Difference between revisions of "Book of Ecclesiastes" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Ecclesiastes''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] whose title is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] transliteration of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] title: קֹהֶלֶת (variously transliterated as ''Qoheleth'', ''Qohelethh'', ''Kohelet'', ''Koheles'', ''Koheleth'', or ''Coheleth'').<ref>The Hebrew title, which is often translated as "the Preacher" or "the leader of the assembly" is [[#Etymology|discussed below]].</ref> The author represents himself as [[Solomon]], the son of [[David]] and king over Israel in [[Jerusalem]]&mdash;an obvious attribution, given Solomon's characterization as the wisest monarch in Israelite history (''cf''. 1:1, 1:12, 1:16, 2:7, 2:9).
 
'''Ecclesiastes''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] whose title is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] transliteration of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] title: קֹהֶלֶת (variously transliterated as ''Qoheleth'', ''Qohelethh'', ''Kohelet'', ''Koheles'', ''Koheleth'', or ''Coheleth'').<ref>The Hebrew title, which is often translated as "the Preacher" or "the leader of the assembly" is [[#Etymology|discussed below]].</ref> The author represents himself as [[Solomon]], the son of [[David]] and king over Israel in [[Jerusalem]]&mdash;an obvious attribution, given Solomon's characterization as the wisest monarch in Israelite history (''cf''. 1:1, 1:12, 1:16, 2:7, 2:9).
  
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The work, which can be typologically identified as [[wisdom literature]], consists of a loosely-organized collection of meditations on the ultimate meaning of life. In contrast to the vast majority of biblical texts, the book takes a largely nihilistic stance, emphatically proclaiming that all human actions are inherently "vain", "futile", "empty", and "meaningless,"<ref>These variants depend on the translation employed. See [http://www.biblegateway.com/ BibleGateway] for over twenty English language translations of the Christian [[Bible]].</ref> as the lives of both the wise and the foolish end in death. While the teacher clearly promotes wisdom for the enjoyment of an earthly life, he is unable to ascribe eternal meaning to it. In light of this perceived senselessness, the preacher suggests that one should enjoy the simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's wife and work, which are gifts from the hand of God.<ref>Harris, 174.</ref> This perspective is abruptly countered in the postscript to the book (12:13-14), which reaffirms the justice and judgment of God. This abrupt authorial about-face has caused many to question the reliability of these final verses.<ref>See, for example, Towner (359).</ref>
+
The work, which can be typologically identified as [[wisdom literature]], consists of a loosely-organized collection of meditations on the ultimate meaning of life. In contrast to the vast majority of biblical texts, the book takes a largely nihilistic stance, emphatically proclaiming that all human actions are inherently "vain", "futile", "empty", and "meaningless,"<ref>These variants depend on the translation employed. See [http://www.biblegateway.com/ BibleGateway] for over twenty English language translations of the Christian [[Bible]].</ref> as the lives of both the wise and the foolish end in death. While the teacher clearly promotes wisdom for the enjoyment of an earthly life, he is unable to ascribe eternal meaning to it. In light of this perceived senselessness, the preacher suggests that one should enjoy the simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's wife and work&mdash;all of which are characterized as gifts from God.<ref>Harris, 174.</ref> This philosophical tone is challenged in the postscript to the book (12:13-14), which partially undermines the previous reflections by implicitly suggesting that God's justice and judgment make such suppositions irrelevant.<ref>This abrupt authorial about-face has caused many to question the provenance (or at least the function) of these final verses. See, for example, Towner (359).</ref>
  
 
In Jewish society, Ecclesiastes is read on the [[Shabbat]] of the Intermediate Days of [[Sukkot]], a harvest holiday.  If there is no Intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot, it is read on Shemini Atzeret or (in Israel) on the first Shabbat of Sukkot.  
 
In Jewish society, Ecclesiastes is read on the [[Shabbat]] of the Intermediate Days of [[Sukkot]], a harvest holiday.  If there is no Intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot, it is read on Shemini Atzeret or (in Israel) on the first Shabbat of Sukkot.  

Revision as of 23:00, 9 September 2007


Books of the

Hebrew Bible

Ecclesiastes is a book of the Hebrew Bible whose title is derived from the Greek transliteration of the Hebrew title: קֹהֶלֶת (variously transliterated as Qoheleth, Qohelethh, Kohelet, Koheles, Koheleth, or Coheleth).[1] The author represents himself as Solomon, the son of David and king over Israel in Jerusalem—an obvious attribution, given Solomon's characterization as the wisest monarch in Israelite history (cf. 1:1, 1:12, 1:16, 2:7, 2:9).

The work, which can be typologically identified as wisdom literature, consists of a loosely-organized collection of meditations on the ultimate meaning of life. In contrast to the vast majority of biblical texts, the book takes a largely nihilistic stance, emphatically proclaiming that all human actions are inherently "vain", "futile", "empty", and "meaningless,"[2] as the lives of both the wise and the foolish end in death. While the teacher clearly promotes wisdom for the enjoyment of an earthly life, he is unable to ascribe eternal meaning to it. In light of this perceived senselessness, the preacher suggests that one should enjoy the simple pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in one's wife and work—all of which are characterized as gifts from God.[3] This philosophical tone is challenged in the postscript to the book (12:13-14), which partially undermines the previous reflections by implicitly suggesting that God's justice and judgment make such suppositions irrelevant.[4]

In Jewish society, Ecclesiastes is read on the Shabbat of the Intermediate Days of Sukkot, a harvest holiday. If there is no Intermediate Sabbath of Sukkot, it is read on Shemini Atzeret or (in Israel) on the first Shabbat of Sukkot.

Etymology

Tanakh
Torah | Nevi'im | Ketuvim
Books of Ketuvim
Three Poetic Books
1. Psalms
2. Proverbs
3. Job
Five Megillot
4. Song of Songs
5. Ruth
6. Lamentations
7. Ecclesiastes
8. Esther
Other Books
9. Daniel
10. Ezra-Nehemiah
11. Chronicles

The Hebrew קהלת (Qohelet) is a feminine participle related to the root קהל meaning "to gather." Scholars are unsure whether it means the "one who gathers" or the "one among the gathering." Although the form is a feminine participle, virtually no scholars argue that it refers to a woman. Though the text contains one dubious example of a third-person feminine verb associated with qohelet, the subject always uses masculine nouns, talks about his wife and women, and is characterized in the opening of the text as a "son of King David."[5]

The English title of the book, Ecclesiastes, comes from the Septuagint translation of Qohelet, Εκκλησιαστής. It has its origins in the Greek word Εκκλησία (originally a secular gathering, although later used primarily of religious gatherings, hence its New Testament translation as "church"). From this Greek version, the word Qohelet has found several translations into English, including The Preacher (translating Saint Jerome's Ecclesiastes and Martin Luther's Der Prediger). Since preacher implies a religious characterization that is not inherently reflected in the text, this translation has largely been rejected by modern scholars. A better alternative is "teacher", as "a teacher not only assembles information to convey to students but also carries out this function in an assembly, perhaps even in a place of congregational worship."[6] However, this rendition is not without its own issues, as "there are other perfectly good and far more common Hebrew words for 'teacher,' ... and whether qohelet would have been understood as a synonym for any of them is difficult to judge because this title occurs only in the book of Ecclesiastes."[7]

Authorship and historical context

Authorship and Dating

In the two opening chapters of the text, the author describes himself as the "son of David" and king over Israel in Jerusalem. This could apply only to Solomon, for his successors in Jerusalem were kings over Judah only. Consequently, the traditional Rabbinic and early Christian view uncritically attributed Ecclesiastes to King Solomon.

This view has been abandoned by many modern critical scholars, who now assume that Qoheleth is a work in the pseudepigraphical tradition that used the name of a well-known sage to add gravitas to their composition. Though there is, as of yet, no scholarly consensus on the dating of Ecclesiastes, different textual and philological schools have proposed a continuum of possibilities ranging from the fourth century to the second century B.C.E.[8][9] Many of these scholars suggest that Ecclesiastes was written around 250 B.C.E. by a non-Hellenized intellectual in the milieu of the Temple in Jerusalem.[10] Regardless of this debate, the latest possible date for the text is set by the fact that Ben Sirach repeatedly quotes or paraphrases it, using it as a canonical (rather than contemporary) writing.[11]

Language and Style

See also: Wisdom literature

The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes was not common in the era of Solomon’s reign, and the book contains lexical evidence of borrowings from other languages. For example, it contains several Aramaic and two Persian words. The influence of Aramaic is characteristic of late Hebrew. Other examples of late Biblical Hebrew include the qetAl pattern form nouns, which would have dated after an Aramaic influence, the frequent use of the relative sh alongside asher, the Ut ending, the frequent use of the participle for the present (which is later developed in Rabbinic Hebrew), using the prefix conjugation in the future (vs. the older preterite use), and terms that appear to specifically fit a Persian/Hellenistic context (e.g. Shallit). During the time of Solomon and through the eighth century, mater's were not used inside words (except maybe in 'ir (city) in the Lachish letters), and there is no evidence for early orthography.


Placement in canon

Name of God

The book of Ecclesiastes uses the expression haelohim, "the God", 32 times. But as the Jewish Encyclopedia has it:

The Israelitish name for God is nowhere employed, nor does there appear to be any reference to Judaic matters; hence there seems to be a possibility that the book is an adaptation of a work in some other language.

In other words, the more conventional YHWH is not used, though almost no modern scholars think that the book was written in Aramaic or Phoenician.

Canonicity

Bible scholars often consider Ecclesiastes to be divinely inspired and always accepted as canonical.[12]

The Jewish Encyclopedia states:

The canonicity of the book was, however, long doubtful (Yad. iii. 5; Meg. 7a), and was one of the matters on which the school of Shammai took a more stringent view than the school of Hillel; it was finally settled "on the day whereon R. Eleazar b. Azariah was appointed head of the assembly." Endeavors were made to render it apocryphal on the ground of its not being inspired (Tosef., Yad. ii. 14; ed. Zuckermandel, p. 683), or of its internal contradictions (Shab. 30b), or of a tendency which it displayed toward heresy—that is, Epicureanism (Pesik., ed. Buber, viii. 68b); but these objections were satisfactorily answered (see S. Schiffer, "Das Buch Kohelet," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1884).

Citing further from the Jewish Encyclopedia:

Yet without the idea that Qohelet was Solomon one could scarcely imagine the work ever having been included in the canon; and had it not been adopted before the doctrine of the Resurrection became popular, it is probable that the author's views on that subject would have caused his book to be excluded therefrom.

As this citation points out, the book fails to accord with the last of Maimonides Thirteen Principles of Faith. (Though these Principles were articulated at a much later date, they evolved over a long period of time, and they are generally considered authoritative.)

According to Orthodox Judaism however, the holiness of Kohelet was never in doubt. The discussion was only if, because of the possibility that a superficial reading will lead to heretical beliefs it would be preferable to keep the book out of the hands of laymen. A similar discussion revolves around the book of Ezekiel.

Orthodoxy of views

Ecclesiastes appears in harmony with other Scriptures where they treat exactly the same subjects.[13] It agrees with Genesis that a human is composed of the dust of the ground and a sustaining spirit[14] from God (Ecclesiastes 3:20, 21; 12:7; Genesis 2:7; 7:22; Isaiah 42:5). Ecclesiastes also affirms the Toranic teaching that man was created essentially good and upright but willfully chose to disobey God (Ecclesiastes 7:29; Genesis 1:31; 3:17; Deuteronomy 32:4, 5). Ecclesiastes also acknowledges God as the Creator (Ecclesiastes 12:1; Genesis 1:1).

Death and afterlife

A great portion of the book concerns itself with death. The author emphatically affirms human mortality, going so far as to say that the dead in sheol know nothing. He mentions no resurrection. In fact, it is the lack of consequences after death that lead the author to advocate enjoying life while you can. Martin Luther and certain other Christian leaders have quoted these verses in defense of the doctrine that the soul sleeps between death and resurrection. A meaningless life followed by oblivion is consistent with the purport of much (though not all) of the rest of the Tanakh as to the state of the dead (Ecclesiastes 9:5, 10; Genesis 3:19; Psalms 6:5; 115:17). This view that death is oblivion stands in contrast to later descriptions of the afterlife, such as gehenna, the bosom of Abraham, and the resurrection of the dead.

Vanity

Qoheleth's stated aim is to find out how to ensure one's benefits in life, an aim in accord with the general purposes of Wisdom Literature. For Qoheleth, however, any possible advantage in life is destroyed by the inevitability of death. As such, Qoheleth concludes that life (and everything) is senseless. In light of this conclusion, Qoheleth advises his audience to make the most of life, to seize the day, for there is no way to secure favorable outcomes in the future. Although this latter conclusion has sometimes been compared to Epicureanism, for Qoheleth it comes about as the inevitable result of his failure to make sense of existence.

This conclusion is reflected in the refrain which both opens and closes Qoheleth's words:

"Utterly senseless" says Qoheleth, "Utterly senseless, everything is senseless!"

The word translated senseless, הבל (hevel), literally means vapor, breath. Qoheleth uses it metaphorically, and its precise meaning is extensively debated. Older English translation often render it vanity, but in modern usage this word has come to mean "self-pride" and lost its Latinate connotation of emptiness and is thus no longer appropriate. Other translations include empty, futile, meaningless, absurd, fleeting or senseless. Some translations use the literal rendering vapor of vapors and so claim to leave the interpretation to the reader.

Ultimately, the author of Ecclesiates comes to this conclusion in the second to last verse of the last chapter:

"The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone."

Some argue that these two last verses are an addition to the original script since they stand in contrast to all of the previous statements made. Others argue that it actually completes the message by saying that nothing is of as high importance as the work of God.

Other translations of Ecclesiastes 1:2 include:

  • "Vanity of vanities! All is vanity!"
  • "Meaningless of meaningless! All is meaningless!"
  • "Futility of futilities, all is futile."

Classic English translation (King James Version) of the second to last verse 12:13:

"Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this [is] the whole [duty] of man." [The word duty is not in the original and some think the should not be included.]

Notes

  1. ↑ The Hebrew title, which is often translated as "the Preacher" or "the leader of the assembly" is discussed below.
  2. ↑ These variants depend on the translation employed. See BibleGateway for over twenty English language translations of the Christian Bible.
  3. ↑ Harris, 174.
  4. ↑ This abrupt authorial about-face has caused many to question the provenance (or at least the function) of these final verses. See, for example, Towner (359).
  5. ↑ Towner, 268; Bandstra, 452; Williams, 277.
  6. ↑ Towner, 269.
  7. ↑ ibid.
  8. ↑ There follows a selection of scholarly perspectives, arranged by hypothetical date of composition: fourth century — Rudman (1999) (47-53), Rudman (2001) (316), Seow (1996) (653-54); Seow (1997), 20-22; third century — Whybray (4-12); second century — Lohfink (7); Whitley (132-146).
  9. ↑ For a more venerable perspective, note Rabbi Nachman Krochmal suggestion that the term "son of David" should be interpreted to mean "descendant of David." He posits that it was written by a powerful lord during the Persian Era (possibly during the missing years of Jewish history). Thus, the term King would not be difficult being as the Persian Monarch was known as the King of Kings, which means that a lesser lord (such as a Jewish vassal ruler) might have called himself a king (R' Nachman Krochmal, Moreh Nevuchei Ha'Zman, ch. "Chokrei Avot." His teachings are also described in Harris (1991)).
  10. ↑ Bandstra, 451; Towner, 271; Williams, 277.
  11. ↑ Likewise, Josephus claims that the Jewish canon was closed as of the early post-exilic age, arguing that, during this tumultuous period, "wisdom seemed out of reach to the Hebrews" (cf. Ecc 1.17, 7.23; Pro 30.1-3) (Against Apion 1.38-42).
  12. ↑ "The book, entitled Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes, has ever been received, both by the Jewish and Christian Church, as written under the inspiration of the Almighty; and was held to be properly a part of the sacred canon." Adam Clarke’s 19th century Methodist Commentary, Volume III, page 799
  13. ↑ Dell, 313-319.
  14. ↑ Hebrew ruach, life-force, the breath understood as the vital principle.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bandstra, Barry L. Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (Second Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999. ISBN 0534527272.
  • Dell, Katharine J. "Ecclesiastes as Wisdom: Consulting Early Interpreters." Vetus Testamentum Vol. 44, Fasc. 3 (July 1994). 301-329.* "Ecclesiastes" with introduction and commentary by R. N. Whybray. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1989. ISBN 0551018534.
  • Friedländer, M. "The Age and Authorship of Ecclesiastes." The Jewish Quarterly Review Vol. 1, No. 4 (July 1889). 359-375.
  • Harris, Jay M. Nachman Krochmal: Guiding the Perplexed of the Modern Age (Modern Jewish Masters Series). New York University Press, 1991. ISBN 0814734774.
  • Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible: A Reader's Introduction 2nd Edition. Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985. ISBN 0072965487.
  • Lohfink, Herbert. Qohelet. A Continental Commentary. Translated and revised from the German edition by Sean McEvenue. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003. ISBN 0800696042.
  • Rudman, Dominic. "A Note on Dating of Ecclesiastes". Catholic Biblical Quarterly Vol. 61 no. 1 (1999).
  • Rudman, Dominic. "Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament - Supplement. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001.
  • Seow, C. L. Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction. The Anchor Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0385411146.
  • Seow, C. L. "Linguistic Evidence and the Dating of Qohelet." Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. 115 (1996).
  • Towner, W. Sibley. "Ecclesiastes" in The New Interpreter's Bible (Vol. V). Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. ISBN 068727818X
  • Whitley, C. E. "Koheleth: His Language and Thought." Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 148 (1979).
  • Williams, James G. "Proverbs and Ecclesiastes" in The Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode. Cambridge, MS: The Belknap Press of Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0674875303.

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