Difference between revisions of "Meditation" - New World Encyclopedia

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The term '''Meditation''' describes a variety of practices with a variety of goals. It usually involves turning our attention inward to the mind itself. Meditation is often recognized as a component of Eastern religions, having originated [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] [[Hinduism]]. It has also become mainstream in Western culture. It encompasses any of a wide variety of spiritual practices which emphasize mental activity or quiescence.  Meditation can also be used for personal development. Many practice meditation in order to achieve eternal peace, while others practice certain physical yogas in order to become healthier.
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[[File:Kodo Sawaki Zazen.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Zen]] Buddhist meditation.]]
  
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==Overview==
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'''Meditation''' (from the Latin ''meditatio'': "discourse on a subject")<ref>As noted in the [https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation Online Etymology Dictionary], the use of the term "meditation" to describe the process of quiet contemplation is a later linguistic development (ca. 1400 C.E.), with previous usage pertaining to the discursive exploration of a subject. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> describes a large body of psychophysical techniques whose primary aim is the achievement of non-ordinary states of consciousness, typically through the concentration of attention on some object of thought or awareness.<ref>For instance, some medical researchers, requiring an explicit definition of meditation, described it as follows: "self-regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now." A. Maison et al. "Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data," ''Medical Hypotheses'' 44 (1) (1995): 39-46. </ref> Though virtually all religious traditions contain a contemplative element, meditation practice is more often associated with Eastern religions (such as [[Buddhism]], [[Daoism]], and [[Hinduism]]), where these practices have been, and continue to be, integral parts of religious life.<ref>Ramnarayan (R.N.) Vyas, ''The Bhagavad-Git' and Jivana Yoga'' (Abhinav Publications, 2003, ISBN 8170172039). </ref><ref name=Burley>Mikel Burley, ''Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice'' (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 8120817052). </ref><ref name=Knitter>Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter, ''Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China)'' (World Wisdom, 2005, ISBN 0941532895).</ref> As different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices, they tend to engender a variety of responses in practitioners, from profound mental concentration to mental quiescence. The unifying factor, however, at least among religious understandings of the process, is an ever-deepening, [[Intuition|intuitive]] insight into the ultimate nature of reality.<ref>It should be noted that this [[mysticism|mystical]] insight tends to be described in similar terms, regardless of whether it is understood [[theism|theistically]] (as in [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Islam]]ic meditation) or non-theistically (as in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] meditation).</ref>
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Though meditation is traditionally associated with religious practice (and often with Eastern spirituality), these techniques have become increasingly common in secular [[Western world|Western]] culture, where the psychiatric and medical establishments are now beginning to acknowledge and explore the beneficial effects of these practices on psychological and physical health.<ref>C. Tart, "Adapting Eastern spiritual teachings to Western culture." ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' 22: 149-166.</ref> This process can be seen as analogous to the [[secularization]] of other religious techniques, such as [[yoga]] and [[tai chi]], upon their incorporation into [[popular culture]].
  
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[[Image:FalunGongChinatownNYC.JPG|thumb|Meditation in [[Chinatown, Manhattan]]]]The [[English language|English]] word '''meditation''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''meditatio'', which originally indicated every type of physical or intellectual exercise, then later evolved into the more specific meaning "[[contemplation]]."  This usage is found in [[Christian]] [[spirituality]], for example, "meditations on the sufferings of Christ"; as well as Western philosophy, as in [[René Descartes|Descartes']] ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'', a set of six mental exercises which systematically analyze the nature of reality.
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== Categories of Meditation Practice ==
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[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]].]]
  
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However, "meditation" in its modern sense also refers to a separate practice unrelated to Christian meditations. In the late nineteenth century, [[Theosophy|Theosophists]] adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and other [[Eastern religions]]. Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[dhyana]]'', ''[[samadhi]]'', or ''[[pranayama]]''.
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Though there are as many styles of meditation as there are religious and secular traditions that practice them, meditation practices can (in general) be broadly categorized into two groups based upon their respective focal points: those that focus on the gestalt elements of human experience (the "field" or background perception and experience) are referred to as "mindfulness" practices and those that focus on a specific preselected object are called "concentrative" practices. While most techniques can be roughly grouped under one of these rubrics, it should be acknowledged that some practices involve the shifting of focus between the field and an object.<ref name = Perez>Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy." ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 5(1) (March 2000): 49.</ref>
  
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Meditation is usually defined as one of the following:
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In ''mindfulness meditation,'' the meditator sits comfortably and silently, attempting to submerge conscious ideation and maintain an open focus:
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<blockquote>…shifting freely from one perception to the next…. No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor' … brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.<ref name = Perez/></blockquote>
  
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<!-- I would like to quote a precise definition from a well-regarded book about this —>
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''Concentration meditation,'' on the other hand, requires the participant to hold attention on a particular object (e.g., a repetitive prayer) while minimizing distractions; bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object.  
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*a state that is experienced when the mind dissolves and is free of all thoughts
 
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*focusing the mind on a single object (such as a religious statue, or one's breath, or a [[mantra]])
 
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*a mental "opening up" to the divine, invoking the guidance of a higher power
 
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*reasoned analysis of religious teachings (such as impermanence, for Buddhists).
 
  
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Its ritual and contemplative qualities are similar to [[prayer]] in Western religions, but prayer emphasizes communication with a higher being, whereas meditation focuses on developing oneself{{fact}}.
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In some traditions, such as [[Vipassana]], mindfulness and concentration are combined.
  
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Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts, such as the [[martial arts]]. Beginning with the Theosophists, though, meditation has been employed by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as [[Yoga]] and the [[New Age]] movement, as well as limited use in Christianity. It has been suggested that the recent popularity of "meditation" as a religious practice in the West signals some discomfort with more traditional Christian and Jewish practices such as prayer. Others see meditation and prayer as harmonious: [[Edgar Cayce]] taught that "Through prayer we speak to God. In meditation, God speaks to us."
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As meditation primarily entails the creation of a particular mental state, this process can occur with or without additional corporeal activity - including walking meditation, [[Yoga#Patanjali|raja yoga]], and [[tantra]].<ref name=Knitter/>
  
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From the point of view of [[psychology]], meditation can induce an [[altered state of consciousness]]. However, many religious people would challenge the assumption that such mental states (or any other visible result) are the "goal" of meditation. The goals of meditation are varied, and range from spiritual [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]], to the transformation of attitudes, to better [[cardiovascular]] health.
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==Approaches to Meditation (Religious and Secular)==
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===Bahá'í faith===
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The [[Bahá'í Faith]] teaches that meditation is necessary component of spiritual growth, when practiced alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. To this end, [[Bahá'í Faith#`Abdu'l-Bahá|'Abdu'l-Bahá]] is quoted as saying:
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<blockquote>"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."<ref>`Abdu'l-Bahá, ''Paris Talks.'' (Bahá'í Distribution Service, (1912) 1995, ISBN 1870989570), 175. </ref></blockquote>
  
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== Types of meditation ==
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Although the Founder of the Faith, [[Bahá'u'lláh]], never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá ([[Arabic]]: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by [[ablution]]s. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء‎  "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God."
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[[Image:Stage1.gif|thumb|200px|right|"Gathering the Light", Taoist meditation from ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'', by [[C. G. Jung]] and [[Richard Wilhelm]]]]
 
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According to Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes ([[2000]]), the different techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. Some focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called mindfulness; others focus on a preselected specific object, and are called "'concentrative' meditation." There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object.
 
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Categorizing the varieties of meditation is difficult. One common way is according to religion or lineage. But some meditative traditions, such as [[yoga]] or [[tantra]], are common to several religions or occur outside religious contexts.  Therefore, to avoid controversy, this article will not attempt to classify all meditations into a religious class or lineage.
 
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===Bahá'í Faith===
 
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The [[Bahá'í Faith]] teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. [['Abdu'l-Bahá]] wrote:
 
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<blockquote>"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PT/pt-55.html]</blockquote>
 
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Although the Founder of the Faith, [[Bahá'u'lláh]], never specified a particular form of meditation, some Bahá'í practices bring about a meditative state. One of these practices is the daily obligatory chanting of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá ([[Arabic]]: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times, which is preceded by ablutions. This is similar to the Sufi practice of chanting the names of God. The word Abhá comes from the same root as Bahá' ([[Arabic]]: بهاء‎  "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".
 
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Also, many of the prayers and Tablets of the [[Báb]] and [[Bahá'u'lláh]] are intended to bring about a meditative or ecstatic state on the part of the participant. These writings often contain a phrase extolling God or listing several of His names and attributes, which are repeated over and over again throughout the text. For example, in the Long Healing Prayer, almost every verse is followed by "Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, O Thou Abiding One". In the Tablet of the Holy Mariner, every phrase is followed by "Glorified be my Lord, the All-Glorious!"
 
  
 
===Buddhism===
 
===Buddhism===
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[[Image:Buddha.jpg|thumb|left|Buddha in meditation]]
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[[File:1. Buddha in meditation, 2nd century CE, Loriyan Tangai, Gandhara Gallery, Indian Museum, Kolkata. - 4857-A23211..jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Buddha]] in meditation]]
 
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}
 
{{main|Buddhist meditation}}
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The cultivation of "correct" mental states has always been an important element of Buddhist practice, as canonized in the ''mental discipline'' section of the Noble [[Eightfold Path]]. The centrality of meditation can be tied to the tradition's founding myth, which describes the [[Gautama Buddha|historical Buddha]] attaining [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Thus, the majority of early Buddhist teaching revolves around the achievement of particular mystical states as the key to accurate perception of the material world and eventual release from the cycle of [[samsara]] ([[nirvana]]).
  
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Meditation has always enjoyed a central place within Buddhism. The [[Buddha]] himself was said to have achieved [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] while meditating under a [[Bodhi tree]]. Most forms of Buddhism distinguish between [[shamatha]] and [[vipassana]] meditation, both of which are necessary for enlightenment. The former consists of learning to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter involves seeing the true nature of reality.
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To this end, most forms of Buddhism distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, [[shamatha]] and [[vipassana]], both of which were thought to be necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing insight and [[wisdom]] through seeing the true nature of reality. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as ''Anapanasati,'' which could be said to start off as a ''shamatha'' practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a ''vipassana'' practice.
  
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[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes [[vipassana]] meditation directed towards [[anapana]], [[mettā bhāvanā]], or 38 other traditional topics (see: [[Kammatthana]]).
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[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of [[mindfulness]] ''(sati)''<ref>As described in the [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wayof.html Satipatthana Sutta]. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> and concentration ''([[samadhi]])'' in the pursuit of ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]'' (Nirvana). Popular subjects in traditional meditation practice include the breath ''(anapana),'' objects of repulsion (corpses, excrescences, etc.) and loving-kindness ''(mettā).''
  
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In Japanese [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese [[Chan]] Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese [[Zen]], and Korean [[Seon]] schools), [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] meditation and [[koan]] meditation practices are extremely important, allowing a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of [[reality]] (each of the names of these schools derives from the sanskrit [[dhyana]], and translates into "meditation" in their respective languages). The [[esoteric]] [[Shingon]] sect shares many features with [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
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In Japanese [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese [[Zen#Development_in_China|Chán]] Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese [[Zen]], and Korean [[Zen#Zen_in_Korea|Seon]] schools), [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] meditation and [[koan]] meditation practices are understood to allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of [[reality]]. This focus is even attested to in the names of each of these schools, which are derived from the Sanskrit [[dhyana]], and can thus be translated into "meditation" in their respective languages).  
  
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[[Tibet]]an Buddhism emphasizes [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism. However, visitors to Tibetan monasteries are often surprised to discover that many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy.
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[[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Vajrayana]]) emphasizes the path of [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, though they are more likely to [[chant]] or participate in group [[liturgy]]. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the incisive, diamond-like nature of mind and to introduce practitioners to the unchanging, pure awareness that is seen to underlie the whole of life and death.<ref name = Sogyal>Rinpoche Sogyal, ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying,'' Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994).</ref>
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<blockquote>
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''The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.''- [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.''<ref name = Sogyal /></blockquote>
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Though meditation is a vital component of Buddhist practice, it is only one segment of the three types of training required for the attainment of [[enlightenment]], as each adherent is expected to strive for excellence in [[virtue]] ''([[Eightfold_Path#Ethical_conduct_.28.C5.9A.C4.ABla_.C2.B7_S.C4.ABla.29|sīla]]),'' meditation ''([[Eightfold_Path#Mental_discipline_.28Sam.C4.81dhi.29|citta]]),'' and wisdom ''([[Eightfold_Path#Wisdom_.28Praj.C3.B1.C4.81_.C2.B7_Pa.C3.B1.C3.B1.C4.81.29|paññā]]).'' <ref>For instance, from the ''Pali Canon'', see [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 44 [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.044.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998a)] and [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3:88 [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998b).] Retrieved July 12, 2021. In Mahayana tradition, the [[Lotus Sutra]] lists the [[Paramita|Six Perfections]] ''(paramita)'' which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue ''([[Sila|śīla]]),'' concentration ''([[Dhyana|dhyāna]])'' and wisdom ''([[Prajna|prajñā]]).''</ref> Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path. In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.
  
 
===Christianity===
 
===Christianity===
 
{{main|Christian meditation}}
 
{{main|Christian meditation}}
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Christian traditions have various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation." Many of these are [[monastic]] practices. Some types of [[prayer]], such as the [[rosary]] and Adoration (focusing on the eucharist) in [[Catholicism]] or the [[hesychasm]] in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], may be compared to the form of Eastern meditation that focuses on an individual object.
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{{seealso|Hesychasm}}
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[[Image:Gregor Palamas.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Saint [[Gregory Palamas]] (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.]]
  
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Christian meditation is considered a form of [[Prayer in Christianity|prayer]]. Some Chrisitan prayer is made primarily by using the intellect, through the contemplation of the divine mysteries. However, Christian prayer or meditation through the heart, as described in the [[Philokalia]] is a practice towards [[Theosis]], which involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses.
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While the world's Christian traditions do contain various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation," many of them were historically identified as [[monasticism|monastic]] practices. For instance, some types of [[prayer]], such as the [[rosary]] and Adoration (focusing on the [[eucharist]]) in [[Roman Catholicism]] or the [[hesychasm]] in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], may be compared to forms of Eastern meditation that focus on an individual object. Though Christian prayer is often an intellectual (rather than intuitive) exercise, certain practices that encourage the contemplation of the divine mysteries could likewise be seen as meditations. More specifically, the practices recommended in the [[Philokalia]], which stress prayer/meditation as an "attitude of the heart," are more stereotypically meditative, as they involve acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. While these types of (often mystical) meditation were relatively influential during the history of Christianity (as can be seen in the lives and writings of [[Thomas Merton]], [[Teresa of Avila]], and the [[Quakers]], among others), many conservative Christians view meditation with some trepidation, seeing it as an alien and potentially iniquitous force.<ref>See, for example, the critique and denouncement of [[yoga]] and meditation in Douglas Groothius' "Dangerous Meditations," ''Christianity Today'' 48:11 (November 2004), which argues that "no amount of [[chant]]ing, visualizing, or physical contortions will melt away the [[sin]] that separates us from the Lord - however "peaceful" these practices may feel." This account stresses both the view of human beings as ontologically "Fallen" and the traditional Christian distrust of all non-intellectual forms of rationality.</ref>
  
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According to the [[Old Testament]] book of [[Joshua]], a form of meditation is to meditate on scriptures. This is one of the reasons why bible verse memory is a practice among many [[evangelical]] Christians.
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Also, Christian sects often use the term meditation in a more intellectual (rather than intuitive) sense to describe the active practice of reflection on some particular theme, such as "meditation on the sufferings of Christ." A similar "intellectualist" understanding of meditation also underlies the evangelical notion of biblical study, one which is often justified by quoting the [[Book of Joshua]]:
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"Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful." (Joshua 1:8)
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:Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful (Joshua 1:8).
  
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===Gnostic (Modern)===
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===Daoism===
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The modern Gnostic movement counts millions of students in non-English speaking countries and is only now becoming known in English.{{citation needed}} [[Gnosis]] is Greek for "knowledge," but indicates personal, experiential knowledge rather than mere belief or theory. As such, meditation techniques are of primary importance, because it is through meditation that any person can acquire their own personal, experiential knowledge of the mysteries of life and death. There is an enormous range of techniques taught within the Gnostic tradition, ranging from basic concentration practices to very abstract and skillful techniques similar to the highest forms of [[Zen]] and [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhism]].{{citation needed}}  Each has its place in the progressive development of the individual.
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[[Image:Stage1.gif|thumb|300px|right|"Gathering the Light," Daoist meditation from ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'']]
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{{main|Daoism}}
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The wide and variegated schools of [[Daoism]] include a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have emerged from the ''[[I Ching]],'' ''[[Dao De Jing]],'' ''[[Zhuangzi]],'' and [[Ge Hong|Baopuzi]] (among other texts), many indigenous Chinese practices have been concerned with the utilization of breath control and physical exercises for the promotion of [[health]], well-being, and [[longevity]]. These practices enjoyed a period of fruitful cross-fertilization with [[Chinese Buddhism]], especially the ''Ch'an'' ([[Zen]]) school.<ref>Livia Kohn and Yoshinobu Sakade, ''Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques'' (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989).</ref>
  
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===Jainism===
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Such techniques have had significant influence on [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]], as well as some Japanese [[martial arts]]. Most specifically, the Chinese martial art [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] is based on the Daoist and [[Neo-Confucian]] [[cosmology]] contained in the [[Taijitu]] ("Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate"), which correlates individual actions with their macrocosmic functioning of the universe. Many Daoist martial arts are thought of as "moving meditations," such that the practical ideal is "stillness in movement."
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[[Image:Jain meditation.jpg|thumb|right|Jain [[sadhvi]]s meditating]]
 
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The Jains called the practice of meditation [[Samayika]], a word in [[Prakrit]] language. The aim of Samayika is to transcend our daily experiences as the "constantly changing" human beings, called Jiva, and allow identification with the "changeless" reality in us, called the Atma. One begins in Samayika by achieving a balance in time. If the present fine moment of time could be defined as the moving line between the past and the future, Samayika happens by being fully aware, alert and conscious in that moving timeline when one experiences one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. The Samayika is derived from the word samay - meaning time - in the [[Prakrit]] language. The Samayika takes on special significance during special 8-day period practiced by the Jains called [[Paryushana]].
 
  
 
===Hinduism===
 
===Hinduism===
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[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] seal depicting [[Pashupati]] seated in a [[yoga]]-like posture and surrounded by animals.]]
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[[Hinduism]] is the oldest religion in the world that professes meditation as a spiritual and religious practice. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] have discovered carved images of figures who appear to be practicing meditation at ancient Indian archaeological sites.
  
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There are several types of meditation in Hinduism These include (but are not limited to):
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Several forms of meditation have developed in Hinduism, which are closely associated with the practice of Yoga as a means to both physiological and spiritual mastery. Among these types of meditation include [[Jnana Yoga]], ''Surat shabd yoga,'' ("sound and light meditation"), [[Japa Yoga]], in (repetition of a mantra), [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the yoga of love and devotion), ''Hatha Yoga,'' in which postures and meditations are aimed at raising the spiritual energy, and  [[Raja Yoga]] ([[Devanagari]]: योग), one of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], focusing on meditation.  
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* [[Vedanta]] is a form of [[Jnana Yoga]].
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[[Image:Sivakempfort.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A large statue in [[Bangalore]] depicting [[Shiva]] meditating]]
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* [[Raja Yoga]], as outlined by [[Patanjali]], describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her mind: ''Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.''
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Raja Yoga as outlined by [[Patanjali]], which describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her [[mind]]: ''Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.''
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* [[Surat shabd yoga]] "sound and light meditation"
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* [[Japa Yoga]] repetition of a [[mantra]]
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Additionally, the Hindu deities are often depicted as practicing meditation, especially Shiva.
  
 
===Islam===
 
===Islam===
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{{main|Muraqaba}}
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{{seealso|Muraqaba}}
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Within [[Islam]], the term "meditation" refers to the Salat performed 5 times a day. This is a spiritual process of focusing the mind and heart on Allah.
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In [[Islam]], meditation serves as the core element of various mystical traditions (in particular [[Sufism]]), though it is also thought to promote healing and creativity in general.<ref>Kedar Nath Dwivedi, "Review:Freedom from Self, Sufism, Meditation and Psychotherapy." ''Group Analysis'' 22 (4) (December 1989): 434-436. </ref> The Muslim prophet [[Muhammad]], whose deeds provide a moral example for devout Muslims, spent long periods in meditation and contemplation. Indeed, the tradition holds that it was during one such period of meditation that Muhammad began to receive revelations of the [[Qur'an]].<ref>S.A. Nigosian, ''Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 8, 15.</ref>
  
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There is also the act of deep detailed contemplation (tafakkur) commanded in the Qur'an.
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There are two concepts or schools of meditation in Islam:
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*''Tafakkur'' and ''[[Tadabbur]],'' which literally refers to "reflection upon the universe." Muslims feel this process, which consists of quiet contemplation and prayer, will allow the reception of [[divine inspiration]] that awakens and liberates the human mind. This is consistent with the global teachings of Islam, which view life as a test of the adherent's submission to Allah. This type of meditation is practiced by Muslims during the second stage of the [[Hajj]], during their six to eight hour sojourn at Mount Arafat.<ref>Nigosian, 111.</ref>
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*The second form of meditation is [[Sufi meditation]], which is largely based on mystical exercises. These exercises consist of practices similar to Buddhist meditation, known as [[Muraqaba]] or [[Tamarkoz]]&mdash;terms that denote ‘concentration,’ referring to the “concentration of abilities.” Consequently, the term "muraqaba" suggests to close attention, and the convergence and consolidation of mental faculties through meditation. Gerhard Böwering provides a clear synopsis of the [[mysticism|mystical]] goal of Sufi meditation:
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<blockquote>Through a distinct meditational technique, known as ''dikr,'' recollection of God, the mystics return to their primeval origin on the Day of Covenant, when all of humanity (symbolically enshrined in their prophetical ancestors as light particles or seeds) swore an oath of allegiance and witness to Allah as the one and only Lord. Breaking through to eternity, the mystics relive their ''waqt,'' their primeval moment with God, here and now, in the instant of ecstasy, even as they anticipate their ultimate destiny. Sufi meditation captures time by drawing eternity from its edges in pre- and post-existence into the moment of mystical experience.<ref>Gerhard Böwering, "The Concept of Time in Islam," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 141(1) (March 1997): 55-66.</ref></blockquote>
 +
 
 +
However, it should be noted that the meditation practices enjoined by the Sufis are controversial among Muslim scholars. Though one group of Ulama, most namely [[Al-Ghazzali]], have accepted such practices as spiritually valid, more conservative thinkers (such as [[Ibn Taymiya]]) have rejected them as ''bid'ah'' (Arabic: بدعة‎) (religious innovation).
 +
 
 +
===Jainism===
 +
[[Image:Jain meditation.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Jain sadhvis meditating]]
 +
For [[Jainism|Jains]], meditation practices are described as ''samayika,'' a word in the [[Prakrit]] language derived from ''samay'' ("time"). The aim of Samayika is to transcend the daily experiences of being a "constantly changing" human being, [[Jiva]], and allow for the identification with the "changeless" reality in the practitioner, the Atma. The practice of samayika begins by achieving a balance in time. If the present moment of time is taken to be a point between the past and the future, Samayika means being fully aware, alert and conscious in that very moment, experiencing one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. In this, samayika can be seen as a "mindfulness" practice ''par excellence'' ([[#Categories of Meditation Practice|as described above]]).
 +
 
 +
In addition to these commonly accepted meditation techniques, others are accepted only in certain sects. For instance, a practice called [[preksha meditation]] is said to have been rediscovered by the 10th Head of Jain Swetamber Terapanth sect [[Acharya Mahaprajna]], which consists of concentration upon the perception of the breath, body, and the psychic centers. It is understood that correct application of these techniques will initiate the process of personal transformation, which aims at attaining and purify the deeper levels of existence.<ref>Jain Vishwa Bharati, [http://www.jvbhouston.org/preksha.htm Preksha Meditation]  Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
  
 
===Judaism===
 
===Judaism===
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{{main|Jewish meditation}}
+
{{seealso|Baal Shem Tov|Hassidism|Kabbala|Zohar}}
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The concept of Jewish meditation, in Hebrew called ''hitbodeidut'' (התבודדות) or ''hisbodeidus'' is explained in [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hassidic]] philosophy. The word ''hisbodedut'', which derives from the Hebrew word "boded", בודד (a state of being alone) and claimed to be related to the sfirah of Binah (lit. understanding), means the process of making oneself understand a concept well through analytical study.
+
Though lacking the central focus on meditation found in some eastern religions, there is evidence that Judaism has a longstanding tradition of meditation and meditative practices&mdash;perhaps hearkening back to the Biblical period.<ref name = Shapiro>Rami Shapiro, [https://shulamit18.tripod.com/id65.htm#a_brief_introduction_to_jewishA Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation] '' Judaism, Meditation and Yoga''. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> For instance, many rabbinical commentators suggest that, when the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going "לשוח" ''(lasuach)'' in the field, he is actually taking part in some type of meditative practice ([[Genesis]] 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanakh]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that meditation was central to the prophets.<ref name = Shapiro />
  
−
Kabbalah is inherently a meditative field of study. Kabbalistic meditative practices construct a supernal realm which the soul navigates through in order to achieve certain ends. One of the most well known types of meditation is /Merchava/, from the root /R-Ch B/ meaning "chariot"(of God).
+
In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''hitbodedut'' (התבודדות) or ''hisbodedus,'' which is explained in both [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] and [[Hassidism|Hassidic]] philosophy. The word ''hisbodedut,'' which is derived from the Hebrew word בודד ("boded" - the state of being alone), refers to the silent, intuitive, personal contemplation of the Divine. This technique was especially central to the spiritual teachings of Rebbe Nachman.<ref>Ozer Bergman, ''Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation'' (Breslov Research Institute, 2006, ISBN 978-11928822080). </ref>
  
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===Sikhism===
+
[[Kabbala]], Judaism's best known [[mysticism|mystical]] tradition, also places considerable emphasis on meditative practices. Kabbalistic meditation is often a deeply visionary process, based on the envisioning of various significant cosmic phenomena (including the emanations of G-d ''(Sefirot),'' the ultimate Unity ''(Ein Sof),'' and the Divine Chariot ([[Merkabah]])).
−
{{main|Nām Japō}}
 
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In [[Sikhism]], the practices of [[simran]] and [[Nām Japō]] encourage quiet meditation.
 
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===Taoism===
 
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[[Taoism]] includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have their principles described in the [[I Ching]], [[Tao Te Ching]], [[Chuang Tzu]] and [[Daozang|Tao Tsang]] among other texts; the multitude of schools relating to [[Qigong]], [[Neigong]], [[Tao Yin|Daoyin]] and [[Zhan zhuang]] are a large, diverse array of breath training practises in aid of meditation with much influence from later [[Chinese Buddhism]] and with much influence on [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]] as well as some [[Japanese martial arts]].  The Chinese martial art [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] is named after the well-known focus for Taoist and [[Neo-Confucian]] meditation, the [[Taijitu|T'ai Chi T'u]], and is often referred to as “meditation in motion”. Taoism was made famous in the west by the book '[[The Tao of Pooh]]' and its companion book '[[The Te of Piglet]]' written by Benjamin Hoff.
 
  
 
===New Age===
 
===New Age===
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[[New Age]] meditations are influenced by Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. Examples of such meditations include:
+
{{main|New Age}}
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* [[Sahaja Yoga]] Meditation started by Shri [[Nirmala Srivastava|Mataj Nirmala Srivastava]].
+
[[New Age]] meditations are often ostensibly grounded in Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as [[Yoga]], Hinduism, and Buddhism, though they are typically equally influenced by the social mores and material affluence of Western culture. The popularity of meditation in the mainstream West is largely attributable to the [[hippie]]-[[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the day's youth rebelled against traditional [[Religion|belief systems.]]
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* [[Transcendental Meditation]] is a form of meditation invented by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]].
 
−
* [http://www.nsrusa.org Natural Stress Relief] is a meditation technique invented by the [[Scientia Institute]].
 
−
* [[5Rhythms]] is a movement meditation technique invented by [[Gabrielle Roth]].
 
−
* [http://www.transmissionmeditation.org Transmission Meditation] is a potent form of group meditation combining world service and personal development; introduced by British author and esotericist, Benjamin Creme.
 
−
* [[Theta Healing]] is a healing technlogy that utilizes [[theta brainwaves]] to heal, and transform beliefs. It was created by [http://www.thetahealing.com Vianna Stibal] when she instantly cured herself of cancer.
 
−
 
 
−
===Active/Dynamic Meditation===
 
−
[[Osho]], earlier named [[Rajneesh]], invented radically new meditation techniques, which he termed [[Active Meditation]]s, which begin with a stage of activity — sometimes intense and physical — followed by a period of silence. He emphasized that meditation is ''not'' concentration. Dynamic meditation involves a conscious catharsis where one can throw out all the repressions, express what is not easily expressible in society, and then easily go into silence. Some of his techniques also have spontaneous dance as a step into.
 
  
−
Also the [[Thai people|Thai]] [[bhikkhu|monk]] [[Luang Por Teean]] taught a (more conservative) form of [[dynamic meditation]], involving the use of the hands and arms during sitting meditation. He also used walking meditation as a complementary method. His teaching was aimed at developing awareness of the movements of the arms, which are moved continuously in a certain pattern throughout the meditation. The awareness is, however, not limited to the arms but inclusive of the whole life-experience. This type of dynamic meditation is a type of [[vipassana]] meditation, which is popular in [[Thailand]], and is becoming more well known in the western countries, too.
+
Some examples of practices whose popularity can be largely tied to the New Age movement include:
 +
* Kriya Yoga - taught by [[Paramahansa Yogananda]] in order to help people achieve "self-realization";
 +
* Passage Meditation - a modern method developed by spiritual teacher [[Eknath Easwaran]], which involves silent, focused repetition of memorized passages from world scripture and the writings of great mystics;
 +
* [[Transcendental Meditation]], a form of meditation taught and promoted by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]];
 +
* FISU (Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment) - a movement established by Gururaj Ananda Yogi's prime disciples Rajesh Ananda and Jasmini Ananda.
 +
* [[Ananda Marga]] meditation - a teaching propounded by a Mahakaula Guru Shrii Shrii Anandamurtiiji in [[India]], who said that it revived sacred practices taught by SadaShiva and Sri Krs'na. His system of meditation, he said, is based on original Tantra as given by [[Shiva]] and has sometimes been referred as "Rajadhiraja Yoga." He revised many yogic and meditative practices and introduced some new techniques.
  
 
===Secular===
 
===Secular===
−
Forms of meditation which are devoid of mystical content have been developed in the west as a way of promoting physical and mental well being. Most notable is [[Autogenic training]] developed by the German psychiatrist [[Johannes Schultz]] in 1932.
+
In addition to the various forms of religious meditation, the modern era has also seen the development of many "consciousness-expanding" movements, many of which are devoid of mystical content and are singularly devoted to promoting physical and mental well being. Some of these include:
 +
* ''Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation,'' which was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. Jacobson argued that since muscular tension accompanies [[anxiety]], one can reduce anxiety by learning how to dissipate muscular tension.
 +
* ''Autogenic training,'' which was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation, though he attempted to guarantee that autogenic training would be devoid of any mystical elements.
 +
* The method of Dr. Ainslie Meares, an Australian psychiatrist who explored the effects of meditation in a groundbreaking work entitled ''Relief Without Drugs'' (1970). In this text, he recommended some simple, secular relaxation techniques based on Hindu practices as a means of combating anxiety, stress and chronic physical [[pain]].
 +
* Shambhala Training, which was founded in [[Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche]] in 1976. This regimen was a secular program of meditation with a belief in basic goodness, with teachings that stressed the path of bravery and gentleness. The 1984 book ''Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior'' contains student-edited versions of Trungpa's lectures and writings.
  
−
A non-profit secular organisation, [[Acem School of Meditation]], was started by [[Are Holen]] in 1966. Its focus is on relaxation and stress relief.
+
===Sikhism===
 +
{{main|Nām Japō}}
 +
In [[Sikhism]], the practices of [[simran]] and [[Nām Japō]], which enjoin the focusing one's attention on the attributes of God, both encourage quiet meditation. The centrality of meditational practices is highlighted by their place in the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], which states:
 +
:Meditating on the Glories of the Lord, the heart-lotus blossoms radiantly.
 +
:Remembering the Lord in meditation, all fears are dispelled.  
 +
:Perfect is that intellect, by which the Glorious Praises of the Lord are sung (Ga­oṛī mehlā 5).<ref>[https://www.sikhitothemax.org/ang?source=G&ang=189 Guru Granth Sahib] (English translation) ''Khalis Foundation''. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
  
−
Herbert Benson M.D., of Harvard Medical School, has conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines - mainly [[Transcendental meditation]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. He first described the results in his 1975 book ''The Relaxation Response'' where he outlined a secular approach to achieving similar results.
+
Sikhs believe that there are ten 'gates' to the body, 'gates' is another word for '[[chakra]]s' or energy centers. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or ''dasam dwar.'' It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavor when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and [[tranquility]] inside and outside the body.
  
−
The book ''[[Sensual Meditation|Sensual Meditation (1980)]]''  which was written by the founder of the [[Raëlian Church|Raëlian movement]] outlines a sequence of non-ascetic meditation exercizes which emphasize a [[Sensual Meditation]] involving a physical and sensual awareness connected with current knowledge of how the body and mind are organized.
+
Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that [[love]] comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive [[emotion]]s in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first [[Guru]] of the Sikhs, Guru [[Nanak Dev Ji]] preached the [[equality]] of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householders life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, as was popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.
  
−
The 1999 book ''The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism'' by Paul Wilson is a discussion and instruction in one form of secular meditation.
+
== Clinical Studies and Health-Care Applications==
 +
{{main|Health applications and clinical studies of meditation}}
 +
Though western medicine is often characterized by a mechanistic understanding of human bodies and physiological processes, many recent medical advances (in fields as disparate as [[psychology]], [[neurobiology]], and [[palliative care]]) are predicated on a more holistic approach to the needs of patients. One major advance has been in the acknowledgment of meditation as an effective technique for modifying mental states, improving outlook, regulating autonomic bodily processes, and managing pain.<ref>L. Shauna, E. R. Shapiro, Gary Schwartz, Craig Santerre, "Meditation and Positive Psychology" in ''Handbook of Positive Psychology,'' edited by C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 632-645.</ref>
  
−
=== Acoustic and photic ===
+
Meditation, as it is understood in these studies, refers to any practices that aim to inculcate the following psycho-behavioral components:
 +
#relaxation,
 +
#concentration,
 +
#altered state of awareness,
 +
#suspension of logical thought processes, and  
 +
#maintenance of self-observing attitude.<ref>Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, [http://onwww.net/trancenet.org/research/2000perezdealbeniz.shtml Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy] ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 5(1) (Mar 2000): 49-59. Retrieved July 12, 2021. </ref>
  
−
Newer forms of meditation are based on the results of EEG work in long term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a frequency-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz the resulting measured EEG will show a 5 Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols. <ref name="Atwater">
+
In keeping with this more holistic understanding of the human body, the [[medicine|medical]] community has supported numerous studies that explore the physiological effects of meditation.<ref>S. Venkatesh, T.R. Raju, Y. Shivani, G. Tompkins, B.L. Meti, "A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states" ''Indian J Physiol Pharmacol'' (Apr 1997) 41(2): 149–153. </ref><ref>C.K. Peng, et al., "Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques" ''Int J Cardiol.'' 70(2) (Jul 31, 1999): 101–107. </ref><ref name = Lazar>S.W. Lazar, et al., "Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" ''NeuroReport'' 11(7) (May 15, 2000): 1581–1585 </ref> One of the more "high-profile" of these was conducted by Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, who discovered that [[Zen]] meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain<ref>James H. Austin, ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).</ref> &mdash; a seemingly counter-intuitive finding that has since been confirmed using functional MRI imaging.<ref>Mark Kaufman, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/01/03/meditation-gives-brain-a-charge-study-finds/7edabb07-a035-4b20-aebc-16f4eac43a9e/ Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds] ''The Washington Post Company'', January 3, 2005. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
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{{cite web
 
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  | last = Atwater
 
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  | first = F. Holmes
 
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  | title = Inducing States of Consciousness with a Binaural Beat Technology
 
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  | publisher = The Monroe Institute [http://www.monroeinstitute.com/]
 
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  | work = Research papers[http://www.monroeinstitute.com/content_summary.php?section=Research%20Papers]
 
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  | date = 1997
 
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  | url = http://www.monroeinstitute.com/content.php?content_id=21
 
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  | accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
 
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</ref> <ref name="Noton">
 
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{{cite web
 
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  | last = Noton
 
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  | first = David
 
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  | title = PMS, EEG, AND PHOTIC STIMULATION
 
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  | date = 1997
 
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  | url = http://www.elixa.com/mental/Noton.htm
 
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  | accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
 
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</ref>
 
  
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==Meditation in context==
+
Likewise, Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with [[Harvard]] University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."<ref name = Lazar/> The relaxation response includes changes in [[metabolism]], heart rate, [[respiration]], blood pressure and [[brain]] chemistry. These results have been borne out by extensive research into the positive physiological impact of meditation on various bodily processes, including balance,<ref>Y. Yang et al., "Effect of combined Taiji and Qigong training on balance mechanisms: a randomized controlled trial of older adults," ''Medical Science Monitor'' 13(8) (Aug 2007):CR339-348. </ref> blood pressure,<ref>J.P. Manikonda et al., "Contemplative meditation reduces ambulatory blood pressure and stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot trial," ''Journal of Human Hypertension'' (Sep 6, 2007).</ref> and metabolism,<ref>M.S. Chaya, A.V. Kurpad, H.R. Nagendra, and R. Nagarathna, "The effect of long term combined yoga practice on the basal metabolic rate of healthy adults," ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' 6 (Aug 31, 2006):28.</ref> as well as cardiovascular<ref> M. Hill, R. Weber, and S. Werner, "The heart-mind connection," ''Behavioral Healthcare'' 26(9) (Sep 2006):30-32.</ref> and respiratory function.<ref>D. Cysarz and A. Büssing, "Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen meditation," ''European Journal of Applied Physiology'' 95(1) (Sep 2005):88-95.</ref> For example, in an early study in 1972, [[Transcendental Meditation]] was shown to affect the human [[metabolism]] by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as lactic acid, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and inducing favorable patterns of brain waves.<ref>H. Benson and R.K. Wallace, "The Physiology of Meditation" ''Scientific American'' 226(2) (1972): 84-90.</ref> These physiological effects have also demonstrated the efficacy of meditation as part of a treatment regimen for [[epilepsy]].<ref>N. Yardi, "Yoga for control of epilepsy," ''Seizure'' 10(1) (Jan 2001):7-12.</ref>
−
Most traditions address the integration of mind, body, and spirit (this is a major theme of the [[Bhagavad-Gita]]); or that of spiritual practice with family life, work, and so on. Often, meditation is said to be incomplete if it doesn't lead to positive changes in one's daily life and attitudes. In that spirit some Zen practitioners have promoted "Zen driving," aimed at reducing [[Road rage (phenomenon)|road rage]].
 
  
−
Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully.  Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations.
+
Given these findings, meditation has entered the mainstream of [[health care]] as a method of stress management and pain reduction.<ref>N.E. Morone and C.M. Greco, "Mind-body interventions for chronic pain in older adults: a structured review," ''Pain Medicine'' 8(4) (May-Jun 2007):359-375.</ref> As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness, as it has been found to reduce complications associated with increased stress, such as a depressed [[immune system]].<ref>L.E. Carlson, Z. Ursuliak, E. Goodey, M. Angen, and M. Speca, "The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up." ''Support Care Cancer'' 9(2) (Mar 2001):112-123. </ref> Similar conclusions have been reached by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, who have studied the beneficial effects of [[mindfulness]] meditation on stress and outlook.<ref>Jon Kabat-Zinn, L. Lipworth, and R. Burney, "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain." ''Journal of Behavioral Medicine'' 8(2) (1985): 163-190. </ref><ref>Richard J. Davidson et al., "Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation." ''Psychosomatic Medicine'' 65(4) (Jul-Aug 2003): 564-570. </ref>
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+
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Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle. Many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. Some traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice: Sufi poets (e.g. [[Rumi]], [[Hafez (poet)|Hafiz]]) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam[http://islam.about.com/od/health/f/alcohol.htm].
+
These programs correspond to a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, which has led to a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the National Institutes of Health's establishment of five research centers to explore the mind-body elements of disease.)
−
 
 
−
Most meditative traditions discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism and the [[Rastafari movement]], which have a long tradition of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which use [[peyote]], [[ayahuasca]], or other restricted substances in a religious setting.
 
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A number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, and so on, in a [[lineage]]. Most Chinese traditions rely on the [[Confucian]] concept of a [[Sifu]]. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit [[guru]], Tibetan [[lama]]). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek ''gerontas'', Russian ''[[starets]]''); Catholic religious have [[spiritual director]]s.
 
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−
The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates, and others offer instructions for an [[altar]] or other accessories.
 
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== Physical postures ==
 
−
Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or  suggest different physical postures for meditation. Most famous are the several cross-legged postures, including the [[Lotus Position]]. For example, the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]] recommends the [http://groups.msn.com/AryaTaraTibetanBuddhismUK/meditationposture.msnw Seven Points of Vairocana] in which:
 
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−
*the legs are crossed in either the Lotus Position (here called the [[vajra]] position) or the other way, "Indian" or "tailor" fashion (here called the [[bodhisattva]] position)
 
−
*the eyes are kept open (thus affirming the world)
 
−
*the back is kept straight (like "an arrow" or "a stack of coins")
 
−
*the shoulders are kept even and relaxed
 
−
*the gaze is kept at a medium level&mdash;too low and one becomes drowsy; too high and one becomes restless
 
−
*the mouth is kept slightly open
 
−
*the tongue touches the roof of the mouth
 
−
 
 
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Many meditative traditions teach that the [[vertebral column|spine]] should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit ''prana'', Chinese ''[[qi]]'', Latin ''spiritus'') or the [[Kundalini]].  In some traditions the meditator may sit on a chair, flat-footed (as in [[New Thought]]); sit on a stool (as in [[Orthodox Christianity]]); or walk in mindfulness (as in [[Theravada]] Buddhism).
 
−
[[Image:Walking meditation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bas-relief in [[Sukhothai]], [[Thailand]] depicting monks during walking meditation.]]
 
−
Various hand-gestures or [[mudra]]s may be prescribed. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect consciousness. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.
 
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−
Quiet is often held to be desirable, and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing, humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state. The Tibetan tradition described above is probably in the minority for recommending that the eyes remain open. Practitioners of the [[Soto|Soto Zen]] tradition also meditate with their eyes open, facing a wall, but most schools of meditation assume that the eyes will be closed or only half-open.
 
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−
Often such details are shared by more than one religion, even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely. One example would be "navel-gazing," which is apparently attested within Eastern Orthodoxy as well as Chinese [[qigong]] practice. Another would be the practice of focusing on the breath, which is found in Orthodox Christianity, [[Sufism]], and numerous Indic traditions.
 
−
 
 
−
Sitting cross-legged (or upon one's knees) for extended periods when one is not sufficiently limber, can result in a range of [[ergonomic]] complaints called "meditator's knee".
 
−
 
 
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== Common Postures ==
 
−
 
 
−
;'''Seated posture''':Person can use any chair, stool, bench, anything that has a horizontal top, so that he or she may sit on it. The person sits up, with their back straight, and holds their head and spine in alignment. They rest their hands comfortably on their knees or arms of chair. Their thighs should be parallel to the floor while the person's back does not lean against the back of the chair.
 
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;'''Cross legged posture''':Person crosses legs while seated on the floor (and on a cushion, if it is more comfortable) and unless skilled at yoga, does not attempt to rest feet on their thighs (like Indian yogis do). The person sits upright, back straight, and with their head and spine in alignment. Hands may rest in any position.
 
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;'''Kneeling posture''':Person kneels on the floor with their knees together, buttocks resting on their heels and toes almost touching. They keep their back straight, head and spine in alignment, and rest their hands on their thighs.
 
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−
;'''Lying down posture''':This is the ''savasna'', or the corpse posture in yoga. Person lies down on a carpet, and makes sure legs are straight but relaxed. Normally, it is seldom used because it mimics natural sleeping postures, making it very easy to fall asleep while trying to meditiate. It is often regarded as more effective as a stress reducer rather than in the meditation process.
 
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==Frequency and duration==
 
−
These vary so greatly that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, one-minute meditations are not out of the question.
 
−
 
 
−
Twenty or thirty minutes is broadly accepted as being a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial.
 
−
 
 
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Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance.  Also, many meditators stress the importance of continual practice in order to strengthen concentration for prolonged meditation sessions as well as increased focus during their daily lives.
 
−
 
 
−
<!--
 
−
 
 
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==The use of symbols in Meditation==
 
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{{sources}}
 
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The use of symbols in meditation is not unusual in beliefs such as Taoism. Those symbols may have different meanings. However, those symbols are believed to have practical effects. They are believed to be able to draw different energies from the universe into the body of the practitioner in order to transform or awaken his/her hidden senses. Using symbols correctly is said to enhance the speed of awakening hidden senses. In addition to this, some symbols can also be used to clean the energy around our environment or protect us from negative influences. —>
 
−
 
 
−
==Purposes and effects of meditation==
 
−
 
 
−
The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's [[God]]. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation.
 
−
 
 
−
Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation — sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God or from the Holy Spirit/Ghost, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator alone, just as some say that a person will not convert to Christianity without the influence of the Holy Spirit/Ghost's presence.
 
  
−
At the same time, many effects (or perhaps side-effects) have been experienced during, or claimed for, various types of meditation. These include:
+
==Notes==
−
 
+
<div class="references-small">
−
*Greater faith in, or understanding of, one's religion or beliefs
 
−
*Spiritual growth
 
−
*An increase in patience, compassion, and other virtues and morals or the understanding of them
 
−
*Feelings of calm or peace, and/or moments of great joy
 
−
*Consciousness of sin, temptation, and remorse, and a spirit of contrition.
 
−
*Sensitivity to certain forms of lighting, such as [[fluorescent]] lights or computer screens, and sometimes heightened sense-perception.
 
−
*Surfacing of buried memories.
 
−
*Experience of spiritual phenomena such as [[kundalini]], [[extra-sensory perception]], or [[vision (religion)|visions]] of deities, saints, demons, etc.
 
−
*"Miraculous" abilities such as [[levitation]] (cf. [[yogic flying]])
 
−
*[[Psychosis|Psychotic]] episodes (see medical section below)
 
−
 
 
−
Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, [[Mahayana]] Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the [[bodhisattva]] vow). Some, as in certain sects of Christianity, say that these things are possible, but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of God.
 
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== Health applications and clinical studies of meditation ==
 
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[[Image:Ss460-319-070-Buddha2-1.jpg|thumb|250px|Scenes of Inner Taksang, temple hall, built just above the cave where [[Padmasambhava]] meditated]]
 
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In the recent years there has been a growing interest within the [[medicine|medical]] community to study the [[physiological]] effects of meditation (Venkatesh et al., 1997; Peng et al., 1999; Lazar et al., 2000; Carlson et.al, 2001). Many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on [[somatic motor function]] as well as [[cardiovascular]] and [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] function. Also the [[hermeneutic]] and [[phenomenological]] aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest. Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and [[pain]] reduction.  For example, in an early study in 1972, [[transcendental meditation]] was shown to affect the human [[metabolism]] by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as [[lactic acid|lactate]], decreasing [[heart rate]] and [[blood pressure]] and inducing favorable [[brain wave]]s. (Scientific American 226: 84-90 (1972)).  In 1976, the Australian psychiatrist [[Ainslie Meares]], reported in the ''[[Medical Journal of Australia]]'', the regression of cancer following intensive meditation. Meares would go on to write a number of books, including his best-seller ''[[Relief without Drugs]]''.
 
−
 
 
−
As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed [[immune system]].  There is a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the establishment by the [[NIH]] in the U.S. of 5 research centers to research the mind-body aspects of disease.)
 
−
[[Dr. James Austin]], a neurophysiologist at the [[University of Colorado]], reported that [[Zen]] meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book ''Zen and the Brain'' (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using [[functional MRI]] imaging which examine the electrical activity of the brain.
 
−
 
 
−
Dr. [[Herbert Benson]] of the [[Mind Body Medical Institute|Mind-Body Medical Institute]], which is affiliated with [[Harvard]] and several [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "[[relaxation response]]" (Lazar et.al, 2003). The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.
 
−
 
 
−
Other studies within this field include the research of [[Jon Kabat-Zinn]] and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts who have studied the effects of [[mindfulness]] meditation on stress ([[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn]] et.al, 1985; Davidson et.al, 2003).
 
−
 
 
−
===Meditation and the brain===
 
−
Mindfulness meditation and related techniques are intended to train attention for the sake of provoking insight. Think of it as the opposite of [[attention deficit disorder]]. A wider, more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation, easier to be objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations, and easier to achieve a state of responsive, creative awareness or "[[Flow (psychology)|flow]]".
 
−
 
 
−
One theory, presented by [[Daniel Goleman]] & [[Tara Bennett-Goleman]] (2001), suggests that meditation works because of the relationship between the [[amygdala]] and the [[prefrontal cortex]].  In very simple terms, the amygdala is the part of the brain that decides if we should get angry or anxious (among other things), and the pre-frontal cortex is the part that makes us stop and think about things (it is also known as the inhibitory centre).
 
−
 
 
−
So, the prefrontal cortex is very good at analyzing and planning, but it takes a long time to make decisions.  The amygdala, on the other hand, is simpler (and older in evolutionary terms).  It makes rapid judgments about a situation and has a powerful effect on our emotions and behaviour, linked to survival needs.  For example, if a human sees a [[lion]] leaping out at them, the amygdala will trigger a [[fight or flight]] response long before the prefrontal cortex responds.
 
−
 
 
−
But in making [[snap judgments]], our amygdalas are prone to error, such as seeing danger where there is none.  This is particularly true in contemporary society where social conflicts are far more common than encounters with predators, and a basically harmless but emotionally charged situation can trigger uncontrollable fear or anger — leading to conflict, anxiety, and stress.
 
−
 
 
−
Because there is roughly a quarter of a second gap between the time an event occurs and the time it takes the amygdala to react, a skilled meditator may be able to intervene before a fight or flight response takes over, and perhaps even redirect it into more constructive or positive feelings.
 
−
 
 
−
The different roles of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex can be easily observed under the influence of various drugs. [[Ethanol|Alcohol]] depresses the brain generally, but the sophisticated prefrontal cortex is more affected than less complex areas, resulting in lowered inhibitions, decreased attention span, and increased influence of emotions over behaviour.  Likewise, the controversial drug [[Ritalin]] has the opposite effect, because it stimulates activity in the prefrontal cortex.
 
−
 
 
−
Some studies of meditation have linked the practice to increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex, which is associated with concentration, planning, meta-cognition (thinking about thinking), and ''positive affect'' (good feelings). There are similar studies linking [[clinical depression|depression]] and [[anxiety]] with decreased activity in the same region, and/or with dominant activity in the right prefrontal cortex.  Meditation increases activity in the left prefrontal cortex, and the changes are stable over time — even if you stop meditating for a while, the effect lingers.
 
−
 
 
−
===Meditation and EEG===
 
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−
[[Electroencephalography|Electroencephalograph]] (EEG) recordings of skilled meditators showed a significant rise in [[gamma wave]] activity in the 80 to 120 Hz range during meditation. There was also a rise in the range of 25 to 42 Hz. These meditators had 10 to 40 years of training in Buddhist-based mental training. EEG done on meditators who had received recent training demonstrated considerably less rise. <ref name="Lutz">
 
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{{cite web
 
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  | last = Lutz
 
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  | first = Antoine
 
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  | title = Breakthrough study on EEG of meditation
 
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  | url = http://www.quantumconsciousness.org/EEGmeditation.htm
 
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  | accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
 
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</ref>
 
−
 
 
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The experienced meditators also showed increased gamma activity while at rest and not meditating.<ref name="Lutz"/>
 
−
 
 
−
During meditation there is a modest increase in slow alpha or theta wave EEG activity. <ref name="Lutz"/> <ref>
 
−
{{cite web
 
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  | last = Bhattathiry
 
−
  | first = M.P.
 
−
  | title = Neurophysiology of Meditation
 
−
  | url = http://1stholistic.com/Meditation/hol_meditation_neurophysiology-of-meditation.htm
 
−
  | accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
 
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</ref>
 
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−
Chang and Lo found different results. <ref name="Chang">
 
−
{{cite web
 
−
  | last = Chang
 
−
  | first = Kanf-Ming
 
−
  | title = MEDITATION EEG INTERPRETATION BASED ON NOVEL FUZZY-MERGING STRATEGIES AND WAVELET FEATURES (PDF)
 
−
  | date = 2005-07-15
 
−
  | url = http://bme.ntu.edu.tw/abc/17.4/17-4-2.pdf
 
−
  | accessdate = 2006-08-14 }}
 
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</ref> First they classify five patterns in meditation based on the normal four frequency ranges (delta < 4Hz, theta 4 to <8Hz, alpha 8 to 13Hz, and beta >13Hz). The five patterns they found were:
 
−
:1) delta
 
−
:2) delta + theta
 
−
:3) theta + slow alpha
 
−
:4) high-amplitude alpha
 
−
:5) amplitude suppressed ("silent and almost flat")
 
−
They found pattern #5 unique and characterized by:
 
−
:1) extremely low power (significant suppression of EEG amplitude)
 
−
:2) corresponding temporal patterns with no particular EEG rhythm
 
−
:3) no dominating peak in the spectral distribution
 
−
 
 
−
They had collected EEG patterns from more than 50 meditators over the prior five years. Five meditation EEG scenarios are then described. They further state that most meditation is dominated by alpha waves. They found delta and theta waves occurred occasionally, sometimes while people fell asleep and sometimes not. In particular they found the amplitude suppressed pattern correlated with "the feeling of blessings."
 
−
 
 
−
===Adverse effects===
 
−
Predominantly, studies of meditation report positive effects. However, some studies report that meditation may have adverse effects in certain circumstances (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, [[1998]]; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). If practiced improperly or too intensely, meditation can lead to considerable psychological and physiological problems. Serious and credible teachers of meditation usually warn their students about the possible pitfalls of a contemplative path ([[Chogyam Trungpa|Trungpa]], 1973).
 
−
 
 
−
Another issue concerns the adaptation of eastern meditative concepts to a western culture, an adaptation that is often unfamiliar with the cultural matrix in which the meditative concept originated. Eastern concepts of meditation are often imported to a western setting within the popular context of new religious movements, or within the context of popular approaches to body and health. It is common for this popular context to be unfamiliar with the broad range of adverse effects that might occur during meditation, and to have limited tools for dealing with them when they do arise. Since the practice of meditation may include a powerful confrontation with existential questions, it is not considered wise to engage in intense meditation techniques without an extended period of psychological preparation, preferably in contact with a credible teacher or clinician. In the case of Asian contemplative traditions (Hindu, Buddhist), which has often originated within a [[Monasticism|monastic]] or reclusive context, there often exist major challenges connected to the way the particular meditation techniques are to be applied to a Western mindset without causing harm to the practitioner, for example passivity.
 
−
 
 
−
A growing body of clinical literature is now starting to address the phenomenon of meditation-related problems (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, 1998; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). Several side-effects have been reported, including uncomfortable [[kinesthetic]] sensations, mild dissociation and psychosis-like symptoms (Craven, [[1989]]). From a clinical study of twenty-seven long term meditators, Shapiro ([[1992]]) reported such adverse effects as depression, relaxation-induced anxiety and panic, paradoxical increases in tension, impaired reality testing, confusion, disorientation and feeling 'spaced out'. The possibility that meditation might trigger strong emotional reactions is also reported by Kutz, Borysenko & Benson (1985). Therefore, meditation might cause serious side effects, even among long-term practitioners, and might even, in some instances, be contraindicated. The tendency of meditation to release unconscious material (Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000) implies that the beginning meditator should approach the practice with moderation.
 
−
 
 
−
Particularly in the Chinese Qigong tradition, stories of unguided practitioners or inexpertly guided students developing chronic mental and physical health problems as a result of their attempts at meditation training are not uncommon. [[English language|English]] speaking practitioners and teachers of Qigong and related disciplines note that the practice of this contemplative exercise is sometimes accompanied by physical and psychological distress. The identification of this syndrome has led to the inclusion of a culture-sensitive category in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV]] called Qi-Gong Psychotic Reaction (American Psychiatric Association, 1994: Appendix 1).
 
−
 
 
−
Meditative traditions which include the use of drugs are generally considered to be harmful to the practitioner. Additionally, as with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may be helpful to apply mindful attitudes acquired in meditation while actively engaging with current problems (see Hayes et al, 1999, chap. 3; Metzner, 2005).
 
−
 
 
−
===Meditation and drugs===
 
−
Some modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with the use of some drugs.  However, the use of either [[stimulants]] has been proposed by some as a means to provide insight, and in some [[shamanistic]] traditions they are used as agents of ritual. Some Native American traditions for instance emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing [[tobacco]], [[salvia divinorum]] or other plants. Some Hindu traditions use [[bhang]], East Asian traditions use [[tea]] and Middle Eastern (and many Western) religions use [[coffee]] as an aid to meditation.
 
−
 
 
−
During the [[1960s]], eastern meditation traditions and psychedelics such [[LSD]] became popular among many people, and many people suggested that LSD use and meditation were both means to the same spiritual/existential end. Many practictioners of eastern traditions rejected this idea, including many who had tried LSD themselves.  In ''The Master Game'', de Ropp said that the door to full consciousness could be glimpsed through with the aid of substances — which is doubted by many others — yet to pass beyond the door required yoga and meditation. Other authors, such as [[Rick Strassman]], continue to believe that the relationship between religious experiences reached by way of meditation and through the use of psychedelic drugs deserves further exploration. <ref>Rick Strassman, ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences'', 320 pages, Park Street Press, [[2001]], ISBN 0-89281-927-8</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Notable Quotes about Meditation==
 
−
"So, to meditate is to purge the mind of its self-centered activity. And if you have come this far in meditation, you will find there is silence, a total emptiness. The mind is uncontaminated by society; it is no longer subject to any influence, to the pressure of any desire. It is completely alone, and being alone, untouched it is innocent. Therefore there is a possibility for that which is timeless, eternal, to come into being. This whole process is meditation." — [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]]
 
−
 
 
−
== Notes ==
 
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
 +
</div>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
+
* American Psychiatric Association. ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,'' fourth ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
−
* Austin, James H. (1999) ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness'', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-51109-6
+
* Austin, James H. ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness.'' Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. ISBN 0262511096.
−
* [[Azeemia|Azeemi]], [[Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi|Khwaja Shamsuddin]] (2005) ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation''. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8
+
* Azeemi, Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi. ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation.'' Houston: Plato, 2005. ISBN 0975887548.
−
* Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, Angen M, Speca M. (2001) ''The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up''. Support Care Cancer. 2001 Mar;9(2):112-23.[[PubMed]] abstract PMID 11305069
+
* Bennett-Goleman, T. ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart.'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0609607529.
−
* Craven JL. (1989) ''Meditation and psychotherapy.'' Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Oct;34(7):648-53. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 2680046
+
* Benson, Herbert, and Miriam Z. Klipper. ''The Relaxation Response,'' Expanded Updated ed. Harper, 2000. ISBN 0380815958.
−
* [[Richard J. Davidson|Davidson RJ]], [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn J]], Schumacher J, Rosenkranz M, Muller D, Santorelli SF, Urbanowski F, Harrington A, Bonus K, Sheridan JF. (2003) ''Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation''. Psychosomatic Medicine 2003 Jul-Aug;65(4):564-70. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 12883106
+
* Bergman, Ozer. ''Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation.'' Breslov Research Institute, 2006. ISBN 978-1928822080.
−
* Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart,'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9
+
* Burley, Mikel. ''Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. ISBN 8120817052.
−
* Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy''. New York: Guilford Press.
+
* Dumoulin, Heinrich, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter. ''Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China).'' World Wisdom, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
−
* [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn J]], Lipworth L, Burney R. (1985) ''The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain''. Journ. Behav. Medicine. Jun;8(2):163-90. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 3897551
+
* Hayes, S.C., K.D. Strosahl, and K.G. Wilson. ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change.'' New York: Guilford Press, 1999. ISBN 1572309555.
−
* Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H. (1985) ''Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation''. American Journal of Psychiatry, Jan;142(1):1-8. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 3881049
+
* Kohn, Livia, ed., and Yoshinobu Sakade. ''Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques.'' Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. ISBN 0892640855.  
−
* Lazar, Sara W.; Bush, George; Gollub, Randy L.; Fricchione, Gregory L.; Khalsa, Gurucharan; Benson, Herbert (2000) ''Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation [Autonomic Nervous System] NeuroReport'': Volume 11(7) [[15 May]] [[2000]] p 1581–1585 [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 10841380
+
* Lazar, Sara W. "Mindfulness Research." In: ''Mindfulness and Psychotherapy.'' C. Germer, R.D. Siegel, P. Fulton, eds. New York: Guildford Press, 2005.  
−
* Lukoff, David; Lu Francis G. & Turner, Robert P. (1998) ''From Spiritual Emergency to Spiritual Problem: The Transpersonal Roots of the New DSM-IV Category''. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(2), 21-50,
+
* Metzner R. "Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness." In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience, Chap. 2.'' Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195165314.  
−
* Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience'', Chap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
+
* MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan. ''Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation.'' Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2005. (in English)
−
* Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto & Holmes, Jeremy (2000) Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, March 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p
+
* Nigosian, S. A. ''Islam. Its History, Teaching, and Practices.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004. ISBN 0253216273.  
−
* Peng CK, Mietus JE, Liu Y, Khalsa G, Douglas PS, Benson H, Goldberger AL. (1999) ''Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques. Int J Cardiol.'' 1999 Jul 31;70(2):101–7. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 10454297
+
* Sogyal, Rinpoche. ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying,'' Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. ISBN 0062508342.
−
Michele Meiché  "Meditation for Everyday Living" Book & CD (2003/2006)  A how to for breathwork, stress reduction and using meditation as a tool &  living a meditative state everyday. Pain relief, connecting to inner guidance, developing and reinforcing inner faith
+
*Tart, Charles T., ed. ''Altered States of Consciousness,'' 3rd ed. Harper, 1990. ISBN 0471845604.
−
* Shalif, I. et al. (1985) [http://www.etext.org/Psychology/Shalif/emotions ''Focusing on the Emotions of Daily Life'' ] (Tel-Aviv: Etext Archives, 1990)
+
* Trungpa, C. ''Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism.'' Boston: Shambhala South Asia Editions, 1973.
−
* Shapiro DH Jr. (1992) ''Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators''. Int. Journal of Psychosom. 39(1-4):62-7. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 1428622
+
* Trungpa, C. ''Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior.'' Boston: Shambhala Dragon Editions, 1984.
−
* [[Chogyam Trungpa|Trungpa, C.]] (1973) ''Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism'', Shambhala South Asia Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.
+
* Vogel, Erhard. ''Journey Into Your Center.'' Nataraja Publications, 2001. ISBN 1892484056.
−
* Venkatesh S, Raju TR, Shivani Y, Tompkins G, Meti BL. (1997) ''A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.'' 1997 Apr;41(2): 149–53. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 9142560
 
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* {{cite journal
 
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| author=Lutz, Antoine; [[Richard J. Davidson]]; ''et al''
 
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−
| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/46/16369
 
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| title= Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice
 
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| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
 
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| volume=101 | issue= November 16 | year=2004 | pages=
 
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| id = {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0407401101}}
 
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}}
 
  
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==External links==
 
−
* [http://www.vcn.bc.ca/ims-hq/ International Meditation Society]
 
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* [http://mindfullivingprograms.com/meditationresearch.php/ Meditation Research Roundup]
 
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* [http://www.meditationsociety.com/ Meditation Society of America]
 
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* [http://meditation.org.au/ Meditation Society of Australia]
 
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* [http://www.gurumaa.com/meditation_techniques.asp Meditation Techniques by Anandmurti Gurumaa]
 
−
* [http://www.meditationunlimited.net/ Meditation Unlimited - a scientific approach to inner reality...] Two of Osho's disciples sharing the essence of meditation.
 
−
* [http://meditation-for-avatars.net/ Non-Chat Chat, Meditation for Avatars]
 
−
* [http://sanathan.org/ Learn and Know the Benefts Of Meditation (India)]
 
−
* [http://www.journalofyoga.org JOY: ''The Journal of Yoga''] scholarly journal investigating the science and practice of meditation
 
−
* [http://www.ommeditation.org Learning How to Meditate]
 
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
  
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Latest revision as of 00:07, 13 July 2021

Zen Buddhist meditation.

Meditation (from the Latin meditatio: "discourse on a subject")[1] describes a large body of psychophysical techniques whose primary aim is the achievement of non-ordinary states of consciousness, typically through the concentration of attention on some object of thought or awareness.[2] Though virtually all religious traditions contain a contemplative element, meditation practice is more often associated with Eastern religions (such as Buddhism, Daoism, and Hinduism), where these practices have been, and continue to be, integral parts of religious life.[3][4][5] As different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices, they tend to engender a variety of responses in practitioners, from profound mental concentration to mental quiescence. The unifying factor, however, at least among religious understandings of the process, is an ever-deepening, intuitive insight into the ultimate nature of reality.[6]

Though meditation is traditionally associated with religious practice (and often with Eastern spirituality), these techniques have become increasingly common in secular Western culture, where the psychiatric and medical establishments are now beginning to acknowledge and explore the beneficial effects of these practices on psychological and physical health.[7] This process can be seen as analogous to the secularization of other religious techniques, such as yoga and tai chi, upon their incorporation into popular culture.

Categories of Meditation Practice

Bodhidharma practicing zazen.

Though there are as many styles of meditation as there are religious and secular traditions that practice them, meditation practices can (in general) be broadly categorized into two groups based upon their respective focal points: those that focus on the gestalt elements of human experience (the "field" or background perception and experience) are referred to as "mindfulness" practices and those that focus on a specific preselected object are called "concentrative" practices. While most techniques can be roughly grouped under one of these rubrics, it should be acknowledged that some practices involve the shifting of focus between the field and an object.[8]

In mindfulness meditation, the meditator sits comfortably and silently, attempting to submerge conscious ideation and maintain an open focus:

…shifting freely from one perception to the next…. No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor' … brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.[8]

Concentration meditation, on the other hand, requires the participant to hold attention on a particular object (e.g., a repetitive prayer) while minimizing distractions; bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object.

In some traditions, such as Vipassana, mindfulness and concentration are combined.

As meditation primarily entails the creation of a particular mental state, this process can occur with or without additional corporeal activity - including walking meditation, raja yoga, and tantra.[5]

Approaches to Meditation (Religious and Secular)

Bahá'í faith

The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary component of spiritual growth, when practiced alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. To this end, 'Abdu'l-Bahá is quoted as saying:

"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."[9]

Although the Founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by ablutions. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء‎ "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God."

Buddhism

Buddha in meditation

The cultivation of "correct" mental states has always been an important element of Buddhist practice, as canonized in the mental discipline section of the Noble Eightfold Path. The centrality of meditation can be tied to the tradition's founding myth, which describes the historical Buddha attaining enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Thus, the majority of early Buddhist teaching revolves around the achievement of particular mystical states as the key to accurate perception of the material world and eventual release from the cycle of samsara (nirvana).

To this end, most forms of Buddhism distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, shamatha and vipassana, both of which were thought to be necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing insight and wisdom through seeing the true nature of reality. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as Anapanasati, which could be said to start off as a shamatha practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a vipassana practice.

Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (sati)[10] and concentration (samadhi) in the pursuit of Nibbana (Nirvana). Popular subjects in traditional meditation practice include the breath (anapana), objects of repulsion (corpses, excrescences, etc.) and loving-kindness (mettā).

In Japanese Mahayana schools, Tendai (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese Chán Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese Zen, and Korean Seon schools), ts'o ch'an meditation and koan meditation practices are understood to allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of reality. This focus is even attested to in the names of each of these schools, which are derived from the Sanskrit dhyana, and can thus be translated into "meditation" in their respective languages).

Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) emphasizes the path of tantra for its senior practitioners. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, though they are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the incisive, diamond-like nature of mind and to introduce practitioners to the unchanging, pure awareness that is seen to underlie the whole of life and death.[11]

The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.- Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.[11]

Though meditation is a vital component of Buddhist practice, it is only one segment of the three types of training required for the attainment of enlightenment, as each adherent is expected to strive for excellence in virtue (sīla), meditation (citta), and wisdom (paññā). [12] Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path. In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.

Christianity

See also: Hesychasm

Saint Gregory Palamas (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.

While the world's Christian traditions do contain various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation," many of them were historically identified as monastic practices. For instance, some types of prayer, such as the rosary and Adoration (focusing on the eucharist) in Roman Catholicism or the hesychasm in Eastern Orthodoxy, may be compared to forms of Eastern meditation that focus on an individual object. Though Christian prayer is often an intellectual (rather than intuitive) exercise, certain practices that encourage the contemplation of the divine mysteries could likewise be seen as meditations. More specifically, the practices recommended in the Philokalia, which stress prayer/meditation as an "attitude of the heart," are more stereotypically meditative, as they involve acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. While these types of (often mystical) meditation were relatively influential during the history of Christianity (as can be seen in the lives and writings of Thomas Merton, Teresa of Avila, and the Quakers, among others), many conservative Christians view meditation with some trepidation, seeing it as an alien and potentially iniquitous force.[13]

Also, Christian sects often use the term meditation in a more intellectual (rather than intuitive) sense to describe the active practice of reflection on some particular theme, such as "meditation on the sufferings of Christ." A similar "intellectualist" understanding of meditation also underlies the evangelical notion of biblical study, one which is often justified by quoting the Book of Joshua:

Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful (Joshua 1:8).

Daoism

"Gathering the Light," Daoist meditation from The Secret of the Golden Flower
Main article: Daoism

The wide and variegated schools of Daoism include a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have emerged from the I Ching, Dao De Jing, Zhuangzi, and Baopuzi (among other texts), many indigenous Chinese practices have been concerned with the utilization of breath control and physical exercises for the promotion of health, well-being, and longevity. These practices enjoyed a period of fruitful cross-fertilization with Chinese Buddhism, especially the Ch'an (Zen) school.[14]

Such techniques have had significant influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese, as well as some Japanese martial arts. Most specifically, the Chinese martial art T'ai Chi Ch'uan is based on the Daoist and Neo-Confucian cosmology contained in the Taijitu ("Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate"), which correlates individual actions with their macrocosmic functioning of the universe. Many Daoist martial arts are thought of as "moving meditations," such that the practical ideal is "stillness in movement."

Hinduism

An Indus Valley seal depicting Pashupati seated in a yoga-like posture and surrounded by animals.

Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world that professes meditation as a spiritual and religious practice. Archaeologists have discovered carved images of figures who appear to be practicing meditation at ancient Indian archaeological sites.

Several forms of meditation have developed in Hinduism, which are closely associated with the practice of Yoga as a means to both physiological and spiritual mastery. Among these types of meditation include Jnana Yoga, Surat shabd yoga, ("sound and light meditation"), Japa Yoga, in (repetition of a mantra), Bhakti Yoga (the yoga of love and devotion), Hatha Yoga, in which postures and meditations are aimed at raising the spiritual energy, and Raja Yoga (Devanagari: योग), one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, focusing on meditation.

A large statue in Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating

Raja Yoga as outlined by Patanjali, which describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her mind: Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.

Additionally, the Hindu deities are often depicted as practicing meditation, especially Shiva.

Islam

In Islam, meditation serves as the core element of various mystical traditions (in particular Sufism), though it is also thought to promote healing and creativity in general.[15] The Muslim prophet Muhammad, whose deeds provide a moral example for devout Muslims, spent long periods in meditation and contemplation. Indeed, the tradition holds that it was during one such period of meditation that Muhammad began to receive revelations of the Qur'an.[16]

There are two concepts or schools of meditation in Islam:

  • Tafakkur and Tadabbur, which literally refers to "reflection upon the universe." Muslims feel this process, which consists of quiet contemplation and prayer, will allow the reception of divine inspiration that awakens and liberates the human mind. This is consistent with the global teachings of Islam, which view life as a test of the adherent's submission to Allah. This type of meditation is practiced by Muslims during the second stage of the Hajj, during their six to eight hour sojourn at Mount Arafat.[17]
  • The second form of meditation is Sufi meditation, which is largely based on mystical exercises. These exercises consist of practices similar to Buddhist meditation, known as Muraqaba or Tamarkoz—terms that denote ‘concentration,’ referring to the “concentration of abilities.” Consequently, the term "muraqaba" suggests to close attention, and the convergence and consolidation of mental faculties through meditation. Gerhard Böwering provides a clear synopsis of the mystical goal of Sufi meditation:

Through a distinct meditational technique, known as dikr, recollection of God, the mystics return to their primeval origin on the Day of Covenant, when all of humanity (symbolically enshrined in their prophetical ancestors as light particles or seeds) swore an oath of allegiance and witness to Allah as the one and only Lord. Breaking through to eternity, the mystics relive their waqt, their primeval moment with God, here and now, in the instant of ecstasy, even as they anticipate their ultimate destiny. Sufi meditation captures time by drawing eternity from its edges in pre- and post-existence into the moment of mystical experience.[18]

However, it should be noted that the meditation practices enjoined by the Sufis are controversial among Muslim scholars. Though one group of Ulama, most namely Al-Ghazzali, have accepted such practices as spiritually valid, more conservative thinkers (such as Ibn Taymiya) have rejected them as bid'ah (Arabic: بدعة‎) (religious innovation).

Jainism

Jain sadhvis meditating

For Jains, meditation practices are described as samayika, a word in the Prakrit language derived from samay ("time"). The aim of Samayika is to transcend the daily experiences of being a "constantly changing" human being, Jiva, and allow for the identification with the "changeless" reality in the practitioner, the Atma. The practice of samayika begins by achieving a balance in time. If the present moment of time is taken to be a point between the past and the future, Samayika means being fully aware, alert and conscious in that very moment, experiencing one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. In this, samayika can be seen as a "mindfulness" practice par excellence (as described above).

In addition to these commonly accepted meditation techniques, others are accepted only in certain sects. For instance, a practice called preksha meditation is said to have been rediscovered by the 10th Head of Jain Swetamber Terapanth sect Acharya Mahaprajna, which consists of concentration upon the perception of the breath, body, and the psychic centers. It is understood that correct application of these techniques will initiate the process of personal transformation, which aims at attaining and purify the deeper levels of existence.[19]

Judaism

See also: Baal Shem Tov , Hassidism , Kabbala , and Zohar

Though lacking the central focus on meditation found in some eastern religions, there is evidence that Judaism has a longstanding tradition of meditation and meditative practices—perhaps hearkening back to the Biblical period.[20] For instance, many rabbinical commentators suggest that, when the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field, he is actually taking part in some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was central to the prophets.[20]

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called hitbodedut (התבודדות) or hisbodedus, which is explained in both Kabbalistic and Hassidic philosophy. The word hisbodedut, which is derived from the Hebrew word בודד ("boded" - the state of being alone), refers to the silent, intuitive, personal contemplation of the Divine. This technique was especially central to the spiritual teachings of Rebbe Nachman.[21]

Kabbala, Judaism's best known mystical tradition, also places considerable emphasis on meditative practices. Kabbalistic meditation is often a deeply visionary process, based on the envisioning of various significant cosmic phenomena (including the emanations of G-d (Sefirot), the ultimate Unity (Ein Sof), and the Divine Chariot (Merkabah)).

New Age

New Age meditations are often ostensibly grounded in Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as Yoga, Hinduism, and Buddhism, though they are typically equally influenced by the social mores and material affluence of Western culture. The popularity of meditation in the mainstream West is largely attributable to the hippie-counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the day's youth rebelled against traditional belief systems.

Some examples of practices whose popularity can be largely tied to the New Age movement include:

  • Kriya Yoga - taught by Paramahansa Yogananda in order to help people achieve "self-realization";
  • Passage Meditation - a modern method developed by spiritual teacher Eknath Easwaran, which involves silent, focused repetition of memorized passages from world scripture and the writings of great mystics;
  • Transcendental Meditation, a form of meditation taught and promoted by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi;
  • FISU (Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment) - a movement established by Gururaj Ananda Yogi's prime disciples Rajesh Ananda and Jasmini Ananda.
  • Ananda Marga meditation - a teaching propounded by a Mahakaula Guru Shrii Shrii Anandamurtiiji in India, who said that it revived sacred practices taught by SadaShiva and Sri Krs'na. His system of meditation, he said, is based on original Tantra as given by Shiva and has sometimes been referred as "Rajadhiraja Yoga." He revised many yogic and meditative practices and introduced some new techniques.

Secular

In addition to the various forms of religious meditation, the modern era has also seen the development of many "consciousness-expanding" movements, many of which are devoid of mystical content and are singularly devoted to promoting physical and mental well being. Some of these include:

  • Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation, which was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. Jacobson argued that since muscular tension accompanies anxiety, one can reduce anxiety by learning how to dissipate muscular tension.
  • Autogenic training, which was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation, though he attempted to guarantee that autogenic training would be devoid of any mystical elements.
  • The method of Dr. Ainslie Meares, an Australian psychiatrist who explored the effects of meditation in a groundbreaking work entitled Relief Without Drugs (1970). In this text, he recommended some simple, secular relaxation techniques based on Hindu practices as a means of combating anxiety, stress and chronic physical pain.
  • Shambhala Training, which was founded in Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche in 1976. This regimen was a secular program of meditation with a belief in basic goodness, with teachings that stressed the path of bravery and gentleness. The 1984 book Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior contains student-edited versions of Trungpa's lectures and writings.

Sikhism

In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō, which enjoin the focusing one's attention on the attributes of God, both encourage quiet meditation. The centrality of meditational practices is highlighted by their place in the Guru Granth Sahib, which states:

Meditating on the Glories of the Lord, the heart-lotus blossoms radiantly.
Remembering the Lord in meditation, all fears are dispelled.
Perfect is that intellect, by which the Glorious Praises of the Lord are sung (Ga­oṛī mehlā 5).[22]

Sikhs believe that there are ten 'gates' to the body, 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centers. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavor when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householders life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, as was popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.

Clinical Studies and Health-Care Applications

Though western medicine is often characterized by a mechanistic understanding of human bodies and physiological processes, many recent medical advances (in fields as disparate as psychology, neurobiology, and palliative care) are predicated on a more holistic approach to the needs of patients. One major advance has been in the acknowledgment of meditation as an effective technique for modifying mental states, improving outlook, regulating autonomic bodily processes, and managing pain.[23]

Meditation, as it is understood in these studies, refers to any practices that aim to inculcate the following psycho-behavioral components:

  1. relaxation,
  2. concentration,
  3. altered state of awareness,
  4. suspension of logical thought processes, and
  5. maintenance of self-observing attitude.[24]

In keeping with this more holistic understanding of the human body, the medical community has supported numerous studies that explore the physiological effects of meditation.[25][26][27] One of the more "high-profile" of these was conducted by Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, who discovered that Zen meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain[28] — a seemingly counter-intuitive finding that has since been confirmed using functional MRI imaging.[29]

Likewise, Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."[27] The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. These results have been borne out by extensive research into the positive physiological impact of meditation on various bodily processes, including balance,[30] blood pressure,[31] and metabolism,[32] as well as cardiovascular[33] and respiratory function.[34] For example, in an early study in 1972, Transcendental Meditation was shown to affect the human metabolism by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as lactic acid, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and inducing favorable patterns of brain waves.[35] These physiological effects have also demonstrated the efficacy of meditation as part of a treatment regimen for epilepsy.[36]

Given these findings, meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress management and pain reduction.[37] As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness, as it has been found to reduce complications associated with increased stress, such as a depressed immune system.[38] Similar conclusions have been reached by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, who have studied the beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation on stress and outlook.[39][40]

These programs correspond to a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, which has led to a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the National Institutes of Health's establishment of five research centers to explore the mind-body elements of disease.)

Notes

  1. ↑ As noted in the Online Etymology Dictionary, the use of the term "meditation" to describe the process of quiet contemplation is a later linguistic development (ca. 1400 C.E.), with previous usage pertaining to the discursive exploration of a subject. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  2. ↑ For instance, some medical researchers, requiring an explicit definition of meditation, described it as follows: "self-regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now." A. Maison et al. "Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data," Medical Hypotheses 44 (1) (1995): 39-46.
  3. ↑ Ramnarayan (R.N.) Vyas, The Bhagavad-Git' and Jivana Yoga (Abhinav Publications, 2003, ISBN 8170172039).
  4. ↑ Mikel Burley, Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 8120817052).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter, Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) (World Wisdom, 2005, ISBN 0941532895).
  6. ↑ It should be noted that this mystical insight tends to be described in similar terms, regardless of whether it is understood theistically (as in Christian and Islamic meditation) or non-theistically (as in Buddhist meditation).
  7. ↑ C. Tart, "Adapting Eastern spiritual teachings to Western culture." The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22: 149-166.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy." International Journal of Psychotherapy 5(1) (March 2000): 49.
  9. ↑ `Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks. (Bahá'í Distribution Service, (1912) 1995, ISBN 1870989570), 175.
  10. ↑ As described in the Satipatthana Sutta. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Rinpoche Sogyal, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994).
  12. ↑ For instance, from the Pali Canon, see MN 44 (Thanissaro, 1998a) and AN 3:88 (Thanissaro, 1998b). Retrieved July 12, 2021. In Mahayana tradition, the Lotus Sutra lists the Six Perfections (paramita) which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue (śīla), concentration (dhyāna) and wisdom (prajñā).
  13. ↑ See, for example, the critique and denouncement of yoga and meditation in Douglas Groothius' "Dangerous Meditations," Christianity Today 48:11 (November 2004), which argues that "no amount of chanting, visualizing, or physical contortions will melt away the sin that separates us from the Lord - however "peaceful" these practices may feel." This account stresses both the view of human beings as ontologically "Fallen" and the traditional Christian distrust of all non-intellectual forms of rationality.
  14. ↑ Livia Kohn and Yoshinobu Sakade, Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989).
  15. ↑ Kedar Nath Dwivedi, "Review:Freedom from Self, Sufism, Meditation and Psychotherapy." Group Analysis 22 (4) (December 1989): 434-436.
  16. ↑ S.A. Nigosian, Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 8, 15.
  17. ↑ Nigosian, 111.
  18. ↑ Gerhard Böwering, "The Concept of Time in Islam," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 141(1) (March 1997): 55-66.
  19. ↑ Jain Vishwa Bharati, Preksha Meditation Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Rami Shapiro, Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation Judaism, Meditation and Yoga. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  21. ↑ Ozer Bergman, Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation (Breslov Research Institute, 2006, ISBN 978-11928822080).
  22. ↑ Guru Granth Sahib (English translation) Khalis Foundation. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  23. ↑ L. Shauna, E. R. Shapiro, Gary Schwartz, Craig Santerre, "Meditation and Positive Psychology" in Handbook of Positive Psychology, edited by C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 632-645.
  24. ↑ Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy International Journal of Psychotherapy 5(1) (Mar 2000): 49-59. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  25. ↑ S. Venkatesh, T.R. Raju, Y. Shivani, G. Tompkins, B.L. Meti, "A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states" Indian J Physiol Pharmacol (Apr 1997) 41(2): 149–153.
  26. ↑ C.K. Peng, et al., "Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques" Int J Cardiol. 70(2) (Jul 31, 1999): 101–107.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 S.W. Lazar, et al., "Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" NeuroReport 11(7) (May 15, 2000): 1581–1585
  28. ↑ James H. Austin, Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).
  29. ↑ Mark Kaufman, Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds The Washington Post Company, January 3, 2005. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  30. ↑ Y. Yang et al., "Effect of combined Taiji and Qigong training on balance mechanisms: a randomized controlled trial of older adults," Medical Science Monitor 13(8) (Aug 2007):CR339-348.
  31. ↑ J.P. Manikonda et al., "Contemplative meditation reduces ambulatory blood pressure and stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot trial," Journal of Human Hypertension (Sep 6, 2007).
  32. ↑ M.S. Chaya, A.V. Kurpad, H.R. Nagendra, and R. Nagarathna, "The effect of long term combined yoga practice on the basal metabolic rate of healthy adults," BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 (Aug 31, 2006):28.
  33. ↑ M. Hill, R. Weber, and S. Werner, "The heart-mind connection," Behavioral Healthcare 26(9) (Sep 2006):30-32.
  34. ↑ D. Cysarz and A. Büssing, "Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen meditation," European Journal of Applied Physiology 95(1) (Sep 2005):88-95.
  35. ↑ H. Benson and R.K. Wallace, "The Physiology of Meditation" Scientific American 226(2) (1972): 84-90.
  36. ↑ N. Yardi, "Yoga for control of epilepsy," Seizure 10(1) (Jan 2001):7-12.
  37. ↑ N.E. Morone and C.M. Greco, "Mind-body interventions for chronic pain in older adults: a structured review," Pain Medicine 8(4) (May-Jun 2007):359-375.
  38. ↑ L.E. Carlson, Z. Ursuliak, E. Goodey, M. Angen, and M. Speca, "The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up." Support Care Cancer 9(2) (Mar 2001):112-123.
  39. ↑ Jon Kabat-Zinn, L. Lipworth, and R. Burney, "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8(2) (1985): 163-190.
  40. ↑ Richard J. Davidson et al., "Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation." Psychosomatic Medicine 65(4) (Jul-Aug 2003): 564-570.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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