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'''Origen''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ὠριγένης}}, ''ca''. [[182]]–''ca''. [[251]]) was a Christian scholar and [[theology|theologian]], one of the most distinguished of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] Church (though not ultimately considered a [[Church father|Father]] of the Church, due to lingering questions of orthodoxy in the latter part of his life).  He is thought to have been born at [[Alexandria]], and died at [[Caesarea]]. His writings are important as one of the first serious intellectual attempts to describe Christianity.
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[[Image:Origen.jpg|thumb|500px|Origen]]
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'''Origen''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ὠριγένης}}, c.185 – c.254 C.E.) was one of the most distinguished [[theology|theologian]]s and scholars of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Church]]. He is thought to have been born at [[Alexandria]] around 185 C.E., and died at Caesarea around 254 C.E. Known for his brilliant and extensive writings, Origen also became famous for his voluntary castration and championing of the [[asceticism|ascetic]] lifestyle. His writings represent one of the first serious intellectual attempts to articulate and defend [[Christianity]]. However, his exploration of [[concept]]s beyond mainstream thought raised questions about his [[orthodoxy]] later in his life. Eventually denounced by Christian authorities, Origen remains one of the most fascinating and controversial figures of the early Church. Although he was not ultimately called a [[Church father|Father of the Church]] due to lingering doubts of his orthodoxy, his impact on formative Christian thought is undeniable, and more recently some of his interpretive positions such as universal restoration are more sympathetically recognized as relevant to today's world community. 
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==Life==
 
==Life==
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===Early training===
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The details of Origen's life are found in his biography as given by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] (c.275-339) in his work ''Church History'', written in about 325 C.E.. He was educated by his father, Leonides, on [[scripture|scriptural]] texts that would later become the [[Bible]], and in Greek [[literature]]. In 202 Origen's father was [[martyrdom|martyred]] in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus as Roman Emperor from 193-211. Origen wished to follow in martyrdom, but was prevented by his mother. The death of Leonides left the [[family]] of eight impoverished. Since his father's teaching enabled him to give elementary instruction, in 203 Origen opened a school of [[rhetoric]]. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so much so that Bishop Demetrius of [[Alexandria]] implored him to restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone. Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil. Origen, during his time as an instructor, lived the life of a devoted [[asceticism|ascetic]], sleeping little and eating meager meals. Yet his pursuit of [[knowledge]] and dedication to the clarification of Christian doctrine never waned. It is recorded that he completed secular [[philosophy|philosophical]] studies under Ammonius Saccas. He delved into learning the [[Hebrew language]], and although he met with some success, he never became fully proficient. He complemented intellectual growth with spiritual growth in the form of encouraging the martyrdom of his students. Perhaps his consummate (and possibly apocryphal) act was his self-castration, in response to [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:12.
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His full name was apparently '''Origenes Adamantius'''. He was educated by his father, Leonides, on scriptural texts that would later become the [[Bible]] and in elementary studies. But in [[202]] Origen's father was killed in the outbreak of the [[persecution of Christians|persecution]] during the reign of [[Septimius Severus]]. Origen wished to follow in martyrdom, but was prevented only by his mother hiding his clothes. The death of Leonides left the family of nine impoverished when their property was confiscated. Origen, however, was taken under the protection of a woman of wealth and standing; but as her household already included a heretic named Paul, the strictly orthodox Origen seems to have remained with her only a short time.
 
  
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Since his father's teaching enabled him also to give elementary instruction, he revived, in [[203]], the [[catechetical school at Alexandria]], whose last teacher, [[Clement of Alexandria]], was apparently driven out by the persecution. But the persecution still raged, and the young teacher unceasingly visited the prisoners, attended the courts, and comforted the condemned, himself preserved from harm as if by a miracle. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that Bishop [[Demetrius of Alexandria]], made him restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone.
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Around 213, Origen became acquainted with Ambrose of Alexandria (d.c. 250), whom he converted from [[Valentinus|Valentinianism]] to [[orthodoxy]]. Ambrose, a man of [[wealth]], made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen (except his [[sermon]]s, which were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated to Ambrose. Origen was granted an impressive crew of stenographers and copyists that used the expensive materials at their command—also provided by the wealth of Ambrose—to record Origen's many works.
  
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Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library for a sum which netted him a daily income of 4 obols (about twelve cents) on which he lived by exercising the utmost frugality. Teaching throughout the day, he  devoted the greater part of the night to the study of the Bible and lived a life of rigid asceticism. According to some traditions, he carried this to such an extent that, fearing that his position as a teacher of women as well as men might give ground for scandal to the heathen, he followed Matthew [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew%2019:12&version=31 19:12] literally and [[castration|castrated]] himself; this action, if accurately reported, was likely partly influenced, too, by his belief that the Christian must follow the words of his Master without reserve. Later in life, however, he saw reason to judge differently concerning his extreme act. The historical accuracy of this supposed castration has been doubted by some scholars.  It has been postulated that this story was circulated by Origen's rivals in an effort to lessen his importance or to otherwise sully his reputation.
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In 213 or 214, Origen visited [[Arabia]] at the request of the prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; Origen accordingly spent a brief time in Petra, after which he returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular uprising at Alexandria caused the Roman Emperor Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the [[school]]s, and expel all foreigners. The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent home; and Origen, who felt that the turmoil hindered his activity as a teacher and imperiled his safety, left [[Egypt]], apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity with local Jewish custom, Origen, although not ordained, preached and interpreted the scriptures at the request of Bishop Alexander of Jerusalem (d. 251) and Bishop Theoctistus of Caesarea (d.c. 257). When, however, the confusion in Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in 216, in protest to his preaching while unordained. For the next 15 years, Origen worked on some of his best known and most important literary works, such as his books on the [[resurrection]], commentaries on various books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and what would become the [[New Testament]], and his treatise ''On First Principles''.
  
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During the reign of emperor [[Caracalla]], about 211-212, Origen paid a brief visit to [[Rome]], but the relative laxity during the pontificate of [[Pope Zephyrinus|Zephyrinus]] seems to have disillusioned him, and on his return to Alexandria he resumed his teaching with zeal increased by the contrast. But the school had far outgrown the strength of a single man; the catechumens pressed eagerly for elementary instruction, and the baptized sought for interpretation of the Bible. Under these circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil.
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In about 231 Origen was sent to [[Greece]] on an ecclesiastical mission to preach against heretics, and paid a visit to Caesarea, where he was heartily welcomed and was ordained a priest, so that no further cause for criticism might be given Demetrius. However, Demetrius, taking this act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen under his jurisdiction, but, if Eastern sources may be believed, Demetrius had been the first to introduce Episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan accordingly convened a synod of [[bishop]]s and [[presbyter]]s which banished Origen from Alexandria, while a second synod declared his ordination invalid. The conclusions of these synods were not recognized in neighboring provinces.
  
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His own interests became more and more centered in [[exegesis]], and he accordingly studied [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], though there is no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that language. From about this period (212-213) dates Origen's acquaintance with [[Ambrose of Alexandria]], whom he was instrumental in converting from [[Valentinius|Valentianism]] to orthodoxy. Later (about 218) Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen (except his sermons, which were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated to Ambrose.
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In 250 persecutions of the Church broke out under the Roman Emperor Decius, and this time Origen did not escape. He was imprisoned, [[torture]]d, and bound hand and foot to the block for days without yielding. Although eventually released, these tortures seem to have weakened him enough for him to succumb to [[death]] in about 254. A later legend, recounted by [[Jerome]] (c.342-419) in his ''De viris illustribus'' (chap. 54), placed his death and burial at the cathedral in Tyre, but to this little value can be attached.
  
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In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the request of the prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; and Origen accordingly spent a brief time in [[Petra]], after which he returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools, and expel all foreigners. The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent home; and Origen, who felt that the turmoil hindered his activity as a teacher and imperilled his safety, left Egypt, apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity with local usage based on Jewish custom, Origen, though not ordained, preached and interpreted the Scriptures at the request of the bishops Alexander of Jerusalem and Theoctistus of Caesarea. When, however, the confusion in Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in 216. 
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==Works==
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The works of Origen fall into four classes: 1) [[textual criticism]], 2) [[exegesis]], 3) systematic and apologetic theology, and 4) letters. Most of his works exist now only in [[Latin]] translation. A great deal of Origen's writings, including many commentaries and his books on the [[resurrection]], are completely lost, known only by references made to them by later theologians.
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Of Origen's activity during the next decade little is known, but it was obviously devoted to teaching and writing. The latter was rendered the more easy for him by Ambrose, who provided him with more than seven stenographers to take dictation in relays, as many scribes to prepare long-hand copies, and a number of girls to multiply the copies. At the request of Ambrose, he now began a huge commentary on the [[Bible]], beginning with John, and continuing with [[Genesis]], [[Psalms]] 1-25, and [[Lamentations]], besides brief exegeses of selected texts (forming the ten books of his ''Stromateis''), two books on the [[resurrection]], and the work ''On First Principles''.
 
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===Conflict with Demetrius and removal to Caesarea===
 
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About 230, Origen entered on the fateful journey which was to compel him to give up his work at Alexandria and embittered the next years of his  life. Sent to [[Greece]] on some ecclesiastical mission, he paid a visit to Caesarea, where he was heartily  welcomed and was ordained a priest, that no further cause for criticism might be given [[Demetrius of Alexandria|Demetrius]], who had strongly disapproved his preaching before ordination while at Caesarea. But Demetrius, taking this well-meant act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen under his jurisdiction, but, if Eastern sources may be believed, Demetrius had been the first to introduce episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan accordingly convened a synod of bishops and presbyters which banished Origen from Alexandria, while a second synod declared his ordination invalid.
 
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Origen accordingly fled from Alexandria in 231, and made his permanent home in Caesarea. A series of attacks on him seems to have emanated from Alexandria, whether for his [[self-castration]] (a capital crime in Roman law) or for alleged heterodoxy is unknown; but at all events these fulminations were heeded only at Rome, while Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, and Achaia paid no attention to them.
 
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At Alexandria Heraclas became head of Origen's school, and shortly afterward, on the death of Demetrius, was consecrated bishop. At Caesarea Origen was joyfully received, and was also the guest of Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and of the empress-dowager, [[Julia Mammaea]], at [[Antioch]]. The former also visited him at Caesarea, where Origen, deeply loved by his pupils, preached and taught dialectics, physics, ethics, and metaphysics; thus laying his foundation for the crowning theme of theology.
 
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He accordingly sought to set forth all the science of the time from the Christian point of view, and to elevate [[Christianity]] to a theory of the universe compatible with Hellenism. In 235, with the accession of [[Maximinus]], a persecution raged; and for two years Origen is said, though on somewhat doubtful authority, to have remained concealed in the house of a certain Juliana in Casarea of Cappadocia.
 
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Little is known of the last twenty years of Origen's life. He preached regularly on Wednesdays and Fridays, and later daily.  He evidently, however, developed an extraordinary literary productivity, broken by occasional journeys; one of which, to Athens during some unknown year, was of sufficient length to allow him  time for research.
 
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After his return from Athens, he succeeded in converting Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, from his adoptionistic views to the Orthodox faith; yet in these very years (about 240) probably occurred the attacks on Origen's own orthodoxy which compelled him to defend himself in writing to [[Pope Fabian]] and many bishops. Neither the source nor the object of these attacks is known, though the latter may have been connected with [[Novatianism]]. 
 
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After his conversion of Beryllus, however, his aid was frequently invoked against heresies. Thus, when the doctrine was promulgated in Arabia that the soul died and decayed with the body, being restored to life only at the resurrection, appeal was made to Origen, who journeyed to Arabia, and by his preaching reclaimed the erring.
 
  
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In 250 persecutions of the Church broke out anew, and this time Origen did not escape. He was tortured, pilloried, and bound hand and foot to the block for days without yielding. These tortures seem to have resulted in his death. A later legend, recounted by [[Jerome]] (''De viris illustribus'', chapter 54) and numerous itineraries place his death and burial at [[Tyre]], but to this little value can be attached.
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===Textual criticism===
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By far the most important work of Origen on textual criticism was the ''Hexapla'', a comparative study of various translations of the [[Old Testament]]. The full text of the ''Hexapla'' is no longer extant. The work was arranged in six columns: one written in the original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and one transliterated from Hebrew with Greek characters; the rest were popular Greek translations of the text, specifically the Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the [[Septuagint]]. Certain books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] were known to have up to three additional sources. Some portions were discovered in [[Milan]] indicating that at least some individual parts existed much longer than was previously thought. The ''Hexapla'' was referred to by later manuscripts, and thus it was known to later scholars. Also produced was an abbreviated version known as the ''Tetrapla'', in which Origen placed only the translations in Greek in parallels.  
  
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==Works==
 
 
===Exegetical writings===
 
===Exegetical writings===
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According to Epiphanius (''Haer''., lxiv.63) Origen wrote about 6,000 works (''i.e.'', rolls or chapters). A list was given by Eusebius in his lost life of Pamphilus (''Hist. eccl''., VI., xxxii. 3; Eng. transl., ''[[NPNF]]'', 2 ser., i. 277), which was apparently known to Jerome (''Epist. ad Paulam, NPNF'', vi. 46). These fall into four classes: text criticism; exegesis; systematic, practical, and apologetic theology; and letters; besides certain spurious works.
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Origen's work in exegesis can be divided into three categories. He wrote ''scholia'' (singular, ''scholion''; Greek: σχόλιον "comment," "lecture"), which were summaries of passages from the Hebrew Bible or Christian works meant to elucidate their obscure meanings. His homilies were regarded as elegant and were prepared on nearly the entire [[Bible]], and many were recorded by his stenographers. Finally, he produced a series of "scientific" commentaries on various books of the Bible. Not all of Origen's commentaries are available—like so many of his other works, a great deal have been lost, and are known to have existed only because of their brief mention in later works (for instance, they are referenced by [[Jerome]]). However, some do remain, and give insight into Origen's theological system. He would often focus his commentaries on refuting [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] writers, interpreting the text in such a way as to invalidate the views of those he considered unorthodox. His commentary on the [[Gospel of John]], for instance, was a direct attack against Valentinus (c.100-c.160) and his followers, who based theology on the idea that the physical world was inherently [[evil]]. Fragments of commentaries on [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Psalms]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], and [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]], in addition to his commentary on John, are found in compilations, and summaries of his commentaries on [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] can be found in the writings of Rufinus (c.345-410).
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By far the most important work of Origen on textual criticism was the ''[[Hexapla]]'', a comparison study of various translations of the Old Testament.
 
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The full text of the ''Hexapla'' is no longer extant.  Some portions were discovered in [[Milan]] indicating that at least some individual parts existed much longer than was previously thought. The ''Hexapla'' has been referred to by later manuscripts and authors.
 
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The ''Tetrapla'' was an abbreviation of the ''Hexapla'' in which Origen placed only the translations (Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Septuagint) in parallels.
 
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He was likewise keenly conscious of the textual difficulties in the manuscripts of the New Testament, although he never wrote definitely on this subject. In his exegetical writings he frequently alludes to the variant readings, but his habit of making rough citations in his dictation, the verification being left to the scribes, renders it impossible to deduce his text from his commentaries. Eusebius in ''Ecclesiastical History'' 6.25.7 strongly implies Origen disputed the authenticity of the Letters of Paul when he wrote that Paul did not write to all the churches that he taught and even to the ones he wrote he only sent a few lines.
 
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The exegetical writings of Origen fall into three classes:
 
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*scholia, or brief summaries of the meaning of difficult passages
 
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*homilies
 
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*"books", or commentaries in the strict sense of the term.
 
  
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Jerome states that there were scholia on Leviticus, Psalms i.-xv., Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and part of John. The ''Stromateis'' were of a similar character, and the margin of ''Codex Athous Laura'', 184, contains citations from this work on Rom. 9:23; I Cor. 6:14, 7:31, 34, 9:20-21, 10:9, besides a few other fragments.
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===Dogmatic and apologetic writings===
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Among the systematic and apologetic writings of Origen, mention should first be made of his work ''On First Principles'', perhaps written for his more advanced pupils at [[Alexandria]] and probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in the free translation of Rufinus, except for fragments of the third and fourth books preserved in the ''[[Philokalia]]'', and smaller citations in [[Justinian]]'s letter to Mennas. In the first book the author considers [[God]], the [[Logos]], the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], [[reason]], and the [[angel]]s; in the second, the world and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the [[soul]], [[free will]], and [[eschatology]]); in the third, the doctrine of [[sin]] and [[redemption]]; and in the fourth, the [[Scripture]]s; the whole being concluded with a resume of the entire system. The work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present [[Christianity]] as a complete theory of the [[universe]], and it was designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians concerning the essential bases of their [[faith]].
  
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Homilies on almost the entire Bible were prepared by Origen, these being taken down after his sixtieth year as he preached. It is not improbable that Origen gave no attention to supervising the publication of his homilies, for only by such a hypothesis can the numerous evidences of carelessness in diction be explained. The exegesis of the homilies was simpler than that of the scientific commentaries, but nevertheless demanded no mean degree of intelligence from the auditor. Origen's chief aim was the practical exposition of the text, verse by verse; and while in such barren books as Leviticus and Numbers he sought to allegorize, the wealth of material in the prophets seldom rendered it necessary for him to seek meanings deeper than the surface afforded. Whether the sermons were delivered in series, or the homilies on a single book were collected from various series, is unknown. The homilies preserved are on Genesis (17), Exodus (13), Leviticus (18), Numbers (28), Joshua (16), Judges (9), I Sam. (2), Psalms xxxvi.- xxviii. (9), Canticles (2), Isaiah (9), Jeremiah (7 Greek, 2 Latin, 12 Greek and Latin), Ezekiel (14), and Luke (39).
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Earlier in date than this treatise were the two books on the [[resurrection]] (now lost, a fate which has also befallen the two dialogues on the same theme) dedicated to Ambrose. After his removal to Caesarea, Origen wrote the works, still extant, ''On Prayer'', ''On Martyrdom'', and ''Against Celsus''. The first of these was written shortly before 235 (or possibly before 230), and, after an introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of [[prayer]], it ends with an exegesis of the [[Lord's Prayer]], concluding with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer. The persecution by Maximinus the Thracian, Roman Emperor from 235-238, was the occasion of the composition of the ''On Martyrdom'', which is preserved in the ''Exhortation to Martyrdom''. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with [[idolatry]] and emphasizes the [[duty]] of suffering [[martyrdom]] bravely, while in the second part he explains the meaning of martyrdom. The eight books against Celsus, properly called ''Contra Celsum'', were written in 248 in reply to the polemic of that [[Platonism|Middle Platonist]] pagan philosopher against Christianity.
  
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===Extant commentaries of Origen===
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===Letters===
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The object of Origen's commentaries was to give an exegesis that discriminated strictly against the incidental, unimportant historical significance, in favor of the deeper, hidden, spiritual truth. At the same time, he neglected neither philological nor geographical, historical nor antiquarian material, to all of which he devoted numerous excursuses.
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[[Eusebius]] had a collection of more than one hundred letters of Origen, and the list of Jerome speaks of several books of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only a short letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270) and the epistle to Sextus Julius Africanus (defending the authenticity of the Greek additions to the [[Book of Daniel]]) have been preserved.  
  
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In his commentary on John he constantly considered the exegesis of the Valentinian Heracleon (probably at the instance of Ambrose), and in many other places he implied or expressly cited Gnostic views and refuted them.
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Rufinus documents forgeries attributed to Origen in his work ''De adulteratione librorum Origenis''. The ''Dialogus de recta in Deum fide'', the ''Philosophumena'' of Hippolytus (d. 235), and the ''Commentary on Job'' by Julian of Halicarnassus (d. after 518) have also been ascribed to him.
  
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Unfortunately, only meager fragments of the commentaries have survived. Besides the citations in the ''Philocalia'', which include fragments of the third book of the commentary on Genesis, Ps. i., iv. 1, the small commentary on Canticles, and the second book of the large commentary on the same, the twentieth book of the commentary on Ezekiel, and the commentary on Hosea, and of the commentary on John, only books i., ii., x., xiii., xx., xxviii., xxxii., and a fragment of xix. have been preserved. The commentary on Romans is extant only in the abbreviated version of Rufinus, and the eight books preserved of the commentary on Matthew likewise seem to be either a brief reworking or a rough outline.
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==Views==
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Origen, trained in the school of [[Clement of Alexandria]] and by his father, was essentially a [[Platonism|Platonist]] with occasional traces of [[Stoic]] philosophy. He was thus a pronounced [[idealism|idealist]], regarding all things temporal and material as insignificant and indifferent, the only real and eternal things being comprised in the idea. He therefore regarded as the purely ideal center of this spiritual and eternal world, [[God]], the pure reason, whose creative powers call into being the world with [[matter]] as the necessary substratum.
  
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[[Codex Vaticanus]], 1215, gives the division of the twenty-five books of the commentary on Ezekiel, and part of the arrangement of the commentary on Isaiah (beginnings of books VI., VIII., XVI.; book X. extends from Isa. viii. 1 to ix. 7; XI. from ix. 8, to x. 11; XII., from x. 12 to x. 23; XIII. from x. 24 to xi. 9; XIV. from xi. 10 to xii. 6; XV. from xiii. 1 to xiii. 16; XXI. from xix. 1 to xix. 17; XXII. from xix. 18 to xx. 6; XXIII. from xxi. 1 to xxi. 17; XXIV. from xxii. 1 to xxii. 25; XXV. from xxiii. 1 to xxiii. 18; XXVI. from xxiv. 1 to xxv. 12; XXVII. from xxvi. 1 to xxvi. 15; XXVIII. from xxvi. 16 to xxvii. 11a; XXIX. from xxvii. 11b to xxviii. 29; and XXX. treats of xxix. 1 sqq.).
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He was also, however, a rigid adherent of the [[Bible]], making no statement without adducing some [[scripture|Scriptural]] basis. To him the Bible was divinely inspired, as was proved both by the fulfillment of [[prophecy]] and by the immediate impression which the Scriptures made on those who read them. Since the divine [[Logos]] spoke in the Scriptures, they were an organic whole and on every occasion he combated the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] tenet of the inferiority of the [[Old Testament]].
  
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The ''Codex Athous Laura'', 184, in like manner, gives the division of the fifteen books of the commentary on Romans (except XI. and XII.) and of the five books on Galatians, as well as the extent of the commentaries on Philippians and Corinthians (Romans: I from 1:1 to 1:7; II from 1:8 to 1:25; III. from 1:26 to 2:11; IV. from 2:12 to 3:15; V. from 3:16 to 3:31; VI. from 4:1 to 5:7; VII. from 5:8 to 5:16; VIII. from 5:17 to 6:15; IX. from 6:16 to 8:8; X. from 8:9 to 8:39; XIII. from 11:13 to 12:15; XIV. from 12:16 to 14:10; XV. from 14:11 to the end; Galatians: I. from 1:1 to 2:2; II. from 2:3 to 3:4; III. from 3:5 to 4:5; IV. from 4:6 to 5:5; and V. from 5:6 to 6:18; the commentary on Philippians extended to 4:1; and on Ephesians to 4:13).
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Origen stressed the three means of understanding the Scriptures: literal, moral, and mystical. In this we see three ways that Origen impacted Christian thought. First, he was proficient in his exegetical studies, thus being quite adept in making reference to the literal implications of the Bible. Second, his homilies and commentaries were celebrated, and thus his views on [[morality]] were promulgated. Third, Origen's grasp of the Scriptures and [[knowledge]] of [[Platonism|Platonist philosophy]] also granted him the ability to elucidate complicated passages in a mystical sense.  
  
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=== Dogmatic, practical, and apologetic writings===
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It is a detriment to Origen's work that throughout the centuries he was best known (and condemned) for his more unorthodox ideas. In discussing these, it is fair to consider that Origen wrote and thought in a time that predated the great controversies of the [[Church]]. The [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] understandings of the [[Trinity]] and [[Christology]] had not yet been formulated by intervening councils, and thus Origen's discussion of the matters was not guided by what would become accepted as church [[Dogma|dogma]].  
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Among the systematic, practical, and apologetic writings of Origen, mention should first be made of his work ''On First Principles'', perhaps written for his more advanced pupils at Alexandria and probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in the free translation of Rufinus, except for fragments of the third and fourth books preserved in the ''[[Philokalia]]'', and smaller citations in Justinian's letter to Mennas.
 
  
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In the first book  the author considers [[God]], the [[Logos]], the Holy Ghost, reason, and the angels; in the second the world and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul, free will, and eschatology); in the third, the doctrine of sin and redemption; and in the fourth, the Scriptures; the whole being concluded with a resume of the entire system. The work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present Christianity as a complete theory of the universe, and was designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians concerning the essential bases of their faith.
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Origen was a speculative theologian. In formulating theological ideas he did not always insist on their [[truth]]; rather, he stressed that he was merely suggesting possibilities. One idea that he did promote was the idea of the preexistence of [[soul|souls]]. In his own time, it was not deemed [[heresy|heretical]] to promote this idea, and indeed it was useful in refuting those who were branded heretics ([[Marcion|Marcionites]], for instance). The idea concluded that human souls exist prior to their connection to earthly forms, and that this existence is in the divine realm in the presence of [[God]]. Later theologians would dismiss this idea. Origen also speculated on the life of the [[star]]s, and wondered whether heavenly bodies possessed souls.
  
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Earlier in date than this treatise were the two books on the [[resurrection]] (now lost, a fate which has also befallen two dialogues on the same theme) dedicated to Ambrose. After his removal to Caesarea, Origen wrote the works, still extant, ''On Prayer'', ''On Martyrdom'', and ''[[Contra Celsum|Against Celsus]]''. The first of these was written shortly before 235 (or possibly before 230), and, after an introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of [[prayer]], ends with an exegesis of the Lord's Prayer, concluding with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer.
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Perhaps the most widely known&mdash;and subsequently widely denounced&mdash;idea proposed by Origen is that of ''apokatastasis'', or universal restoration. Origen, for many years an educator by profession, likened the Creator to a divine teacher. Being divine, this teacher is unable to fail in instructing its students, and thus Origen concluded that in time all students (that is, all creation) will be restored to their former status, perfect and in the midst of God. Hellfire is not eternal, and it is a purifying fire that consumes and cleanses [[evil]] from sinners and restores them eventually. This restoration includes all souls—not just [[humanity]] but demons and [[Satan]], although Origen did not suggest that this restoration will occur in the near future. This was how he addressed the Greek philosopher Celsus' opposition to Christianity that had been presented in the second century on the ground that it taught eternal punishment by fire.<ref>Origen, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04164.htm ''Contra Celsus'', book IV, chapters 13, 21, 23.] Retrieved January 27, 2009.</ref> This idea of Origen was eventually condemned alongside other heretical teachings.
  
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The persecution of Maximinus was the occasion of the composition of the ''On Martyrdom'', which is preserved in the ''Exhortation to Martyrdom''. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with idolatry and emphasizes the duty of suffering martyrdom manfully; while in the second part he explains the meaning of martyrdom.  The eight books against [[Celsus]], [[Contra Celsum]] were written in [[248]] in reply to the polemic of that pagan philosopher against [[Christianity]].
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==Impact==
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In Origen the Christian Church had its first [[theology|theologian]] in the highest sense of the term. For quite some time he was therefore counted as one of the most important [[Church Father]]s and his works were widely used in the Church. His [[exegesis|exegetical]] method was standard of the School of Alexandria, and the Origenists were an important party in the fourth-century debates on [[Arianism]]. He contributed to the thought of Christian luminaries like [[Athanasius]] (c.296-373), [[Ambrose]] (c.339-397), [[Jerome]] (c.342-419), and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. Also, to the multitude to whom his instruction was beyond grasp, he left mediating images and symbols and contributed to the growing language of Christian [[mysticism]]. In the [[monastery|monasteries]] of the [[Greeks]], his influence lived on and the spiritual father of Greek [[monasticism]] was that same Origen at whose name the monks had shuddered.
  
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[[Eusebius]] had a collection of more than one hundred letters of Origen (''Hist. eccl''., VI., xxxvi. 3; Eng. transl. ''NPNF'', 2 ser. i. 278-279), and the list of [[Jerome]] speaks of several books of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only a short letter to [[Gregory Thaumaturgus]] and the epistle to [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] (defending the authenticity of the Greek additions to the book of Daniel) have been preserved.
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Nevertheless, when he died, Origen actually left no real pupil who could succeed him, nor was the Church of his period able to become his heir truly, and thus his knowledge started to be buried. Three centuries later his very name was deleted from the books of the Church because he was regarded as a [[heresy|heretic]]. Origen's subsequent trouble (following his [[death]]) with the Church involved some extreme views adopted by those describing themselves his followers, the Origenists; their views were then retroactively attributed to Origen. He was condemned by several important theologians, including [[Jerome]], a former admirer. In the ensuing investigation of Origen's [[orthodoxy]], certain speculations made by Origen were condemned as heresy, as these were not accepted by the general Church consensus: among these were the preexistence of [[soul]]s, ''apokatastasis'', and a hierarchical concept of the [[Trinity]]. These teachings and some of the Origenists were declared [[anathema]] by a local council in [[Constantinople]] 545 and then again by the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] in 553. At the council of 553, the anathema against him in his person, declaring him, among others, a heretic, reads as follows:
  
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For forgeries of the writings of Origen made in his lifetime cf. Rufinus, ''De adulteratione librorum Origenis''. The ''Dialogus de recta in Deum fide'', the ''Philosophumena'' of [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], and the Commentary on Job by [[Julian of Halicarnassus]] have also been ascribed to him.
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:If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.<ref>Paul Halsall, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/const2.html "Medieval Sourcebook: Fifth Ecumenical Council: Constantinople II, 553."] Retrieved June 1, 2007.</ref>
  
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== Views==
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As a result of this condemnation, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] does not regard Origen as a Church Father, while some in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]] do if with reservations and qualifications. In any event, the Orthodox do not draw up official lists of Church Fathers, and neither Church regards Origen as a [[saint]]. In centuries much later, however, his work has been revisited by more sympathetic eyes, and his thought has been recognized as formative for the development of Christian theology. The historian Philip Schaff (1819-1893) sums up Origen's contribution to Christianity, by saying that in spite of his condemnation he "did more than all his enemies combined to advance the cause of sacred learning, to refute and convert heathens and heretics, and to make the church respected in the eyes of the world."<ref>Philip Schaff, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.v.xv.xxix.html?highlight=things#highlight ''History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100-325''.] Retrieved January 27, 2009.</ref> Origen's hope for universal [[salvation]] and his tolerant attitude towards those who have different opinions would be more acceptable today when Celsus' criticism of Christianity may tend to be more seriously reflected upon and [[ecumenism]] is more common-sensically practiced. It may be that as early as in the third century before church dogma was officially formulated he already had an insight into today's situation.
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=== Philosophical and religious===
 
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Origen, trained in the school of Clement and by his father, was essentially a [[Platonism|Platonist]] with occasional traces of [[Stoic]] philosophy. He was thus a pronounced idealist, regarding all things temporal and material as insignificant and indifferent, the only real and eternal things being comprised in the idea. He therefore regards as the purely ideal center of this spiritual and eternal world, [[God]], the pure reason, whose creative powers call into being the world with matter as the necessary substratum.
 
  
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Likewise [[Plato]]nic is the doctrine that those spirits capable of knowing supreme reason, but imprisoned in the body in this world, will rise after death to divinity, being purified by fire. In his attempt to amalgamate the system evolved by Greek thought with Christianity, Origen found his predecessors in the Platonizing [[Philo of Alexandria]] and even in the [[Gnostic]]s. His exegesis does not differ generally from that of [[Heracleon]], but in the canon of the [[New Testament]] and in the tradition of the Church, Origen possessed a check which kept him from the excesses of Gnostic exegesis.
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==Notes==
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<references/>
  
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He was, indeed, a rigid adherent of the [[Bible]], making no statement without adducing some Scriptural basis. To him the Bible was divinely inspired, as was proved both by the fulfilment of [[prophecy]] and by the immediate impression which the Scriptures made on those who read them. Since the divine [[Logos]] spoke in the Scriptures, they were an organic whole and on every occasion he combatted the Gnostic tenet of the inferiority of the Old Testament.
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==References==
  
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In his exegesis, Origen sought to discover the deeper meaning implied in the Scriptures. One of his chief methods was the translation of proper names, which enabled him, like Philo, to find a deep meaning even in every event of history (see [[hermeneutics]]), but at the same time he insisted on an exact grammatical interpretation of the text as the basis of all exegesis.
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===Primary sources===
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*''Origen: An Exortation to Martyrdom, Prayer, and Selected Works''. Translated by Rowan A. Greer. Paulist Press, 1979. ISBN 0809121980
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A strict adherent of the Church, Origen yet distinguished sharply between the ideal and the empirical Church, representing "a double church of men and angels", or, in Platonic phraseology, the lower church and its celestial ideal. The ideal Church alone was the Church of Christ, scattered over all the earth; the other provided also a shelter for sinners. Holding that the Church, as being in possession of the mysteries, affords the only means of salvation, he was indifferent to her external organization, although he spoke sometimes of the office-bearers as the pillars of the Church, and of their heavy duties and responsibilities.
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*''Origen: Contra Celsum''. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge University Press, 1980. ISBN 0521295769
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*''Origen De Principiis V4''. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1419139266
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More important to him was the idea borrowed from Plato of the grand division between the great human multitude, capable of sensual vision only, and those who know how to comprehend the hidden meaning of Scripture and the diverse mysteries, church organization being for the former only.
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*''Origen: The Song of Songs, Commentary and Homilies''. Translated by R.P. Lawson. Paulist Press, 1957. ISBN 0809102617
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It is doubtful whether Origen possessed an obligatory creed; at any rate, such a confession of faith was not a norm like the inspired word of Scripture. The reason, illumined by the divine Logos, which is able to search the secret depths of the divine nature, remains as the only source of knowledge.
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===Secondary sources===
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*Crouzel, Henri. "Origen" in ''The Encyclopedia of Religion'', p. 108. Edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
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=== Theological and dogmatic ===
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*De Faye, Eugene. ''Origen and His Work''. Translated by Fred Rothwell. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2004. ISBN 141917309X
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Origen's conception of God is entirely abstract — God is a perfect unity, invisible and incorporeal, transcending all things material, and therefore inconceivable and incomprehensible. He is likewise unchangeable, and transcends space and time. But his power is limited by his goodness, justice, and wisdom; and, though entirely free from necessity, his goodness and omnipotence constrained him to reveal himself.
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*De Lubac, Henri. ''History and Spirit: The Understanding of Scripture According to Origen''. Ignatius Press, 2007. 089870880X
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*Harris, Carl Vernon. ''Origen of Alexandria's Interpretation of the Teacher's Function in the Early Christian Hierarchy and Community''. American Press, 1966.
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This revelation, the external self-emanation of God, is expressed by Origen in various ways, the Logos being only one of many. Revelation was the first creation of God (cf. Prov. viii. 22), in order to afford creative mediation between God and the world, such mediation being necessary, because God, as changeless unity, could not be the source of a multitudinous creation.
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*Herr, Hugh T. ''The First Systematic Theologian: Origen of Alexandria''. Princeton Theological Seminary, 1958.  
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*Kannengiesser, Charles, et al, eds. ''Origen of Alexandria: His World and His Legacy''. University of Notre Dame Press, 1988. ISBN 0268015015
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The Logos is the rational creative principle that permeates the universe. Since God eternally manifests himself, the Logos is likewise eternal. He forms a bridge between the created and uncreated, and only through him, as the visible representative of divine wisdom, can the inconceivable and incorporeal God be known. Creation came into existence only through the Logos, and God's nearest approach to the world is the command to create. While the Logos is substantially a unity, he comprehends a multiplicity of concepts, so that Origen terms him, in Platonic fashion, "essence of essences" and "idea of ideas".
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*Lauro, Elizabeth Ann Dively. ''The Soul and Spirit of Scripture within Origen's Exegesis''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0391041991
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*McGuckin, John Anthony, ed. ''The Westminster Handbook to Origen''. Westminster Press, 2004. ISBN 0664224725
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The defense of the unity of God against the Gnostics led Origen to maintain the subordination of the Logos to God, and the doctrine of the eternal generation is later. Origen distinctly emphasised the independence of the Logos as well as the distinction from the being and substance of God. The term "of the same substance with the Father" was not employed. He is merely an image, a reflex not to be compared with God; as one among other "gods", of course first in rank.
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*Rankin, David Ivan. ''From Clement to Origen: The Social And Historical Context of the Church Fath''. Ashgate Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0754657167
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*Trigg, Joseph A. ''Origen''. Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415118360
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=== The Logos doctrine and cosmology===
 
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The activity of the [[Logos]] was conceived by Origen in Platonic fashion, as the world soul, wherein God manifested his omnipotence. His first creative act was the divine spirit, as an independent existence; and partial reflexes of the Logos were the created rational beings, who, as they had to revert to the perfect God as their background, must likewise be perfect; yet their perfection, unlike in kind with that of God, the Logos, and the divine spirit, had to be attained. The freedom of the will is an essential fact of the reason, notwithstanding the  foreknowledge of God. The Logos, eternally creative, forms an  endless series of finite, comprehensible worlds, which are  mutually alternative. Combining the [[Stoic]] doctrine of a  universe without beginning with the Biblical doctrine of the beginning and the end of the world, he conceived of the visible world as the stages of an eternal cosmic process, affording also an explanation of the diversity of human fortunes, rewards, and punishments. The material world, which at first had no place in this eternal spiritual progression, was due to the fall of the spirits from God, the first being the serpent, who was imprisoned in matter and body. The ultimate aim of God in the creation of matter out of nothing was not punishment, but the upraising of the fallen spirits. Man's accidental being is rooted in transitory matter, but his higher nature is formed in the image of the Creator. The soul is divided into the rational and the irrational, the latter being material and transitory, while the former, incorporeal and immaterial, possesses freedom of the will and the power to reascend to purer life. The strong ethical import of this cosmic process can not remain unnoticed. The return to original being through divine reason is the object of the entire cosmic process. Through the worlds which follow each other in eternal succession, the spirits are able to return to Paradise. God so ordered the universe that all individual acts work together toward one cosmic end which culminates in himself. Likewise as to Origen's anthropology, man conceived in the image of God is able by imitating God in good works to become like God, if he first recognizes his own weakness and trusts all to the divine goodness. He is aided by guardian [[angel]]s, but more especially by the Logos who operates through saints and prophets in proportion to the constitution of these and man's capacity.
 
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=== Christology===
 
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The culmination of this gradual revelation is the universal revelation of Christ. In Christ, God, hitherto manifest only as the Lord, appeared as the Father. The incarnation of the [[Logos]], moreover, was necessary since otherwise he would not be intelligible to sensual man; but the indwelling of the Logos remained a mystery, which could be represented only by the analogy of his indwelling in the saints; nor could Origen fully explain it. He speaks of a "remarkable body", and in his opinion that the mortal body of Jesus was transformed by God into an ethereal and divine body, Origen approximated the [[Docetism]] that he otherwise abhorred. His concept of the soul of Jesus is likewise uncertain and wavering. He proposes the question whether it was not originally perfect with God but, emanating from him, at his command assumed a material body. As he conceived matter as merely the universal limit of created spirits, so would it be impossible to state in what form the two were combined. He dismissed the solution by referring it to the mystery of the divine governance of the universe. More logically did he declare the material nature of the world to be merely an episode in the spiritual process of development, whose end should be the annihilation of all matter and return to God, who should again be all in all. The doctrine of the resurrection of the body he upholds by the explanation that the Logos maintains the unity of man's existence by ever changing his body into new forms, thus preserving the unity and identity of personality in harmony with the tenet of an endless cosmic process. Origen's concept of the Logos allowed him to make no definite statement on the redemptive work of Jesus. Since sin was ultimately only negative as a lack of pure knowledge, the activity of Jesus was essentially example and instruction, and his human life was only incidental as contrasted with the immanent cosmic activity of the Logos. Origen regarded the death of Jesus as a sacrifice, paralleling it with other cases of self-sacrifice for the general good. On this, Origen's accord with the teachings of the Church was merely superficial.
 
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=== Eschatology===
 
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His idealizing tendency to consider the spiritual alone as real, fundamental to his entire system, led him to combat the rude Chiliasm (see [[Christian eschatology]]) of a sensual beyond; yet he constrained himself from breaking entirely with the distinct celestial hopes and representations of Paradise prevalent in the Church. He represents a progressive purification of souls, until, cleansed of all clouds of evil, they should know the truth and God as the Son knew him, see God face to face, and attain a full possession of the Holy Spirit and union with God. The means of attainment of this end were described by Origen in different ways, the most important of which was his Platonic concept of a purifying fire which should cleanse the world of evil and thus lead to cosmic renovation. By a further spiritualization Origen could call God himself this consuming fire. In proportion as the souls were freed from sin and ignorance, the material world was to pass away, until, after endless eons, at the final end, God should be all in all, and the worlds and spirits should return to a knowledge of God, in Greek this is called [[Apokatastasis]].
 
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== Character==
 
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In Origen the Christian Church had its first theologian in the highest sense of the term. Attaining the pinnacle of human speculation, his teaching was not merely theoretical, but was also imbued  with an intense ethical power. To the multitude to whom his instruction was beyond grasp, he left mediating images and symbols, as well as the final goal of attainment. In Origen Christianity blended with the paganism in which lived the desire for truth and the longing after God. When he died, however, he left no pupil who could succeed him, nor was the church of his period able to become his heir, and thus, his knowledge was buried. Three centuries later his very name was stricken from the books of the Church; yet in the monasteries of the Greeks his influence still lived on, and the spiritual father of Greek monasticism was that same Origen at whose name the monks had shuddered.
 
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== Origen's influence on the later Church==
 
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For quite some time, Origen was counted as one of the most important church fathers and his works were widely used in the Church. His exegetical method was standard of the [[School of Alexandria]] and the Origenists were an important party in the 4th century debates on [[Arianism]].
 
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[[Basil the Great]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], ''e.g.'', compiled in their first monastery the Philokalia, a collection of Origen's work, though both of them did neither adopt Origenism nor use the Alexandrian allegoric exegesis.
 
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What got Origen theologically into trouble much later with the church were some extreme views adopted by his followers, the Origenists, whose views were then attributed to Origen. In the course of this controversy, some other teachings of his came up, which were not accepted by the general church consensus: among these were the preexistence of souls, [[Universal_reconciliation|universal salvation]] and a hierarchical concept of the [[Trinity]].  These teachings and some extremer ones of his followers were declared [[anathema]] by a local council in Constantinople [[545]] and then, in an aside, by the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] in [[553]].
 
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At the council of 553, the anathema against him in his person, declaring him, among others, a heretic, reads as follows:
 
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:If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/const2.html]
 
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As a result of this condemnation, the Roman Catholic Church does not regard Origen as a [[Church Father]], while some in the Orthodox Church do though with reservations and qualifications. In any event, the Orthodox do not draw up official lists of Church Fathers, and neither church regards Origen as a [[saint]].
 
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The book ''Reincarnation in Christianity'', by the [[theosophist]] Geddes MacGregor (1978) asserted that Origen believed in [[reincarnation]].  MacGregor is convinced that Origen believed in and taught about reincarnation but that his texts written about the subject have been destroyed. He admits that there is no extant proof for that position. The allegation was also repeated by [[Shirley MacLaine]] in her book ''Out On a Limb''.
 
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This cannot be confirmed from the existent writings of Origen. He was cognizant of the concept of reincarnation (''metensomatosis'' "re-embodiment" in his words) from Greek philosophy, but he repeatedly states that this concept is no part of the Christian teaching or scripture. He writes in his Comment on the [[Gospel of Matthew]]: "In this place [when Jesus said Elijah was come and referred to John the Baptist] it does not appear to me that by Elijah the soul is spoken of, lest I fall into the doctrine of transmigration, which is foreign to the Church of God, and not handed down by the apostles, nor anywhere set forth in the scriptures" (ibid., 13:1:46&ndash;53).
 
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==See also==
 
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*[[Atonement (Ransom view)]]
 
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==Reference==
 
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Initial text of this article was taken from the public domain [[Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]]
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
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* Translations of Origen's writing can be found in [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]].
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All links retrieved November 17, 2022.
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* [http://zarahemla.awardspace.com/index.html#origen Religious Texts Index: Origen]
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*[http://www.comparativereligion.com/anathemas.html The Anathemas Against Origen] - ComparativeReligion.com
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* [http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/patrology/schoolofalex2/ Coptic Church on Origen]
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/ The Fathers of the Church] - Translations of Origen's writings can be found
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11306b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Origen and Origenism]
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*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=128&letter=O&search=Origen Origen] - Jewish Encyclopedia
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* [http://www.comparativereligion.com/anathemas.html The Anathemas Against Origen]
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11306b.htm Origen and Origenism] - Catholic Encyclopedia
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* [http://www.childpastlives.org/dogma.htm Dogma Bites Man &#8212; Reincarnation and the Early Christian Church]
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*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/o/origen.htm Origen of Alexandria] - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/o/origen.htm Origen Entry in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
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* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/origen.php Origen of Alexandria] - EarlyChurch.org.uk.  
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* [http://www.theandros.com/evagrius.html Evagrius Ponticus and the Condemnation of Origen]
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*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_0185-0254-_Origenes.html Origenes] - Ducumenta Catholica Omnia
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* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/origen.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
 
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*[http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/O/OR/ORIGEN.htm Origen] in the 1911 [[Encyclopedia Brittanica]]
 
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Latest revision as of 01:25, 18 November 2022


Origen

Origen (Greek: Ὠριγένης, c.185 – c.254 C.E.) was one of the most distinguished theologians and scholars of the early Christian Church. He is thought to have been born at Alexandria around 185 C.E., and died at Caesarea around 254 C.E. Known for his brilliant and extensive writings, Origen also became famous for his voluntary castration and championing of the ascetic lifestyle. His writings represent one of the first serious intellectual attempts to articulate and defend Christianity. However, his exploration of concepts beyond mainstream thought raised questions about his orthodoxy later in his life. Eventually denounced by Christian authorities, Origen remains one of the most fascinating and controversial figures of the early Church. Although he was not ultimately called a Father of the Church due to lingering doubts of his orthodoxy, his impact on formative Christian thought is undeniable, and more recently some of his interpretive positions such as universal restoration are more sympathetically recognized as relevant to today's world community.

Life

The details of Origen's life are found in his biography as given by Eusebius of Caesarea (c.275-339) in his work Church History, written in about 325 C.E. He was educated by his father, Leonides, on scriptural texts that would later become the Bible, and in Greek literature. In 202 Origen's father was martyred in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus as Roman Emperor from 193-211. Origen wished to follow in martyrdom, but was prevented by his mother. The death of Leonides left the family of eight impoverished. Since his father's teaching enabled him to give elementary instruction, in 203 Origen opened a school of rhetoric. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so much so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria implored him to restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone. Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil. Origen, during his time as an instructor, lived the life of a devoted ascetic, sleeping little and eating meager meals. Yet his pursuit of knowledge and dedication to the clarification of Christian doctrine never waned. It is recorded that he completed secular philosophical studies under Ammonius Saccas. He delved into learning the Hebrew language, and although he met with some success, he never became fully proficient. He complemented intellectual growth with spiritual growth in the form of encouraging the martyrdom of his students. Perhaps his consummate (and possibly apocryphal) act was his self-castration, in response to Matthew 19:12.

Around 213, Origen became acquainted with Ambrose of Alexandria (d.c. 250), whom he converted from Valentinianism to orthodoxy. Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen (except his sermons, which were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated to Ambrose. Origen was granted an impressive crew of stenographers and copyists that used the expensive materials at their command—also provided by the wealth of Ambrose—to record Origen's many works.

In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the request of the prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; Origen accordingly spent a brief time in Petra, after which he returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular uprising at Alexandria caused the Roman Emperor Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools, and expel all foreigners. The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent home; and Origen, who felt that the turmoil hindered his activity as a teacher and imperiled his safety, left Egypt, apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity with local Jewish custom, Origen, although not ordained, preached and interpreted the scriptures at the request of Bishop Alexander of Jerusalem (d. 251) and Bishop Theoctistus of Caesarea (d.c. 257). When, however, the confusion in Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in 216, in protest to his preaching while unordained. For the next 15 years, Origen worked on some of his best known and most important literary works, such as his books on the resurrection, commentaries on various books of the Hebrew Bible and what would become the New Testament, and his treatise On First Principles.

In about 231 Origen was sent to Greece on an ecclesiastical mission to preach against heretics, and paid a visit to Caesarea, where he was heartily welcomed and was ordained a priest, so that no further cause for criticism might be given Demetrius. However, Demetrius, taking this act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen under his jurisdiction, but, if Eastern sources may be believed, Demetrius had been the first to introduce Episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan accordingly convened a synod of bishops and presbyters which banished Origen from Alexandria, while a second synod declared his ordination invalid. The conclusions of these synods were not recognized in neighboring provinces.

In 250 persecutions of the Church broke out under the Roman Emperor Decius, and this time Origen did not escape. He was imprisoned, tortured, and bound hand and foot to the block for days without yielding. Although eventually released, these tortures seem to have weakened him enough for him to succumb to death in about 254. A later legend, recounted by Jerome (c.342-419) in his De viris illustribus (chap. 54), placed his death and burial at the cathedral in Tyre, but to this little value can be attached.

Works

The works of Origen fall into four classes: 1) textual criticism, 2) exegesis, 3) systematic and apologetic theology, and 4) letters. Most of his works exist now only in Latin translation. A great deal of Origen's writings, including many commentaries and his books on the resurrection, are completely lost, known only by references made to them by later theologians.

Textual criticism

By far the most important work of Origen on textual criticism was the Hexapla, a comparative study of various translations of the Old Testament. The full text of the Hexapla is no longer extant. The work was arranged in six columns: one written in the original Hebrew, and one transliterated from Hebrew with Greek characters; the rest were popular Greek translations of the text, specifically the Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Septuagint. Certain books of the Hebrew Bible were known to have up to three additional sources. Some portions were discovered in Milan indicating that at least some individual parts existed much longer than was previously thought. The Hexapla was referred to by later manuscripts, and thus it was known to later scholars. Also produced was an abbreviated version known as the Tetrapla, in which Origen placed only the translations in Greek in parallels.

Exegetical writings

Origen's work in exegesis can be divided into three categories. He wrote scholia (singular, scholion; Greek: σχόλιον "comment," "lecture"), which were summaries of passages from the Hebrew Bible or Christian works meant to elucidate their obscure meanings. His homilies were regarded as elegant and were prepared on nearly the entire Bible, and many were recorded by his stenographers. Finally, he produced a series of "scientific" commentaries on various books of the Bible. Not all of Origen's commentaries are available—like so many of his other works, a great deal have been lost, and are known to have existed only because of their brief mention in later works (for instance, they are referenced by Jerome). However, some do remain, and give insight into Origen's theological system. He would often focus his commentaries on refuting Gnostic writers, interpreting the text in such a way as to invalidate the views of those he considered unorthodox. His commentary on the Gospel of John, for instance, was a direct attack against Valentinus (c.100-c.160) and his followers, who based theology on the idea that the physical world was inherently evil. Fragments of commentaries on Genesis, Psalms, Ezekiel, and Hosea, in addition to his commentary on John, are found in compilations, and summaries of his commentaries on Romans and Matthew can be found in the writings of Rufinus (c.345-410).

Dogmatic and apologetic writings

Among the systematic and apologetic writings of Origen, mention should first be made of his work On First Principles, perhaps written for his more advanced pupils at Alexandria and probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in the free translation of Rufinus, except for fragments of the third and fourth books preserved in the Philokalia, and smaller citations in Justinian's letter to Mennas. In the first book the author considers God, the Logos, the Holy Ghost, reason, and the angels; in the second, the world and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul, free will, and eschatology); in the third, the doctrine of sin and redemption; and in the fourth, the Scriptures; the whole being concluded with a resume of the entire system. The work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present Christianity as a complete theory of the universe, and it was designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians concerning the essential bases of their faith.

Earlier in date than this treatise were the two books on the resurrection (now lost, a fate which has also befallen the two dialogues on the same theme) dedicated to Ambrose. After his removal to Caesarea, Origen wrote the works, still extant, On Prayer, On Martyrdom, and Against Celsus. The first of these was written shortly before 235 (or possibly before 230), and, after an introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of prayer, it ends with an exegesis of the Lord's Prayer, concluding with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer. The persecution by Maximinus the Thracian, Roman Emperor from 235-238, was the occasion of the composition of the On Martyrdom, which is preserved in the Exhortation to Martyrdom. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with idolatry and emphasizes the duty of suffering martyrdom bravely, while in the second part he explains the meaning of martyrdom. The eight books against Celsus, properly called Contra Celsum, were written in 248 in reply to the polemic of that Middle Platonist pagan philosopher against Christianity.

Letters

Eusebius had a collection of more than one hundred letters of Origen, and the list of Jerome speaks of several books of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only a short letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus (c.213-c.270) and the epistle to Sextus Julius Africanus (defending the authenticity of the Greek additions to the Book of Daniel) have been preserved.

Rufinus documents forgeries attributed to Origen in his work De adulteratione librorum Origenis. The Dialogus de recta in Deum fide, the Philosophumena of Hippolytus (d. 235), and the Commentary on Job by Julian of Halicarnassus (d. after 518) have also been ascribed to him.

Views

Origen, trained in the school of Clement of Alexandria and by his father, was essentially a Platonist with occasional traces of Stoic philosophy. He was thus a pronounced idealist, regarding all things temporal and material as insignificant and indifferent, the only real and eternal things being comprised in the idea. He therefore regarded as the purely ideal center of this spiritual and eternal world, God, the pure reason, whose creative powers call into being the world with matter as the necessary substratum.

He was also, however, a rigid adherent of the Bible, making no statement without adducing some Scriptural basis. To him the Bible was divinely inspired, as was proved both by the fulfillment of prophecy and by the immediate impression which the Scriptures made on those who read them. Since the divine Logos spoke in the Scriptures, they were an organic whole and on every occasion he combated the Gnostic tenet of the inferiority of the Old Testament.

Origen stressed the three means of understanding the Scriptures: literal, moral, and mystical. In this we see three ways that Origen impacted Christian thought. First, he was proficient in his exegetical studies, thus being quite adept in making reference to the literal implications of the Bible. Second, his homilies and commentaries were celebrated, and thus his views on morality were promulgated. Third, Origen's grasp of the Scriptures and knowledge of Platonist philosophy also granted him the ability to elucidate complicated passages in a mystical sense.

It is a detriment to Origen's work that throughout the centuries he was best known (and condemned) for his more unorthodox ideas. In discussing these, it is fair to consider that Origen wrote and thought in a time that predated the great controversies of the Church. The orthodox understandings of the Trinity and Christology had not yet been formulated by intervening councils, and thus Origen's discussion of the matters was not guided by what would become accepted as church dogma.

Origen was a speculative theologian. In formulating theological ideas he did not always insist on their truth; rather, he stressed that he was merely suggesting possibilities. One idea that he did promote was the idea of the preexistence of souls. In his own time, it was not deemed heretical to promote this idea, and indeed it was useful in refuting those who were branded heretics (Marcionites, for instance). The idea concluded that human souls exist prior to their connection to earthly forms, and that this existence is in the divine realm in the presence of God. Later theologians would dismiss this idea. Origen also speculated on the life of the stars, and wondered whether heavenly bodies possessed souls.

Perhaps the most widely known—and subsequently widely denounced—idea proposed by Origen is that of apokatastasis, or universal restoration. Origen, for many years an educator by profession, likened the Creator to a divine teacher. Being divine, this teacher is unable to fail in instructing its students, and thus Origen concluded that in time all students (that is, all creation) will be restored to their former status, perfect and in the midst of God. Hellfire is not eternal, and it is a purifying fire that consumes and cleanses evil from sinners and restores them eventually. This restoration includes all souls—not just humanity but demons and Satan, although Origen did not suggest that this restoration will occur in the near future. This was how he addressed the Greek philosopher Celsus' opposition to Christianity that had been presented in the second century on the ground that it taught eternal punishment by fire.[1] This idea of Origen was eventually condemned alongside other heretical teachings.

Impact

In Origen the Christian Church had its first theologian in the highest sense of the term. For quite some time he was therefore counted as one of the most important Church Fathers and his works were widely used in the Church. His exegetical method was standard of the School of Alexandria, and the Origenists were an important party in the fourth-century debates on Arianism. He contributed to the thought of Christian luminaries like Athanasius (c.296-373), Ambrose (c.339-397), Jerome (c.342-419), and the Cappadocian Fathers. Also, to the multitude to whom his instruction was beyond grasp, he left mediating images and symbols and contributed to the growing language of Christian mysticism. In the monasteries of the Greeks, his influence lived on and the spiritual father of Greek monasticism was that same Origen at whose name the monks had shuddered.

Nevertheless, when he died, Origen actually left no real pupil who could succeed him, nor was the Church of his period able to become his heir truly, and thus his knowledge started to be buried. Three centuries later his very name was deleted from the books of the Church because he was regarded as a heretic. Origen's subsequent trouble (following his death) with the Church involved some extreme views adopted by those describing themselves his followers, the Origenists; their views were then retroactively attributed to Origen. He was condemned by several important theologians, including Jerome, a former admirer. In the ensuing investigation of Origen's orthodoxy, certain speculations made by Origen were condemned as heresy, as these were not accepted by the general Church consensus: among these were the preexistence of souls, apokatastasis, and a hierarchical concept of the Trinity. These teachings and some of the Origenists were declared anathema by a local council in Constantinople 545 and then again by the Second Council of Constantinople in 553. At the council of 553, the anathema against him in his person, declaring him, among others, a heretic, reads as follows:

If anyone does not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, Apollinaris, Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their impious writings, as also all other heretics already condemned and anathematized by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, and by the aforesaid four Holy Synods and [if anyone does not equally anathematize] all those who have held and hold or who in their impiety persist in holding to the end the same opinion as those heretics just mentioned: let him be anathema.[2]

As a result of this condemnation, the Roman Catholic Church does not regard Origen as a Church Father, while some in the Orthodox Church do if with reservations and qualifications. In any event, the Orthodox do not draw up official lists of Church Fathers, and neither Church regards Origen as a saint. In centuries much later, however, his work has been revisited by more sympathetic eyes, and his thought has been recognized as formative for the development of Christian theology. The historian Philip Schaff (1819-1893) sums up Origen's contribution to Christianity, by saying that in spite of his condemnation he "did more than all his enemies combined to advance the cause of sacred learning, to refute and convert heathens and heretics, and to make the church respected in the eyes of the world."[3] Origen's hope for universal salvation and his tolerant attitude towards those who have different opinions would be more acceptable today when Celsus' criticism of Christianity may tend to be more seriously reflected upon and ecumenism is more common-sensically practiced. It may be that as early as in the third century before church dogma was officially formulated he already had an insight into today's situation.

Notes

  1. ↑ Origen, Contra Celsus, book IV, chapters 13, 21, 23. Retrieved January 27, 2009.
  2. ↑ Paul Halsall, "Medieval Sourcebook: Fifth Ecumenical Council: Constantinople II, 553." Retrieved June 1, 2007.
  3. ↑ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100-325. Retrieved January 27, 2009.

References
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Primary sources

  • Origen: An Exortation to Martyrdom, Prayer, and Selected Works. Translated by Rowan A. Greer. Paulist Press, 1979. ISBN 0809121980
  • Origen: Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge University Press, 1980. ISBN 0521295769
  • Origen De Principiis V4. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1419139266
  • Origen: The Song of Songs, Commentary and Homilies. Translated by R.P. Lawson. Paulist Press, 1957. ISBN 0809102617

Secondary sources

  • Crouzel, Henri. "Origen" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, p. 108. Edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
  • De Faye, Eugene. Origen and His Work. Translated by Fred Rothwell. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2004. ISBN 141917309X
  • De Lubac, Henri. History and Spirit: The Understanding of Scripture According to Origen. Ignatius Press, 2007. 089870880X
  • Harris, Carl Vernon. Origen of Alexandria's Interpretation of the Teacher's Function in the Early Christian Hierarchy and Community. American Press, 1966.
  • Herr, Hugh T. The First Systematic Theologian: Origen of Alexandria. Princeton Theological Seminary, 1958.
  • Kannengiesser, Charles, et al, eds. Origen of Alexandria: His World and His Legacy. University of Notre Dame Press, 1988. ISBN 0268015015
  • Lauro, Elizabeth Ann Dively. The Soul and Spirit of Scripture within Origen's Exegesis. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0391041991
  • McGuckin, John Anthony, ed. The Westminster Handbook to Origen. Westminster Press, 2004. ISBN 0664224725
  • Rankin, David Ivan. From Clement to Origen: The Social And Historical Context of the Church Fath. Ashgate Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0754657167
  • Trigg, Joseph A. Origen. Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415118360

External links

All links retrieved November 17, 2022.


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