxes''. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] wrote that Xerxes sought his [[Harem (household)|harem]] after being defeated in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering [[Queen consort]] [[Amestris]], a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. ([[Ctesias]] however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with [[Vashti]] by those arguing the historical reading. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, [[Artaxerxes I]] while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with [[Esther]], although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.) The name ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'' (considered equivalent to ''Mordecai'') has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai.
 
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The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as ''Artaxerxes'' - a Greek name derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Artakhshatra''. [[Josephus]] too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks and the [[Midrash]]ic text, ''Esther Rabba'' also makes the identification. [[Bar-Hebraeus]] identified Ahasuerus explicitly as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]].
 
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(This is not to say that the names are equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name ''Artaxerxes'' distinct from ''Ahasuerus'' and a direct Greek rendering of ''Ahasuerus'' is used by Josephus as well as in Septuagint occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther.) Identification as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] has been more popular than with [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] (ruled [[465 B.C.E.|465]] - [[424 B.C.E.|424 B.C.E.]]) however the latter had a Babylonian concubine, [[Kosmartydene]], who was the mother of his son [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]] (ruled 424 - [[405 B.C.E.|405 B.C.E.]]). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
 
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Based on the view that the [[Ahasuerus]] of the ''[[Book of Tobit]]'' is identical with that of the ''Book of Esther'', some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally [[Cyaxares]] (ruled [[625 B.C.E.|625]] - [[585 B.C.E.|585 B.C.E.]]). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called ''Achiachar'' which like the [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Cyaxares'' is thought to be derived from [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Akhuwakhshatra''. Depending on the interpretation of ''Esther'' 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from [[Jerusalem]] with [[Jeconiah]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in [[597 B.C.E.|597 B.C.E.]]. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
 
  
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Jacob Hoschander (''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', Oxford University Press, 1923) has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in ''Omanus'' and ''Anadatus'' mentioned by [[Strabo]] as being honoured with [[Anahita]] in the city of [[Zile|Zela]]. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. (Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term [[Vohu Mana]], however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.)
 
  
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==Allegorical Reading==
 
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{{sectstub}}
 
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There are many classical Jewish readings of allegories into the book of Esther, mostly from Hasidic sources.  They say that the literal meaning is true, however there is hidden behind this historical account many allegories.
 
  
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Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]].  This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]] and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the [[Shekinah]].
 
  
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==Relation To Other Books In the Bible==
 
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''Esther'' is (in the Hebrew version) one of only two books of the Bible that do not directly mention [[God]] (the other is [[Song of Songs]]). It is the only book of the [[Tanakh]] that is not represented among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]].  It has often been compared to the first half of the [[Book of Daniel]] and to the [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]] Books of [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]] for its subject matter.
 
  
 
==Additions to ''Esther''==
 
==Additions to ''Esther''==

Revision as of 22:22, 2 December 2007

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Books of the

Hebrew Bible

The Book of Esther is a book of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament. The Book of Esther or the Megillah is the basis for the Jewish celebration of Purim. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration.


The Biblical Book of Esther is set in the third year of Ahasuerus, a king of Persia usually identified with Xerxes I, although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a story of palace intrigue and genocide thwarted by a Jewish queen of Persia.

Plot summary

Esther by John Everett Millais, depicting Esther visiting the king to inform him of the plot

Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, is married to the beautiful Queen Vashti. He holds an opulent banquet for seven days to display his wealth, while Vashti hosts a similar feast for the noble women. At the climax of the feasting, and more than a little tipsy from wine, Ahasuerus commands Vashti to appear at the main banquet "with the crown royal, to show the people and the princes her beauty." When she refuses, he burns with anger. After consulting his advises he determines to banish her from his presence and publicly declare a search for a woman worthy to replace her as Queen.

Mordecai's cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the "throne name" of Esther. She does not reveal her family background as a Jew. At the city gate, Mordecai overhears two men plotting against the king. He reports them to Esther, who provides this intelligence to the Ahasuerus, giving Mordecai credit. (Chapter 2)

The King's prime minister Haman takes offense because Mordecai refuses to kneel before him. Haman retaliates by convincing Ahasuerus to authorize him to deal with the Jews as he pleases. Using the kings own signet ring, Haman causes an edict to be sent throughout the land ordering the Jews, including women and children, to be killed and their properties plundered. (Chapter 3) Informed by Mordecai of Haman's role in the plot, Esther contrives a scheme, Esther agrees to help, asking that Mordecai mobilize all the Jews of Susa to join her in fasting and praying for three days. (Chapter 4) At considerable personal risk, she devises a scheme by which she will not only save her people, but expose the evil Haman at the same time. Ahasuerus, meanwhile, is reminded of Mordecai's loyalty and wishes to reward him. He asks Haman: "What should be done for the man the king delights to honor?" Thinking that the king refers to Haman himself, the greedy minister replies: that he should be given a public parade with great honor. The king immediately honors Mordecai in the manner Haman suggested. (Chapters 6-7)

The king hosts a banquet for Esther, in which she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews. Haman and his sons are hanged on a high gallows he had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place. The king authorizes Esther to writer a new decree regarding the Jews, which he will authorizes. The edict entitles the Jews to take up arms and fight to kill their enemies, which they do. The Jews institute a period of feasting and celebration. (Chapter 8) The Jews kill 500 of their enemies in Susa, hanging the 10 sons of Haman the following day. In the surrounding provinces another Jewish forces killed another 75,000 of their enemies. The feast of Purim is then instituted as a joyous celebration of their victory and their release from the edict of persecution.

Timeline of Major Events

The following is based on the biblical chronology, which specifies months and sometimes days. It presumes that Ahasuerus is the historical Xerxes I.

Event Dates
Ahasuerus ascends the throne of Persia 369 B.C.E.
Ahasuerus's 180-day feast; Queen Vashti exiled, Queen Vashti was replaced by king Ahasuerus(according to christian Beliefs) (killed according to Jewish tradition) 366 B.C.E.
Esther becomes queen Tevet, 362 B.C.E.
Haman casts lots to choose date for Jews' annihilation Nissan, 357 B.C.E.
Royal decree ordering killing of all Jews Nissan 13, 357 B.C.E.
Mordecai calls on Jews to repent; 3-day fast ordered by Esther Nissan 14-16, 357 B.C.E.
Esther goes to Ahasuerus; hosts First wine party with Ahasuerus and Haman Nissan 16, 357 B.C.E.
Esther's Second wine party; Haman's downfall and hanging Nissan 17, 357 B.C.E.
Second decree issued by Ahasuerus, empowering the Jews to defend themselves Sivan 23, 357 B.C.E.
Battles fought throughout the empire against those seeking to kill the Jews; Haman's ten sons killed Adar 13, 356 B.C.E.
Celebrations everywhere, except Shushan where second day of battles are fought Adar 14, 356 B.C.E.
Celebration in Shushan Adar 15, 356 B.C.E.
Megillah written by Esther and Mordecai; Festival of Purim instituted for all generations 355 B.C.E.


Authorship, date, an canonicity

Scroll of Esther (Megillah)

Traditionally, Esther is usually dated to the third or fourth century B.C.E. However, critical scholarship dates it to the second century. The book's authorship is sometimes attributed to Mordecai himself, but is in fact anonymous.

A singular characteristic of the book is that it does not mention God. This, together with its militant nationalistic outlook caused its inclusion in both the Jewish and Christian Bibles problematic. It is the one book of the Hebrew Bible not found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The editors Greek Septagint translation added numerous verses demonstrating the religious piety of both Esther and Mordecai. Roman Catholic versions of the text included this additions as canonical, while they are not included in the Hebrew Bible and most Protestant versions.

Debate over historicity

The historical accuracy of the Book of Esther is disputed. For the last 150 years, many critical scholars have seen the Book of Esther as a work of fiction, while traditionalists argue in favor of the story being historical.

As early as the eighteenth century, the lack of clear corroboration of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story—with its Cinderella-like plot—seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.

From the late nineteenth century onwards, scholars explored the theory that the is not only a myth related to the spring festival of Purim but may have been related to older Mesopotamian legends. According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk (Mordecai) and Ishtar (Esther) over the deities of Elam and/or the renewal of life in the spring. Although this view is not widely held by the religious scholars today, it remains well known. It is explored in depth in the works of Theodore Gaster.

Traditionalists argue that Esther derives from real history. Morever, because the feast of Purim (which involves a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in Esther have been noted. Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote The Book of Esther in the Light of History, in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic Zoroastrianism and those who wanted to bring back the Magian worship of Mithra and Anahita.

Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and God. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the Song of Solomon and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the Shekinah.


Additions to Esther

An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation, which then was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. However, some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order, such as Esther in the NAB.

By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.

The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint –- Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique, and led in part to the complaint of anti-Semitism frequently made against him.[citation needed]

The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England[1]: "The rest of the Book of Esther."

Some scholars suggest that Additions to Esther is the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 B.C.E., who sought to give the book a more religious tone, and to suggest that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety.[citation needed]

Reinterpretations of the story

The 2006 film One Night with the King is loosely based on the Biblical story of Esther.

The classic Hollywood film version of the story is the 1960 Esther and the King starring Joan Collins and Richard Egan and directed by Raoul Walsh.

In 1992 a 30-minute, fully-animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's bestselling The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecal.[2][3]

There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by Millais.

VeggieTales also made an animated version entitled Esther: The Girl Who Became Queen.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ Article VI: OF THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES FOR SALVATION
  2. ↑ Hanna-Barbera's Greatest Adventure Series Videos - Queen Esther
  3. ↑ The Greatest Adventure Stories From The Bible

External links

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Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Bible (King James)/Esther

Text and translations

Introduction and analysis

Early 20th century views

Modern scholarship

  • Introduction to the Old Testament: Esther
  • Beal, Timothy K. The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Derrida, Levinas
  • Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view.
  • Michael Fox Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmanns, 2001. 333 pp., highly-regarded literary analysis
  • Sasson, Jack M. “Esther” in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335-341, literary view
  • The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther
  • Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book.
  • Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1961.
  • White, Sidnie Ann. “Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora” in Newsom

Commentaries and Other Books

  • Clines, David J.A. The Esther Scroll. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, 30. Sheffield, England: Sheffield, 1984.
  • Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986.
  • Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.
  • Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997.
  • McConville, John C.L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
  • Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
  • Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.

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