Difference between revisions of "Meditation" - New World Encyclopedia

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:''This article is about the practice of meditation. For the writings by [[Marcus Aurelius]], see [[Meditations]]. For the writings by [[René Descartes]], see [[Meditations on First Philosophy]].''
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[[File:Kodo Sawaki Zazen.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Zen]] Buddhist meditation.]]
  
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'''Meditation''' refers to any of a wide variety of spiritual practices (and their close secular analogues) which emphasize mental activity or quiescence.  
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'''Meditation''' (from the Latin ''meditatio'': "discourse on a subject")<ref>As noted in the [https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation Online Etymology Dictionary], the use of the term "meditation" to describe the process of quiet contemplation is a later linguistic development (ca. 1400 C.E.), with previous usage pertaining to the discursive exploration of a subject. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> describes a large body of psychophysical techniques whose primary aim is the achievement of non-ordinary states of consciousness, typically through the concentration of attention on some object of thought or awareness.<ref>For instance, some medical researchers, requiring an explicit definition of meditation, described it as follows: "self-regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now." A. Maison et al. "Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data," ''Medical Hypotheses'' 44 (1) (1995): 39-46. </ref> Though virtually all religious traditions contain a contemplative element, meditation practice is more often associated with Eastern religions (such as [[Buddhism]], [[Daoism]], and [[Hinduism]]), where these practices have been, and continue to be, integral parts of religious life.<ref>Ramnarayan (R.N.) Vyas, ''The Bhagavad-Git' and Jivana Yoga'' (Abhinav Publications, 2003, ISBN 8170172039). </ref><ref name=Burley>Mikel Burley, ''Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice'' (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 8120817052). </ref><ref name=Knitter>Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter, ''Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China)'' (World Wisdom, 2005, ISBN 0941532895).</ref> As different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices, they tend to engender a variety of responses in practitioners, from profound mental concentration to mental quiescence. The unifying factor, however, at least among religious understandings of the process, is an ever-deepening, [[Intuition|intuitive]] insight into the ultimate nature of reality.<ref>It should be noted that this [[mysticism|mystical]] insight tends to be described in similar terms, regardless of whether it is understood [[theism|theistically]] (as in [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Islam]]ic meditation) or non-theistically (as in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] meditation).</ref>
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{{toc}}
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Though meditation is traditionally associated with religious practice (and often with Eastern spirituality), these techniques have become increasingly common in secular [[Western world|Western]] culture, where the psychiatric and medical establishments are now beginning to acknowledge and explore the beneficial effects of these practices on psychological and physical health.<ref>C. Tart, "Adapting Eastern spiritual teachings to Western culture." ''The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology'' 22: 149-166.</ref> This process can be seen as analogous to the [[secularization]] of other religious techniques, such as [[yoga]] and [[tai chi]], upon their incorporation into [[popular culture]].
  
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The English word comes from the [[Latin]] ''meditatio'', which could perhaps be better translated as "[[contemplation]]."  This usage is found in [[Christian]] [[spirituality]], for example, when one "meditates" on the sufferings of Christ; as well as Western philosophy, as in [[René Descartes|Descartes']] ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'', a set of six mental exercises which systematically analyze the nature of reality. 
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== Categories of Meditation Practice ==
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[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Bodhidharma]] practicing [[zazen]].]]
  
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In the late nineteenth century, [[Theosophy|Theosophists]] adopted "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and other [[Eastern religions]].  Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate any single term or concept from the sacred languages of Asia, such as the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[dhyana]]'', ''[[samadhi]]'', or ''[[pranayama]]''. (Note that whereas in Eastern religions meditation is often a central part of religious/spirtual practice, in Christianity it is rather a fringe activity if practised at all.)
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Though there are as many styles of meditation as there are religious and secular traditions that practice them, meditation practices can (in general) be broadly categorized into two groups based upon their respective focal points: those that focus on the gestalt elements of human experience (the "field" or background perception and experience) are referred to as "mindfulness" practices and those that focus on a specific preselected object are called "concentrative" practices. While most techniques can be roughly grouped under one of these rubrics, it should be acknowledged that some practices involve the shifting of focus between the field and an object.<ref name = Perez>Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy." ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 5(1) (March 2000): 49.</ref>
  
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However, the term meditation contains the Latin root ''media'' ("middle").  So, meditation could also be thought of as "centering," which might be more consistent with Eastern understandings of the concept.
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In ''mindfulness meditation,'' the meditator sits comfortably and silently, attempting to submerge conscious ideation and maintain an open focus:
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<blockquote>…shifting freely from one perception to the next…. No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor' … brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.<ref name = Perez/></blockquote>
  
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"Meditation" in the modern sense may involve
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''Concentration meditation,'' on the other hand, requires the participant to hold attention on a particular object (e.g., a repetitive prayer) while minimizing distractions; bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object.
  
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:*focusing the mind on a single object (such as a religious statue, or one's breath, or a [[mantra]])
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In some traditions, such as [[Vipassana]], mindfulness and concentration are combined.
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:*a mental "opening up" to the divine, invoking the guidance of a higher power
 
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:*attempting to clear the mind of discursive or conceptual thought
 
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:*reasoned analysis of religious teachings (such as impermanence for Buddhists)
 
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:*simple relaxation
 
  
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Practices of these types are found within various world religions (East and West) as well as some secular contexts such as the [[martial arts]]. It has been suggested that the recent popularity of "meditation" in the West (for example, in the [[New Age]] movement) signals some discomfort with more traditional Western religious practices, such as [[prayer]]. Others see meditation and prayer as harmonious: [[Edgar Cayce]] taught that "Through prayer we speak to God. In meditation, God speaks to us."
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As meditation primarily entails the creation of a particular mental state, this process can occur with or without additional corporeal activity - including walking meditation, [[Yoga#Patanjali|raja yoga]], and [[tantra]].<ref name=Knitter/>
  
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From the point of view of [[psychology]], meditation can induce &mdash; or is itself &mdash; an [[altered state of consciousness]]. However, many religious people would challenge the assumption that such mental states (or any other visible result) are the "goal" of meditation. In fact the goals of meditation are quite varied, and range from spiritual [[enlightenment (concept) | enlightenment]], to the transformation of attitudes, to better [[cardiovascular]] health.
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==Approaches to Meditation (Religious and Secular)==
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===Bahá'í faith===
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The [[Bahá'í Faith]] teaches that meditation is necessary component of spiritual growth, when practiced alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. To this end, [[Bahá'í Faith#`Abdu'l-Bahá|'Abdu'l-Bahá]] is quoted as saying:
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<blockquote>"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."<ref>`Abdu'l-Bahá, ''Paris Talks.'' (Bahá'í Distribution Service, (1912) 1995, ISBN 1870989570), 175. </ref></blockquote>
  
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== Types of meditation ==
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Although the Founder of the Faith, [[Bahá'u'lláh]], never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá ([[Arabic]]: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by [[ablution]]s. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء‎  "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God."
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[[Image:Stage1.gif|thumb|200px|"Gathering the Light", from ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', by [[C. G. Jung]] and [[Richard Wilhelm]]]]
 
  
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According to Bogart ([[1991]]) and Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes ([[2000]]) the different techniques of meditation can be classified according to their focus. That is, whether they focus on the field or background perception and experience, also called mindfullness, or whether they focus on a preselected specific object, also called "'concentrative' meditation." There are also techniques that shift between the field and the object.
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===Buddhism===
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[[File:1. Buddha in meditation, 2nd century CE, Loriyan Tangai, Gandhara Gallery, Indian Museum, Kolkata. - 4857-A23211..jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Buddha]] in meditation]]
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{{main|Buddhist meditation}}
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The cultivation of "correct" mental states has always been an important element of Buddhist practice, as canonized in the ''mental discipline'' section of the Noble [[Eightfold Path]]. The centrality of meditation can be tied to the tradition's founding myth, which describes the [[Gautama Buddha|historical Buddha]] attaining [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Thus, the majority of early Buddhist teaching revolves around the achievement of particular mystical states as the key to accurate perception of the material world and eventual release from the cycle of [[samsara]] ([[nirvana]]).
  
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As difficult as the question of which practices qualify as "meditation," is the question of how to categorize its different varieties. One common way is according to religion or lineage. However, some meditative traditions such as [[yoga]] or [[tantra]] are common to several religions. Also, meditation increasingly occurs outside of religious contexts, or crosses religious boundaries.
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To this end, most forms of Buddhism distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, [[shamatha]] and [[vipassana]], both of which were thought to be necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing insight and [[wisdom]] through seeing the true nature of reality. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as ''Anapanasati,'' which could be said to start off as a ''shamatha'' practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a ''vipassana'' practice.
  
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Many traditional classification schemes may be cited.
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[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of [[mindfulness]] ''(sati)''<ref>As described in the [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wayof.html Satipatthana Sutta]. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> and concentration ''([[samadhi]])'' in the pursuit of ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]'' (Nirvana). Popular subjects in traditional meditation practice include the breath ''(anapana),'' objects of repulsion (corpses, excrescences, etc.) and loving-kindness ''(mettā).''
  
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* [[Hinduism]] &mdash; many different schools exist.  
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In Japanese [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese [[Zen#Development_in_China|Chán]] Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese [[Zen]], and Korean [[Zen#Zen_in_Korea|Seon]] schools), [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] meditation and [[koan]] meditation practices are understood to allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of [[reality]]. This focus is even attested to in the names of each of these schools, which are derived from the Sanskrit [[dhyana]], and can thus be translated into "meditation" in their respective languages).  
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:* [[Vedanta]]
 
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:*Yoga as outlined by [[Patanjali]] describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her mind: ''Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.''
 
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:*[[Transcendental Meditation]] (or TM) is the type used most often in clinical studies. Though avowedly secular, it emphasizes the recitation of Hindu [[mantra]]s.
 
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:*[[Sant Mat]] teaches "sound and light meditation" ([[surat shabd yoga]])
 
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:*[[Osho]] taught a wide variety of meditative techniques, including a "laughing meditation".
 
  
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* [[Sikhism]] encourages the divine meditation on God's name, through [[simran]].
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[[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Vajrayana]]) emphasizes the path of [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, though they are more likely to [[chant]] or participate in group [[liturgy]]. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the incisive, diamond-like nature of mind and to introduce practitioners to the unchanging, pure awareness that is seen to underlie the whole of life and death.<ref name = Sogyal>Rinpoche Sogyal, ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying,'' Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994).</ref>
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<blockquote>
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''The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.''- [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.''<ref name = Sogyal /></blockquote>
  
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* [[Buddhist meditation]] &mdash; Meditation has always enjoyed a central place within Buddhism. The [[Buddha]] himself was said to have achieved [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] while meditating under a [[Bodhi tree]]. Most forms of Buddhism distinguish between [[samatha]] and [[vipassana]] meditation, both of which are necessary for enlightenment. The former consists of learning to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter involves seeing the true nature of reality.  
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Though meditation is a vital component of Buddhist practice, it is only one segment of the three types of training required for the attainment of [[enlightenment]], as each adherent is expected to strive for excellence in [[virtue]] ''([[Eightfold_Path#Ethical_conduct_.28.C5.9A.C4.ABla_.C2.B7_S.C4.ABla.29|sīla]]),'' meditation ''([[Eightfold_Path#Mental_discipline_.28Sam.C4.81dhi.29|citta]]),'' and wisdom ''([[Eightfold_Path#Wisdom_.28Praj.C3.B1.C4.81_.C2.B7_Pa.C3.B1.C3.B1.C4.81.29|paññā]]).'' <ref>For instance, from the ''Pali Canon'', see [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 44 [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.044.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998a)] and [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3:88 [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998b).] Retrieved July 12, 2021. In Mahayana tradition, the [[Lotus Sutra]] lists the [[Paramita|Six Perfections]] ''(paramita)'' which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue ''([[Sila|śīla]]),'' concentration ''([[Dhyana|dhyāna]])'' and wisdom ''([[Prajna|prajñā]]).''</ref> Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path. In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.
  
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:*[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes [[vipassana]] meditation directed towards [[anapana]], [[mett&#257; bh&#257;van&#257;]], or 38 other traditional topics (see: [[Kammatthana]]).
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===Christianity===
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{{main|Christian meditation}}
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{{seealso|Hesychasm}}
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[[Image:Gregor Palamas.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Saint [[Gregory Palamas]] (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.]]
  
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:*In [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Chinese [[Chan]] Buddhism (Sanskrit Dhyana, Japanese [[Zen]]) emphasizes [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] and [[Koan|kung an]] meditation practices. The [[esoteric]] [[Shingon]] sect shares many features with [[Tibetan Buddhism]].
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While the world's Christian traditions do contain various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation," many of them were historically identified as [[monasticism|monastic]] practices. For instance, some types of [[prayer]], such as the [[rosary]] and Adoration (focusing on the [[eucharist]]) in [[Roman Catholicism]] or the [[hesychasm]] in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], may be compared to forms of Eastern meditation that focus on an individual object. Though Christian prayer is often an intellectual (rather than intuitive) exercise, certain practices that encourage the contemplation of the divine mysteries could likewise be seen as meditations. More specifically, the practices recommended in the [[Philokalia]], which stress prayer/meditation as an "attitude of the heart," are more stereotypically meditative, as they involve acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. While these types of (often mystical) meditation were relatively influential during the history of Christianity (as can be seen in the lives and writings of [[Thomas Merton]], [[Teresa of Avila]], and the [[Quakers]], among others), many conservative Christians view meditation with some trepidation, seeing it as an alien and potentially iniquitous force.<ref>See, for example, the critique and denouncement of [[yoga]] and meditation in Douglas Groothius' "Dangerous Meditations," ''Christianity Today'' 48:11 (November 2004), which argues that "no amount of [[chant]]ing, visualizing, or physical contortions will melt away the [[sin]] that separates us from the Lord - however "peaceful" these practices may feel." This account stresses both the view of human beings as ontologically "Fallen" and the traditional Christian distrust of all non-intellectual forms of rationality.</ref>
  
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:*[[Tibetan]] Buddhism famously emphasizes [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism. However, visitors to Tibetan monasteries are often surprised to discover that many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy.
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Also, Christian sects often use the term meditation in a more intellectual (rather than intuitive) sense to describe the active practice of reflection on some particular theme, such as "meditation on the sufferings of Christ." A similar "intellectualist" understanding of meditation also underlies the evangelical notion of biblical study, one which is often justified by quoting the [[Book of Joshua]]:
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:Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful (Joshua 1:8).
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* [[Taoism]] &mdash; includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Historically—to judge by the texts of the ''Tao Tsang''—these often focused on ecstatic journeys to other realms (some of them within the human body). Today Chinese temple activity tends to be ritualized, routinized, conflated with other religions such as Buddhism, and very noisy. More quietistic, perhaps purer forms of Taoist "meditation" is likely to be found at Taoist pilgrimage sites, such as the five sacred mountains in China.
 
  
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* [[Qigong]] and [[Tao Yin|Daoyin]] &mdash; a large, diverse array of [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]] breath training practises originally related to [[Taoism]], Buddhism, [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]] and some [[Japanese martial arts]].
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===Daoism===
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[[Image:Stage1.gif|thumb|300px|right|"Gathering the Light," Daoist meditation from ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'']]
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{{main|Daoism}}
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The wide and variegated schools of [[Daoism]] include a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have emerged from the ''[[I Ching]],'' ''[[Dao De Jing]],'' ''[[Zhuangzi]],'' and [[Ge Hong|Baopuzi]] (among other texts), many indigenous Chinese practices have been concerned with the utilization of breath control and physical exercises for the promotion of [[health]], well-being, and [[longevity]]. These practices enjoyed a period of fruitful cross-fertilization with [[Chinese Buddhism]], especially the ''Ch'an'' ([[Zen]]) school.<ref>Livia Kohn and Yoshinobu Sakade, ''Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques'' (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989).</ref>
  
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*[[Judaism]] — Although [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hassidic]] Judaism have the explicit concept of meditation (Hebrew ''hitbonenut''), one can reasonably argue that a good deal of Jewish prayer (''tefillah'') is meditative. Jewish prayer is usually described as having two aspects: ''kavanah'' ("intention," which is similar to mediative spirit) and ''keva'' (the ritualistic, structured elements). See ''Jewish Meditation,'' by Aryeh Kaplan.
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Such techniques have had significant influence on [[traditional Chinese medicine]] and the [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese]], as well as some Japanese [[martial arts]]. Most specifically, the Chinese martial art [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] is based on the Daoist and [[Neo-Confucian]] [[cosmology]] contained in the [[Taijitu]] ("Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate"), which correlates individual actions with their macrocosmic functioning of the universe. Many Daoist martial arts are thought of as "moving meditations," such that the practical ideal is "stillness in movement."
  
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* [[Christian meditation]] &mdash; Christian traditions have various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation." Many of these are [[monastic]] practices.
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===Hinduism===
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[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] seal depicting [[Pashupati]] seated in a [[yoga]]-like posture and surrounded by animals.]]
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[[Hinduism]] is the oldest religion in the world that professes meditation as a spiritual and religious practice. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] have discovered carved images of figures who appear to be practicing meditation at ancient Indian archaeological sites.  
  
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:*[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] recognizes the [[Jesus prayer]] or [[hesychasm]] which some have felt to be similar to Hindu mantra meditation (an analogy which is not usually accepted by the Orthodox).  
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Several forms of meditation have developed in Hinduism, which are closely associated with the practice of Yoga as a means to both physiological and spiritual mastery. Among these types of meditation include [[Jnana Yoga]], ''Surat shabd yoga,'' ("sound and light meditation"), [[Japa Yoga]], in (repetition of a mantra), [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the yoga of love and devotion), ''Hatha Yoga,'' in which postures and meditations are aimed at raising the spiritual energy, and  [[Raja Yoga]] ([[Devanagari]]: योग), one of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], focusing on meditation.
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[[Image:Sivakempfort.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A large statue in [[Bangalore]] depicting [[Shiva]] meditating]]
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Raja Yoga as outlined by [[Patanjali]], which describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her [[mind]]: ''Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.''
  
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:*[[Roman Catholicism]] includes various contemplative practices, such as the [[rosary]], or the ''Spiritual Exercises'' of [[Ignatius Loyola]].
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Additionally, the Hindu deities are often depicted as practicing meditation, especially Shiva.
  
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:*[[Protestant]] groups—especially in the wake of [[pietism]]—came to emphasize Bible study, and changing one's life in accordance with scriptural principles and the [[Holy Spirit]]. Probably the [[Quaker]] meeting—in which participants sit quietly, waiting for the "inner light" to move someone to speak—best matches our expectations for what "meditation" ought to look like. [[New Thought]] groups practice "meditation" (often called such) during which various positive thoughts are "[[affirmation | affirmed]]".
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===Islam===
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{{seealso|Muraqaba}}
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In [[Islam]], meditation serves as the core element of various mystical traditions (in particular [[Sufism]]), though it is also thought to promote healing and creativity in general.<ref>Kedar Nath Dwivedi, "Review:Freedom from Self, Sufism, Meditation and Psychotherapy." ''Group Analysis'' 22 (4) (December 1989): 434-436. </ref> The Muslim prophet [[Muhammad]], whose deeds provide a moral example for devout Muslims, spent long periods in meditation and contemplation. Indeed, the tradition holds that it was during one such period of meditation that Muhammad began to receive revelations of the [[Qur'an]].<ref>S.A. Nigosian, ''Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 8, 15.</ref>
  
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*Within [[Islam]] "meditation" is normally associated with [[Sufism]]. It includes practices ranging from [[zikr]] (recitation of the divine names) to the ''sema'' of the [[Sufi whirling|Whirling]] [[Dervish]]es.
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There are two concepts or schools of meditation in Islam:
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*''Tafakkur'' and ''[[Tadabbur]],'' which literally refers to "reflection upon the universe." Muslims feel this process, which consists of quiet contemplation and prayer, will allow the reception of [[divine inspiration]] that awakens and liberates the human mind. This is consistent with the global teachings of Islam, which view life as a test of the adherent's submission to Allah. This type of meditation is practiced by Muslims during the second stage of the [[Hajj]], during their six to eight hour sojourn at Mount Arafat.<ref>Nigosian, 111.</ref>
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*The second form of meditation is [[Sufi meditation]], which is largely based on mystical exercises. These exercises consist of practices similar to Buddhist meditation, known as [[Muraqaba]] or [[Tamarkoz]]&mdash;terms that denote ‘concentration,’ referring to the “concentration of abilities.” Consequently, the term "muraqaba" suggests to close attention, and the convergence and consolidation of mental faculties through meditation. Gerhard Böwering provides a clear synopsis of the [[mysticism|mystical]] goal of Sufi meditation:
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<blockquote>Through a distinct meditational technique, known as ''dikr,'' recollection of God, the mystics return to their primeval origin on the Day of Covenant, when all of humanity (symbolically enshrined in their prophetical ancestors as light particles or seeds) swore an oath of allegiance and witness to Allah as the one and only Lord. Breaking through to eternity, the mystics relive their ''waqt,'' their primeval moment with God, here and now, in the instant of ecstasy, even as they anticipate their ultimate destiny. Sufi meditation captures time by drawing eternity from its edges in pre- and post-existence into the moment of mystical experience.<ref>Gerhard Böwering, "The Concept of Time in Islam," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 141(1) (March 1997): 55-66.</ref></blockquote>
  
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* The [[Church of the SubGenius]] teaches something called "excremeditation," but this—like everything else put forward by that church—is meant as a satirical joke
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However, it should be noted that the meditation practices enjoined by the Sufis are controversial among Muslim scholars. Though one group of Ulama, most namely [[Al-Ghazzali]], have accepted such practices as spiritually valid, more conservative thinkers (such as [[Ibn Taymiya]]) have rejected them as ''bid'ah'' (Arabic: بدعة‎) (religious innovation).
  
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Given the diversity of practices which are called "meditation," the perceptive reader may well wonder how to distinguish between "meditative" and non-"meditative" activities. Is prayer a form of "meditation"? What about attendance at mass? [[Taijiquan]] exercises? Football? Can watching television or listening to music be considered meditation? The question of boundaries is a critical one for which no generally-accepted answer exists, though particular traditions may have their own understandings.
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===Jainism===
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[[Image:Jain meditation.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Jain sadhvis meditating]]
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For [[Jainism|Jains]], meditation practices are described as ''samayika,'' a word in the [[Prakrit]] language derived from ''samay'' ("time"). The aim of Samayika is to transcend the daily experiences of being a "constantly changing" human being, [[Jiva]], and allow for the identification with the "changeless" reality in the practitioner, the Atma. The practice of samayika begins by achieving a balance in time. If the present moment of time is taken to be a point between the past and the future, Samayika means being fully aware, alert and conscious in that very moment, experiencing one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. In this, samayika can be seen as a "mindfulness" practice ''par excellence'' ([[#Categories of Meditation Practice|as described above]]).
  
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==Meditation in context==
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In addition to these commonly accepted meditation techniques, others are accepted only in certain sects. For instance, a practice called [[preksha meditation]] is said to have been rediscovered by the 10th Head of Jain Swetamber Terapanth sect [[Acharya Mahaprajna]], which consists of concentration upon the perception of the breath, body, and the psychic centers. It is understood that correct application of these techniques will initiate the process of personal transformation, which aims at attaining and purify the deeper levels of existence.<ref>Jain Vishwa Bharati, [http://www.jvbhouston.org/preksha.htm Preksha Meditation] Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
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While meditation focuses on mental or psycho-spiritual activity, this is of course only one of several spheres of human existence; and we are social beings as well as individuals. Most traditions address the integration of mind, body, and spirit (this is a major theme of the [[Bhagavad-Gita]]); or that of spiritual practice with family life, work, and so on.  
 
  
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Often, meditation is said to be incomplete if it has not led to positive changes in one's daily life and attitudes. In that spirit some Zen practitioners have promoted "Zen driving," aimed at reducing [[road rage]].  
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===Judaism===
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{{seealso|Baal Shem Tov|Hassidism|Kabbala|Zohar}}
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Though lacking the central focus on meditation found in some eastern religions, there is evidence that Judaism has a longstanding tradition of meditation and meditative practices&mdash;perhaps hearkening back to the Biblical period.<ref name = Shapiro>Rami Shapiro, [https://shulamit18.tripod.com/id65.htm#a_brief_introduction_to_jewishA Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation] '' Judaism, Meditation and Yoga''. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref> For instance, many rabbinical commentators suggest that, when the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going "לשוח" ''(lasuach)'' in the field, he is actually taking part in some type of meditative practice ([[Genesis]] 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanakh]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that meditation was central to the prophets.<ref name = Shapiro />
  
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Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. (Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully.) Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life which may include such things as ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations.  
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In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''hitbodedut'' (התבודדות) or ''hisbodedus,'' which is explained in both [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] and [[Hassidism|Hassidic]] philosophy. The word ''hisbodedut,'' which is derived from the Hebrew word בודד ("boded" - the state of being alone), refers to the silent, intuitive, personal contemplation of the Divine. This technique was especially central to the spiritual teachings of Rebbe Nachman.<ref>Ozer Bergman, ''Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation'' (Breslov Research Institute, 2006, ISBN 978-11928822080). </ref>
  
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Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is that of an ethical lifestyle. Even many martial arts teachers will urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. At the same time, many traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice. Sufi poets (e.g. [[Rumi]], [[Hafiz]]) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam (though one could argue that the poets are speaking metaphorically); some tantrikas indulge in the "five forbidden things that begin with the letter M."
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[[Kabbala]], Judaism's best known [[mysticism|mystical]] tradition, also places considerable emphasis on meditative practices. Kabbalistic meditation is often a deeply visionary process, based on the envisioning of various significant cosmic phenomena (including the emanations of G-d ''(Sefirot),'' the ultimate Unity ''(Ein Sof),'' and the Divine Chariot ([[Merkabah]])).
  
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Most meditative traditions are "sober" ones which discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism, which has a long tradition of [[hashish]]- or [[marijuana]]-using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which may use [[peyote]] or other restricted substances in a religious setting.
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===New Age===
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{{main|New Age}}
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[[New Age]] meditations are often ostensibly grounded in Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as [[Yoga]], Hinduism, and Buddhism, though they are typically equally influenced by the social mores and material affluence of Western culture. The popularity of meditation in the mainstream West is largely attributable to the [[hippie]]-[[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the day's youth rebelled against traditional [[Religion|belief systems.]]
  
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A number of meditative traditions require permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, etc. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit [[guru]], Tibetan [[lama]]). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek ''gerontas'', Russian ''[[starets]]''); Catholic religious have [[spiritual director]]s.
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Some examples of practices whose popularity can be largely tied to the New Age movement include:
 +
* Kriya Yoga - taught by [[Paramahansa Yogananda]] in order to help people achieve "self-realization";
 +
* Passage Meditation - a modern method developed by spiritual teacher [[Eknath Easwaran]], which involves silent, focused repetition of memorized passages from world scripture and the writings of great mystics;
 +
* [[Transcendental Meditation]], a form of meditation taught and promoted by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]];
 +
* FISU (Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment) - a movement established by Gururaj Ananda Yogi's prime disciples Rajesh Ananda and Jasmini Ananda.
 +
* [[Ananda Marga]] meditation - a teaching propounded by a Mahakaula Guru Shrii Shrii Anandamurtiiji in [[India]], who said that it revived sacred practices taught by SadaShiva and Sri Krs'na. His system of meditation, he said, is based on original Tantra as given by [[Shiva]] and has sometimes been referred as "Rajadhiraja Yoga." He revised many yogic and meditative practices and introduced some new techniques.
  
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The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleaning rituals for the place where one meditates, and many more offer instructions or suggestions for an [[altar]] or other accessories.
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===Secular===
 +
In addition to the various forms of religious meditation, the modern era has also seen the development of many "consciousness-expanding" movements, many of which are devoid of mystical content and are singularly devoted to promoting physical and mental well being. Some of these include:
 +
* ''Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation,'' which was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. Jacobson argued that since muscular tension accompanies [[anxiety]], one can reduce anxiety by learning how to dissipate muscular tension.
 +
* ''Autogenic training,'' which was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation, though he attempted to guarantee that autogenic training would be devoid of any mystical elements.
 +
* The method of Dr. Ainslie Meares, an Australian psychiatrist who explored the effects of meditation in a groundbreaking work entitled ''Relief Without Drugs'' (1970). In this text, he recommended some simple, secular relaxation techniques based on Hindu practices as a means of combating anxiety, stress and chronic physical [[pain]].
 +
* Shambhala Training, which was founded in [[Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche]] in 1976. This regimen was a secular program of meditation with a belief in basic goodness, with teachings that stressed the path of bravery and gentleness. The 1984 book ''Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior'' contains student-edited versions of Trungpa's lectures and writings.
  
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== Physical postures ==
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===Sikhism===
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[[Image:7BrahmanMH.jpg|thumb|Cross-legged posture. See also: [[Lotus Position]]]]
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{{main|Nām Japō}}
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In [[Sikhism]], the practices of [[simran]] and [[Nām Japō]], which enjoin the focusing one's attention on the attributes of God, both encourage quiet meditation. The centrality of meditational practices is highlighted by their place in the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], which states:
 +
:Meditating on the Glories of the Lord, the heart-lotus blossoms radiantly.
 +
:Remembering the Lord in meditation, all fears are dispelled.  
 +
:Perfect is that intellect, by which the Glorious Praises of the Lord are sung (Ga­oṛī mehlā 5).<ref>[https://www.sikhitothemax.org/ang?source=G&ang=189 Guru Granth Sahib] (English translation) ''Khalis Foundation''. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
  
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Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or suggest different physical postures for meditation. Most famous are the several cross-legged postures, including the so-called [[Lotus Position]]. For example, the [[Tenzin Gyatso | Dalai Lama]] recommends the [http://groups.msn.com/AryaTaraTibetanBuddhismUK/meditationposture.msnw Seven Points of Vairocana] in which
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Sikhs believe that there are ten 'gates' to the body, 'gates' is another word for '[[chakra]]s' or energy centers. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or ''dasam dwar.'' It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavor when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and [[tranquility]] inside and outside the body.
  
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:*the legs are crossed in either the Lotus Positon (here called the [[vajra]] position) or the other way, "Indian" or "tailor" fashion (here called the [[bodhisattva]] position)
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Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that [[love]] comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive [[emotion]]s in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first [[Guru]] of the Sikhs, Guru [[Nanak Dev Ji]] preached the [[equality]] of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householders life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, as was popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.
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:*the eyes are kept open (thus affirming the world)
 
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:*the back is kept straight (like "an arrow" or "a stack of coins")
 
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:*the shoulders are kept even and relaxed
 
−
:*the gaze is kept at a medium level—too low and one becomes drowsy; too high and one becomes restless
 
−
:*the mouth is kept slightly open
 
−
:*the tongue touches the roof of the mouth
 
  
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Many meditative traditions teach that the [[spine]] should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what we might call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", or the "life force" (Sanskrit ''pranha'', Chinese ''[[qi]]'', Latin ''spiritus'').  
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== Clinical Studies and Health-Care Applications==
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{{main|Health applications and clinical studies of meditation}}
 +
Though western medicine is often characterized by a mechanistic understanding of human bodies and physiological processes, many recent medical advances (in fields as disparate as [[psychology]], [[neurobiology]], and [[palliative care]]) are predicated on a more holistic approach to the needs of patients. One major advance has been in the acknowledgment of meditation as an effective technique for modifying mental states, improving outlook, regulating autonomic bodily processes, and managing pain.<ref>L. Shauna, E. R. Shapiro, Gary Schwartz, Craig Santerre, "Meditation and Positive Psychology" in ''Handbook of Positive Psychology,'' edited by C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 632-645.</ref>
  
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In some traditions the meditator may sit on a Western chair, flat-footed (as in [[New Thought]]); sit on a stool (as in [[Orthodox Christianity]]); or walk in mindfulness (as in [[Theravada]] Buddhism).
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Meditation, as it is understood in these studies, refers to any practices that aim to inculcate the following psycho-behavioral components:
 +
#relaxation,
 +
#concentration,  
 +
#altered state of awareness,
 +
#suspension of logical thought processes, and
 +
#maintenance of self-observing attitude.<ref>Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, [http://onwww.net/trancenet.org/research/2000perezdealbeniz.shtml Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy] ''International Journal of Psychotherapy'' 5(1) (Mar 2000): 49-59. Retrieved July 12, 2021. </ref>
  
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Various hand-gestures or [[mudras]] may be prescribed. These generally carry theological meaning. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.
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In keeping with this more holistic understanding of the human body, the [[medicine|medical]] community has supported numerous studies that explore the physiological effects of meditation.<ref>S. Venkatesh, T.R. Raju, Y. Shivani, G. Tompkins, B.L. Meti, "A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states" ''Indian J Physiol Pharmacol'' (Apr 1997) 41(2): 149–153. </ref><ref>C.K. Peng, et al., "Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques" ''Int J Cardiol.'' 70(2) (Jul 31, 1999): 101–107. </ref><ref name = Lazar>S.W. Lazar, et al., "Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" ''NeuroReport'' 11(7) (May 15, 2000): 1581–1585 </ref> One of the more "high-profile" of these was conducted by Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, who discovered that [[Zen]] meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain<ref>James H. Austin, ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).</ref> &mdash; a seemingly counter-intuitive finding that has since been confirmed using functional MRI imaging.<ref>Mark Kaufman, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2005/01/03/meditation-gives-brain-a-charge-study-finds/7edabb07-a035-4b20-aebc-16f4eac43a9e/ Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds] ''The Washington Post Company'', January 3, 2005. Retrieved July 12, 2021.</ref>
  
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Quiet is often held to be desirable, and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing, humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state. The Tibetan tradition described above is probably in the minority for recommending that the eyes remain open; many forms assume that the eyes will be closed.
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Likewise, Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with [[Harvard]] University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."<ref name = Lazar/> The relaxation response includes changes in [[metabolism]], heart rate, [[respiration]], blood pressure and [[brain]] chemistry. These results have been borne out by extensive research into the positive physiological impact of meditation on various bodily processes, including balance,<ref>Y. Yang et al., "Effect of combined Taiji and Qigong training on balance mechanisms: a randomized controlled trial of older adults," ''Medical Science Monitor'' 13(8) (Aug 2007):CR339-348. </ref> blood pressure,<ref>J.P. Manikonda et al., "Contemplative meditation reduces ambulatory blood pressure and stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot trial," ''Journal of Human Hypertension'' (Sep 6, 2007).</ref> and metabolism,<ref>M.S. Chaya, A.V. Kurpad, H.R. Nagendra, and R. Nagarathna, "The effect of long term combined yoga practice on the basal metabolic rate of healthy adults," ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' 6 (Aug 31, 2006):28.</ref> as well as cardiovascular<ref> M. Hill, R. Weber, and S. Werner, "The heart-mind connection," ''Behavioral Healthcare'' 26(9) (Sep 2006):30-32.</ref> and respiratory function.<ref>D. Cysarz and A. Büssing, "Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen meditation," ''European Journal of Applied Physiology'' 95(1) (Sep 2005):88-95.</ref> For example, in an early study in 1972, [[Transcendental Meditation]] was shown to affect the human [[metabolism]] by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as lactic acid, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and inducing favorable patterns of brain waves.<ref>H. Benson and R.K. Wallace, "The Physiology of Meditation" ''Scientific American'' 226(2) (1972): 84-90.</ref> These physiological effects have also demonstrated the efficacy of meditation as part of a treatment regimen for [[epilepsy]].<ref>N. Yardi, "Yoga for control of epilepsy," ''Seizure'' 10(1) (Jan 2001):7-12.</ref>
  
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Often such details are shared by more than one religion, even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely. One example would be "navel-gazing," which is apparently attested within Eastern Orthodoxy as well as Chinese [[qigong]] practice. Another would be the practice of focusing on the breath, which is found in Orthodox Christianity, [[Sufism]], and numerous Indic traditions.
+
Given these findings, meditation has entered the mainstream of [[health care]] as a method of stress management and pain reduction.<ref>N.E. Morone and C.M. Greco, "Mind-body interventions for chronic pain in older adults: a structured review," ''Pain Medicine'' 8(4) (May-Jun 2007):359-375.</ref> As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness, as it has been found to reduce complications associated with increased stress, such as a depressed [[immune system]].<ref>L.E. Carlson, Z. Ursuliak, E. Goodey, M. Angen, and M. Speca, "The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up." ''Support Care Cancer'' 9(2) (Mar 2001):112-123. </ref> Similar conclusions have been reached by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, who have studied the beneficial effects of [[mindfulness]] meditation on stress and outlook.<ref>Jon Kabat-Zinn, L. Lipworth, and R. Burney, "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain." ''Journal of Behavioral Medicine'' 8(2) (1985): 163-190. </ref><ref>Richard J. Davidson et al., "Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation." ''Psychosomatic Medicine'' 65(4) (Jul-Aug 2003): 564-570. </ref>
 +
 +
These programs correspond to a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, which has led to a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the National Institutes of Health's establishment of five research centers to explore the mind-body elements of disease.)
  
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Sitting cross-legged (or upon one's knees) for extended periods or when one is not sufficiently limber, can result in a range of [[ergonomic]] complaints called "meditator's knee".
+
==Notes==
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+
<div class="references-small">
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==Frequency and duration==
+
<references/>
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These vary so much that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, [http://www.oneminutemeditator.com/ one-minute meditations] are not out of the question.
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</div>
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Twenty or thirty minutes is probably a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial.
 
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Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverence to acceptance.
 
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==Purposes and effects of meditation==
 
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The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's [[God]]. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation.
 
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Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation--sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator.
 
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At the same time, many effects (or perhaps side-effects) have been experienced during, or claimed for, various types of meditation. These include:
 
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:*Greater faith in, or understanding of, one's religion
 
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:*An increase in patience, compassion, and other virtues
 
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:*Feelings of calm or peace, and/or moments of great joy
 
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:*Consciousness of sin, temptation, and remorse
 
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:*Sensitivity to certain forms of lighting, such as [[fluorescent]] lights or computer screens
 
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:*Surfacing of buried memories, possibly including memories of previous lives
 
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:*Experience of spiritual phenomena such as [[kundalini]], [[extra-sensory perception]], or [[vision (religion) | visions]] of deities, saints, demons, etc.
 
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:*"Miraculous" abilities such as [[levitation]] (cf. [[yogic flying]])
 
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:*[[Psychosis | Psychotic]] episodes (see medical section below)
 
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Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, [[Mahayana]] Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the [[bodhisattva]] vow).
 
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== Health applications and clinical studies of meditation ==
 
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[[Image:Ss460-319-070-Buddha2-1.jpg|thumb|250px|Scenes of Inner Taksang, temple hall, built just above the cave where [[Padmasambhava]] meditated]]
 
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In the recent years there has been a growing interest within the [[medicine|medical]] community to study the [[physiological]] effects of meditation (Venkatesh et al., 1997; Peng et al., 1999; Lazar et al., 2000; Carlson et.al, 2001). Many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on [[somatic motor function]] as well as [[cardiovascular]] and [[respiratory]] function. Also the [[hermeneutic]] and [[phenomenological]] aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest. Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of [[stress]] and [[pain]] reduction.  For example, in an early study in 1972, [[transcendental meditation]] was shown to affect the human [[metabolism]] by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as [[lactic acid|lactate]], decreasing [[heart rate]] and [[blood pressure]] and inducing favorable [[brain wave]]s. (Scientific American 226: 84-90 (1972))
 
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As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed [[immune system]].  There is a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the establishment by the [[NIH]] in the U.S. of 5 research centers to research the mind-body aspects of disease.)
 
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[[Dr. James Austin]], a neurophysiologist at the [[University of Colorado]], reported that [[Zen]] meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book ''Zen and the Brain'' (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using [[Functional MRI|sophisticated imaging techniques]] which examine the electrical activity of the brain.
 
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Dr. [[Herbert Benson]] of the [[Mind-Body Medical Institute]], which is affiliated with [[Harvard]] and several [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "[[relaxation response]]" (Lazar et.al, 2003). The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.
 
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Among other well-known studies within this particular field of interest we find the research of [[Jon Kabat-Zinn]] and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts who have done extensive research on the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress ([[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn]] et.al, 1985; Davidson et.al, 2003).
 
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===Meditation and the brain===
 
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Mindfulness meditation and related techniques are intended to train attention for the sake of provoking insight. Think of it as the opposite of [[attention deficit disorder]]. A wider, more flexible attention span makes it easier to be aware of a situation, easier to be objective in emotionally or morally difficult situations, and easier to achieve a state of responsive, creative awareness or "[[Flow_(psychology)|flow]]".
 
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One theory, presented by [[Daniel Goleman]] & [[Tara Bennett-Goleman]] (2001), suggests that meditation works because of the relationship between the [[amygdala]] and the [[prefrontal cortex]].  In very simple terms, the amygdala is the part of the brain that decides if we should get angry or anxious (among other things), and the pre-frontal cortex is the part that makes us stop and think about things (it is also known as the inhibitory centre).
 
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So, the prefrontal cortex is very good at analyzing and planning, but it takes a long time to make decisions.  The amygdala, on the other hand, is simpler (and older in evolutionary terms).  It makes rapid judgements about a situation and has a powerful effect on our emotions and behaviour, linked to survival needs.  For example, if a human sees a [[lion]] leaping out at them, the amygdala will trigger a [[fight or flight]] response long before the prefrontal cortex knows what's happening.
 
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But in making [[snap judgments]], our amygdalas are prone to error, seeing danger where there is none.  This is particularly true in contemporary society where social conflicts are far more common than encounters with predators, and a basically harmless but emotionally charged situation can trigger uncontrollable fear or anger—leading to conflict, anxiety, and stress.
 
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Because there is roughly a quarter of a second gap between the time an event occurs, and the time it takes the amygdala to react, a skilled meditator may be able to intervene before a fight or flight response takes over, and perhaps even redirect it into more constructive or positive feelings.
 
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The different roles of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex can be easily observed under the influence of various drugs. [[Alcohol]] depresses the brain generally, but the sophistocated prefrontal cortex is more affected than less complex areas, resulting in lowered inhibitions, decreased attention span, and increased influence of emotions over behaviour.  Likewise, the controversial drug [[ritalin]] has the opposite effect, because it stimulates activity in the prefrontal cortex.
 
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Some studies of meditation have linked the practice to increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex, which is associated with concentration, planning, meta-cognition (thinking about thinking), and with ''positive affect'' (good feelings). There are similar studies linking [[clinical depression|depression]] and [[anxiety]] with decreased activity in the same region, and/or with dominant activity in the right prefrontal cortex.  Meditation increases activity in the left prefrontal cortex, and the changes are stable over time—even if you stop meditating for a while, the effect lingers.
 
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==Meditation and EEG's==
 
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[[Electroencephalography|Electroencephalographs]] (EEG) recordings of skilled meditators showed [[gamma wave]] activity that gradually expanded across the brain during meditation. Gamma waves indicate synchrony between sections of the brain. These meditators had 10 to 40 years of training in Buddhist-based mental training.  EEGs done on meditators who had received recent training turned up considerably less synchrony.
 
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The experienced meditators also showed increased gamma activity while at rest and not meditating.  The results of the study do not make clear whether meditation training creates this activity or if individuals with high gamma activity are attracted to meditation. (Lutz & Davidson, [[2004]]).
 
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Meditation also effects brain wave production as measured by an EEG machine. While the brain at a waking state is primarily in the Beta range of frequencies (14 - 21 cycles per second), while under meditation the brain tends to slow down the Alpha range (7 - 14 cycles per second). One of the first Americans to study the effects of meditation on brainwave production was [[Jose Silva]] who founded the Silva Method and [[Silva UltraMind System]]. Silva theorized that meditation, in addition to stress relief could also be used for enhancing creativity and developing intuition.
 
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===Adverse effects===
 
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Predominantly, studies of meditation report positive effects. However, some studies report that meditation may have adverse effects in certain circumstances (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, [[1998]]; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). If practiced improperly or too intensely, meditation can lead to considerable psychological and physiological problems, such as the symptoms of [[Kundalini]], [[Shamanism|Shamanic illness]], [[Tumo]] or Qi-gong-related problems . Serious, and credible teachers of meditation usually warn their students about the possible pitfalls of a contemplative path. Another issue concerns the adaptation of eastern meditative concepts to a western culture, an adaptation that is often unfamiliar with the cultural matrix that the meditative concept originated from. Eastern concepts of meditation are often imported to a western setting within the popular context of new religious movements, or within the context of popular approaches to body and health. It is common for this popular context to be unfamiliar with the broad range of adverse affects that might occur during meditation, and to have limited tools for dealing with them when they do arise.
 
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Stories of unguided practitioners or inexpertly guided students developing chronic mental and physical health problems as a result of their attempts at meditation training are not uncommon.
 
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[[English language|English]] speaking practitioners, and teachers of Chinese ''Qi-Gong'', notes
 
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that the practice of this contemplative exercise is sometimes accompanied by physical and psychological distress. The identification of this syndrome has led to the inclusion of a culture-sensitive category in the [[Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM-IV]] called Qi-Gong Psychotic Reaction (American Psychiatric Association, 1994: Appendix 1). Traditionally, Qi-Gong, at least, is considered more of a concentration focus and health maintenance regimen in aid of meditation rather than a [[panacea]] for any problem or set of problems.
 
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Since the practice of meditation might include a powerful confrontation with existential questions, it is not considered wise to engage in intense meditation techniques without an extended period of psychological preparation, preferably in contact with a credible teacher or clinician. In the case of Asian contemplative traditions there often exist major challenges connected to the way the particular tradition is to be applied to a Western culture, or a Western mindset. A growing body of clinical literature is now starting to address the phenomenon of meditation-related problems (Lukoff, Lu & Turner, 1998; Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes, 2000). Several side-effects have been reported, including uncomfortable [[kinaesthetic]] sensations, mild dissociation and psychosis-like symptoms (Craven, [[1989]]). From a clinical study of twenty-seven long term meditators, Shapiro ([[1992]]) reported such adverse effects as depression, relaxation-induced anxiety and panic, paradoxical increases in tension, impaired reality testing, confusion, disorientation and feeling 'spaced out'. The possibility that meditation might trigger strong emotional reactions is also reported by Kutz, Borysenko & Benson (1985). Within the context of therapy, meditation is usually contraindicated when the therapeutic goal is to strengthen ego boundaries, release powerful emotions, or work through complex relational dynamics (Bogart, 1991).
 
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The tendency of meditation to disturb object-relations and release unconscious material implies that the beginning meditator should approach the practice with moderation. It usually takes years of dedication to become stable in a contemplative practice, a perspective that is often overlooked by many new religious movements and New Age therapies. Another problematic feature of the modern New Age approach is its association with frauds and deliberate charlatans who promote themselves as "healers", promising miracle cures of any conceivable affliction for the right amount of money.
 
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Also, meditative traditions which include the use of drugs are generally considered to be harmful to the practitioner. Additionally, as with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may be helpful to apply mindful attitudes acquired in meditation while actively engaging with current problems (see Hayes et al, 1999, chap. 3; Metzner, [[2005]]).
 
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===Meditation and drugs===
 
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Some modern methods of meditation do not include the use of drugs due to the known health problems associated with drug use.  However, the use of stimulants has been proposed by some as a means to provide insight, and in some [[shamanistic]] traditions they are used as agents of ritual. Some Native American traditions for instance emphasized the smoking of a pipe containing [[tobacco]] or other plants. Some Hindu traditions use [[bhang]], East Asian traditions use [[tea]] and Middle Eastern (and many Western) religious use [[coffee]] as an aid to meditation.
 
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==See also==
 
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*[[Astral projection]]
 
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*[[Autosuggestion]]
 
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*[[Kinemantra Meditation]]
 
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*[[Muraqaba]]
 
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*[[meditation (alternative medicine)]]
 
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*[[Passage Meditation]]
 
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*[[Psychology of religion]]
 
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*[[retreat]]
 
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*[[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]]
 
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*[[Naam]]
 
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*[[Kundalini]]
 
−
*[[Yoga Nidra]]
 
−
*[[Buddhist meditation]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.  
+
* American Psychiatric Association. ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,'' fourth ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
−
* Austin, James (1999) ''Zen and the Brain'', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0262511096
+
* Austin, James H. ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness.'' Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. ISBN 0262511096.
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* Azeemi, Khwaja Shamsuddin (2005) ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation''. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0975887548
+
* Azeemi, Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi. ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation.'' Houston: Plato, 2005. ISBN 0975887548.
−
* Bogart G. (1991) ''The use of meditation in psychotherapy: a review of the literature''. American Journal of Psychotherapy, Jul;45(3):383-412. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 1951788
+
* Bennett-Goleman, T. ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart.'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0609607529.
−
* Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, Angen M, Speca M. (2001) ''The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up''. Support Care Cancer. 2001 Mar;9(2):112-23.[[PubMed]] abstract PMID 11305069 
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* Benson, Herbert, and Miriam Z. Klipper. ''The Relaxation Response,'' Expanded Updated ed. Harper, 2000. ISBN 0380815958.
−
* Craven JL. (1989) ''Meditation and psychotherapy.'' Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Oct;34(7):648-53. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 2680046
+
* Bergman, Ozer. ''Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation.'' Breslov Research Institute, 2006. ISBN 978-1928822080.
−
* Davidson RJ, [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn J]], Schumacher J, Rosenkranz M, Muller D, Santorelli SF, Urbanowski F, Harrington A, Bonus K, Sheridan JF. (2003) ''Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation''. Psychosomatic Medicine 2003 Jul-Aug;65(4):564-70. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 12883106
+
* Burley, Mikel. ''Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. ISBN 8120817052.
−
* Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart,'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9
+
* Dumoulin, Heinrich, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter. ''Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China).'' World Wisdom, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
−
* Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy''. New York: Guilford Press.
+
* Hayes, S.C., K.D. Strosahl, and K.G. Wilson. ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change.'' New York: Guilford Press, 1999. ISBN 1572309555.
−
* [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Kabat-Zinn J]], Lipworth L, Burney R. (1985) ''The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain''. Journ. Behav. Medicine. Jun;8(2):163-90. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 3897551
+
* Kohn, Livia, ed., and Yoshinobu Sakade. ''Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques.'' Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. ISBN 0892640855.  
−
* Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H. (1985) ''Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation''. American Journal of Psychiatry, Jan;142(1):1-8. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 3881049   
+
* Lazar, Sara W. "Mindfulness Research." In: ''Mindfulness and Psychotherapy.'' C. Germer, R.D. Siegel, P. Fulton, eds. New York: Guildford Press, 2005.  
−
* Lazar, Sara W.; Bush, George; Gollub, Randy L.; Fricchione, Gregory L.; Khalsa, Gurucharan; Benson, Herbert (2000) ''Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation [Autonomic Nervous System] NeuroReport'': Volume 11(7) [[15 May]] [[2000]] p 1581&ndash;1585 [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 10841380
+
* Metzner R. "Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness." In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience, Chap. 2.'' Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195165314.  
−
* Lukoff, David; Lu Francis G. & Turner, Robert P. (1998) ''From Spiritual Emergency to Spiritual Problem: The Transpersonal Roots of the New DSM-IV Category''. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(2), 21-50,
+
* MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan. ''Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation.'' Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2005. (in English)
−
* Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience'', Chap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
+
* Nigosian, S. A. ''Islam. Its History, Teaching, and Practices.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004. ISBN 0253216273.  
−
* Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto & Holmes, Jeremy (2000) Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, March 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p
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* Sogyal, Rinpoche. ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying,'' Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. ISBN 0062508342.
−
* Peng CK, Mietus JE, Liu Y, Khalsa G, Douglas PS, Benson H, Goldberger AL. (1999) ''Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques. Int J Cardiol.'' 1999 Jul 31;70(2):101&ndash;7. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 10454297
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*Tart, Charles T., ed. ''Altered States of Consciousness,'' 3rd ed. Harper, 1990. ISBN 0471845604.
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* Shapiro DH Jr. (1992) ''Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators''. Int. Journal of Psychosom. 39(1-4):62-7. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 1428622
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* Trungpa, C. ''Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism.'' Boston: Shambhala South Asia Editions, 1973.
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* Venkatesh S, Raju TR, Shivani Y, Tompkins G, Meti BL. (1997) ''A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.'' 1997 Apr;41(2): 149&ndash;53. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 9142560
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* Trungpa, C. ''Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior.'' Boston: Shambhala Dragon Editions, 1984.
−
* {{Journal reference issue | Author=Lutz, A. . . . and R.J. Davidson | Title=[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0407401101 Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice] | Journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | Volume=101 | Issue= November 16 | Year=2004 | Pages=}}
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* Vogel, Erhard. ''Journey Into Your Center.'' Nataraja Publications, 2001. ISBN 1892484056.
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==External links==
 
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* [http://www.mum.edu/cbe/summary/tm.html Maharishi University - Scientific research on Transcendental Meditation]
 
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* [http://www.investigatingthemind.org/ The McGovern Institute at MIT and The Mind & Life Institute present...Investigating the Mind]
 
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* [http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/04/02/newton0204.asp MIT Technology review - Meditation and the Brain]
 
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* [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/04.18/09-tummo.html Harvard University Gazette - Meditation changes temperatures]
 
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* [http://www.harvard.edu/news/dalai.html Harvard University News - His Holiness the XIVth Dalai Lama visits Harvard]
 
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* [http://www.news.wisc.edu/story.php?get=6205 University Of Wisconsin News - The Dalai Lama and scientists unite to study meditation]
 
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* [http://www.noetic.org/research/medbiblio/index.htm ''The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation''] (subtitle) ''A Review of Contemporary Research'', Michael Murphy and Steven Donovan, Institute of Noetic Sciences, 1999-2004, full text of e-book with extensive searchable bibliography (type * into search box to retrieve entire list of over 1800 citations)
 
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*[http://cebmh.warne.ox.ac.uk/csr/mbct.html University of Oxford - Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy]
 
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* [http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/12.12/36-pema.html Harvard University Gazette - How not to get hooked]
 
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* [http://www.medicalobserver.com.au/displayarticle/index.asp?articleID=3509&templateID=108 Medical Observer - Making Sense of Meditation]
 
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* [http://meditation4all.sourceforge.net Free/OpenSource meditation clock that runs on mobile devices]
 
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* [http://myprimers.com/my_primers/meditation/ Free primer on how to do traditional Shamatha Style meditation, with links for more info.]
 
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* [http://www.dharmaweb.org/index.php/Category:Buddhist_Meditation Buddhist Meditation ]
 
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* [http://www.kadampa.org Kadampa Buddhist meditation ]
 
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* [http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk Meditation in London] www.meditateinlondon.org.uk
 
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* [http://www.sahajayoga.org SahajaYoga Meditation]
 
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Latest revision as of 00:07, 13 July 2021

Zen Buddhist meditation.

Meditation (from the Latin meditatio: "discourse on a subject")[1] describes a large body of psychophysical techniques whose primary aim is the achievement of non-ordinary states of consciousness, typically through the concentration of attention on some object of thought or awareness.[2] Though virtually all religious traditions contain a contemplative element, meditation practice is more often associated with Eastern religions (such as Buddhism, Daoism, and Hinduism), where these practices have been, and continue to be, integral parts of religious life.[3][4][5] As different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices, they tend to engender a variety of responses in practitioners, from profound mental concentration to mental quiescence. The unifying factor, however, at least among religious understandings of the process, is an ever-deepening, intuitive insight into the ultimate nature of reality.[6]

Though meditation is traditionally associated with religious practice (and often with Eastern spirituality), these techniques have become increasingly common in secular Western culture, where the psychiatric and medical establishments are now beginning to acknowledge and explore the beneficial effects of these practices on psychological and physical health.[7] This process can be seen as analogous to the secularization of other religious techniques, such as yoga and tai chi, upon their incorporation into popular culture.

Categories of Meditation Practice

Bodhidharma practicing zazen.

Though there are as many styles of meditation as there are religious and secular traditions that practice them, meditation practices can (in general) be broadly categorized into two groups based upon their respective focal points: those that focus on the gestalt elements of human experience (the "field" or background perception and experience) are referred to as "mindfulness" practices and those that focus on a specific preselected object are called "concentrative" practices. While most techniques can be roughly grouped under one of these rubrics, it should be acknowledged that some practices involve the shifting of focus between the field and an object.[8]

In mindfulness meditation, the meditator sits comfortably and silently, attempting to submerge conscious ideation and maintain an open focus:

…shifting freely from one perception to the next…. No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a 'no effort' attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an 'anchor' … brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.[8]

Concentration meditation, on the other hand, requires the participant to hold attention on a particular object (e.g., a repetitive prayer) while minimizing distractions; bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object.

In some traditions, such as Vipassana, mindfulness and concentration are combined.

As meditation primarily entails the creation of a particular mental state, this process can occur with or without additional corporeal activity - including walking meditation, raja yoga, and tantra.[5]

Approaches to Meditation (Religious and Secular)

Bahá'í faith

The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary component of spiritual growth, when practiced alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. To this end, 'Abdu'l-Bahá is quoted as saying:

"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."[9]

Although the Founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by ablutions. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء‎ "splendor" or "glory"), which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God."

Buddhism

Buddha in meditation

The cultivation of "correct" mental states has always been an important element of Buddhist practice, as canonized in the mental discipline section of the Noble Eightfold Path. The centrality of meditation can be tied to the tradition's founding myth, which describes the historical Buddha attaining enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. Thus, the majority of early Buddhist teaching revolves around the achievement of particular mystical states as the key to accurate perception of the material world and eventual release from the cycle of samsara (nirvana).

To this end, most forms of Buddhism distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, shamatha and vipassana, both of which were thought to be necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing insight and wisdom through seeing the true nature of reality. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as Anapanasati, which could be said to start off as a shamatha practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a vipassana practice.

Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (sati)[10] and concentration (samadhi) in the pursuit of Nibbana (Nirvana). Popular subjects in traditional meditation practice include the breath (anapana), objects of repulsion (corpses, excrescences, etc.) and loving-kindness (mettā).

In Japanese Mahayana schools, Tendai (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese Chán Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese Zen, and Korean Seon schools), ts'o ch'an meditation and koan meditation practices are understood to allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of reality. This focus is even attested to in the names of each of these schools, which are derived from the Sanskrit dhyana, and can thus be translated into "meditation" in their respective languages).

Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) emphasizes the path of tantra for its senior practitioners. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, though they are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the incisive, diamond-like nature of mind and to introduce practitioners to the unchanging, pure awareness that is seen to underlie the whole of life and death.[11]

The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.- Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.[11]

Though meditation is a vital component of Buddhist practice, it is only one segment of the three types of training required for the attainment of enlightenment, as each adherent is expected to strive for excellence in virtue (sīla), meditation (citta), and wisdom (paññā). [12] Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path. In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.

Christianity

See also: Hesychasm

Saint Gregory Palamas (1296-1368 C.E.), defender of Hesychasm.

While the world's Christian traditions do contain various practices which might be identified as forms of "meditation," many of them were historically identified as monastic practices. For instance, some types of prayer, such as the rosary and Adoration (focusing on the eucharist) in Roman Catholicism or the hesychasm in Eastern Orthodoxy, may be compared to forms of Eastern meditation that focus on an individual object. Though Christian prayer is often an intellectual (rather than intuitive) exercise, certain practices that encourage the contemplation of the divine mysteries could likewise be seen as meditations. More specifically, the practices recommended in the Philokalia, which stress prayer/meditation as an "attitude of the heart," are more stereotypically meditative, as they involve acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses. While these types of (often mystical) meditation were relatively influential during the history of Christianity (as can be seen in the lives and writings of Thomas Merton, Teresa of Avila, and the Quakers, among others), many conservative Christians view meditation with some trepidation, seeing it as an alien and potentially iniquitous force.[13]

Also, Christian sects often use the term meditation in a more intellectual (rather than intuitive) sense to describe the active practice of reflection on some particular theme, such as "meditation on the sufferings of Christ." A similar "intellectualist" understanding of meditation also underlies the evangelical notion of biblical study, one which is often justified by quoting the Book of Joshua:

Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it, then you will be prosperous and successful (Joshua 1:8).

Daoism

"Gathering the Light," Daoist meditation from The Secret of the Golden Flower
Main article: Daoism

The wide and variegated schools of Daoism include a number of meditative and contemplative traditions. Originally said to have emerged from the I Ching, Dao De Jing, Zhuangzi, and Baopuzi (among other texts), many indigenous Chinese practices have been concerned with the utilization of breath control and physical exercises for the promotion of health, well-being, and longevity. These practices enjoyed a period of fruitful cross-fertilization with Chinese Buddhism, especially the Ch'an (Zen) school.[14]

Such techniques have had significant influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese, as well as some Japanese martial arts. Most specifically, the Chinese martial art T'ai Chi Ch'uan is based on the Daoist and Neo-Confucian cosmology contained in the Taijitu ("Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate"), which correlates individual actions with their macrocosmic functioning of the universe. Many Daoist martial arts are thought of as "moving meditations," such that the practical ideal is "stillness in movement."

Hinduism

An Indus Valley seal depicting Pashupati seated in a yoga-like posture and surrounded by animals.

Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world that professes meditation as a spiritual and religious practice. Archaeologists have discovered carved images of figures who appear to be practicing meditation at ancient Indian archaeological sites.

Several forms of meditation have developed in Hinduism, which are closely associated with the practice of Yoga as a means to both physiological and spiritual mastery. Among these types of meditation include Jnana Yoga, Surat shabd yoga, ("sound and light meditation"), Japa Yoga, in (repetition of a mantra), Bhakti Yoga (the yoga of love and devotion), Hatha Yoga, in which postures and meditations are aimed at raising the spiritual energy, and Raja Yoga (Devanagari: योग), one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, focusing on meditation.

A large statue in Bangalore depicting Shiva meditating

Raja Yoga as outlined by Patanjali, which describes eight "limbs" of spiritual practices, half of which might be classified as meditation. Underlying them is the assumption that a yogi should still the fluctuations of his or her mind: Yoga cittavrrti nirodha.

Additionally, the Hindu deities are often depicted as practicing meditation, especially Shiva.

Islam

In Islam, meditation serves as the core element of various mystical traditions (in particular Sufism), though it is also thought to promote healing and creativity in general.[15] The Muslim prophet Muhammad, whose deeds provide a moral example for devout Muslims, spent long periods in meditation and contemplation. Indeed, the tradition holds that it was during one such period of meditation that Muhammad began to receive revelations of the Qur'an.[16]

There are two concepts or schools of meditation in Islam:

  • Tafakkur and Tadabbur, which literally refers to "reflection upon the universe." Muslims feel this process, which consists of quiet contemplation and prayer, will allow the reception of divine inspiration that awakens and liberates the human mind. This is consistent with the global teachings of Islam, which view life as a test of the adherent's submission to Allah. This type of meditation is practiced by Muslims during the second stage of the Hajj, during their six to eight hour sojourn at Mount Arafat.[17]
  • The second form of meditation is Sufi meditation, which is largely based on mystical exercises. These exercises consist of practices similar to Buddhist meditation, known as Muraqaba or Tamarkoz—terms that denote ‘concentration,’ referring to the “concentration of abilities.” Consequently, the term "muraqaba" suggests to close attention, and the convergence and consolidation of mental faculties through meditation. Gerhard Böwering provides a clear synopsis of the mystical goal of Sufi meditation:

Through a distinct meditational technique, known as dikr, recollection of God, the mystics return to their primeval origin on the Day of Covenant, when all of humanity (symbolically enshrined in their prophetical ancestors as light particles or seeds) swore an oath of allegiance and witness to Allah as the one and only Lord. Breaking through to eternity, the mystics relive their waqt, their primeval moment with God, here and now, in the instant of ecstasy, even as they anticipate their ultimate destiny. Sufi meditation captures time by drawing eternity from its edges in pre- and post-existence into the moment of mystical experience.[18]

However, it should be noted that the meditation practices enjoined by the Sufis are controversial among Muslim scholars. Though one group of Ulama, most namely Al-Ghazzali, have accepted such practices as spiritually valid, more conservative thinkers (such as Ibn Taymiya) have rejected them as bid'ah (Arabic: بدعة‎) (religious innovation).

Jainism

Jain sadhvis meditating

For Jains, meditation practices are described as samayika, a word in the Prakrit language derived from samay ("time"). The aim of Samayika is to transcend the daily experiences of being a "constantly changing" human being, Jiva, and allow for the identification with the "changeless" reality in the practitioner, the Atma. The practice of samayika begins by achieving a balance in time. If the present moment of time is taken to be a point between the past and the future, Samayika means being fully aware, alert and conscious in that very moment, experiencing one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. In this, samayika can be seen as a "mindfulness" practice par excellence (as described above).

In addition to these commonly accepted meditation techniques, others are accepted only in certain sects. For instance, a practice called preksha meditation is said to have been rediscovered by the 10th Head of Jain Swetamber Terapanth sect Acharya Mahaprajna, which consists of concentration upon the perception of the breath, body, and the psychic centers. It is understood that correct application of these techniques will initiate the process of personal transformation, which aims at attaining and purify the deeper levels of existence.[19]

Judaism

See also: Baal Shem Tov , Hassidism , Kabbala , and Zohar

Though lacking the central focus on meditation found in some eastern religions, there is evidence that Judaism has a longstanding tradition of meditation and meditative practices—perhaps hearkening back to the Biblical period.[20] For instance, many rabbinical commentators suggest that, when the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field, he is actually taking part in some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was central to the prophets.[20]

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called hitbodedut (התבודדות) or hisbodedus, which is explained in both Kabbalistic and Hassidic philosophy. The word hisbodedut, which is derived from the Hebrew word בודד ("boded" - the state of being alone), refers to the silent, intuitive, personal contemplation of the Divine. This technique was especially central to the spiritual teachings of Rebbe Nachman.[21]

Kabbala, Judaism's best known mystical tradition, also places considerable emphasis on meditative practices. Kabbalistic meditation is often a deeply visionary process, based on the envisioning of various significant cosmic phenomena (including the emanations of G-d (Sefirot), the ultimate Unity (Ein Sof), and the Divine Chariot (Merkabah)).

New Age

New Age meditations are often ostensibly grounded in Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as Yoga, Hinduism, and Buddhism, though they are typically equally influenced by the social mores and material affluence of Western culture. The popularity of meditation in the mainstream West is largely attributable to the hippie-counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the day's youth rebelled against traditional belief systems.

Some examples of practices whose popularity can be largely tied to the New Age movement include:

  • Kriya Yoga - taught by Paramahansa Yogananda in order to help people achieve "self-realization";
  • Passage Meditation - a modern method developed by spiritual teacher Eknath Easwaran, which involves silent, focused repetition of memorized passages from world scripture and the writings of great mystics;
  • Transcendental Meditation, a form of meditation taught and promoted by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi;
  • FISU (Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment) - a movement established by Gururaj Ananda Yogi's prime disciples Rajesh Ananda and Jasmini Ananda.
  • Ananda Marga meditation - a teaching propounded by a Mahakaula Guru Shrii Shrii Anandamurtiiji in India, who said that it revived sacred practices taught by SadaShiva and Sri Krs'na. His system of meditation, he said, is based on original Tantra as given by Shiva and has sometimes been referred as "Rajadhiraja Yoga." He revised many yogic and meditative practices and introduced some new techniques.

Secular

In addition to the various forms of religious meditation, the modern era has also seen the development of many "consciousness-expanding" movements, many of which are devoid of mystical content and are singularly devoted to promoting physical and mental well being. Some of these include:

  • Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation, which was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. Jacobson argued that since muscular tension accompanies anxiety, one can reduce anxiety by learning how to dissipate muscular tension.
  • Autogenic training, which was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation, though he attempted to guarantee that autogenic training would be devoid of any mystical elements.
  • The method of Dr. Ainslie Meares, an Australian psychiatrist who explored the effects of meditation in a groundbreaking work entitled Relief Without Drugs (1970). In this text, he recommended some simple, secular relaxation techniques based on Hindu practices as a means of combating anxiety, stress and chronic physical pain.
  • Shambhala Training, which was founded in Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche in 1976. This regimen was a secular program of meditation with a belief in basic goodness, with teachings that stressed the path of bravery and gentleness. The 1984 book Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior contains student-edited versions of Trungpa's lectures and writings.

Sikhism

In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō, which enjoin the focusing one's attention on the attributes of God, both encourage quiet meditation. The centrality of meditational practices is highlighted by their place in the Guru Granth Sahib, which states:

Meditating on the Glories of the Lord, the heart-lotus blossoms radiantly.
Remembering the Lord in meditation, all fears are dispelled.
Perfect is that intellect, by which the Glorious Praises of the Lord are sung (Ga­oṛī mehlā 5).[22]

Sikhs believe that there are ten 'gates' to the body, 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centers. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavor when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householders life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, as was popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.

Clinical Studies and Health-Care Applications

Though western medicine is often characterized by a mechanistic understanding of human bodies and physiological processes, many recent medical advances (in fields as disparate as psychology, neurobiology, and palliative care) are predicated on a more holistic approach to the needs of patients. One major advance has been in the acknowledgment of meditation as an effective technique for modifying mental states, improving outlook, regulating autonomic bodily processes, and managing pain.[23]

Meditation, as it is understood in these studies, refers to any practices that aim to inculcate the following psycho-behavioral components:

  1. relaxation,
  2. concentration,
  3. altered state of awareness,
  4. suspension of logical thought processes, and
  5. maintenance of self-observing attitude.[24]

In keeping with this more holistic understanding of the human body, the medical community has supported numerous studies that explore the physiological effects of meditation.[25][26][27] One of the more "high-profile" of these was conducted by Dr. James Austin, a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, who discovered that Zen meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain[28] — a seemingly counter-intuitive finding that has since been confirmed using functional MRI imaging.[29]

Likewise, Dr. Herbert Benson of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response."[27] The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. These results have been borne out by extensive research into the positive physiological impact of meditation on various bodily processes, including balance,[30] blood pressure,[31] and metabolism,[32] as well as cardiovascular[33] and respiratory function.[34] For example, in an early study in 1972, Transcendental Meditation was shown to affect the human metabolism by lowering the biochemical byproducts of stress, such as lactic acid, decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and inducing favorable patterns of brain waves.[35] These physiological effects have also demonstrated the efficacy of meditation as part of a treatment regimen for epilepsy.[36]

Given these findings, meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress management and pain reduction.[37] As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness, as it has been found to reduce complications associated with increased stress, such as a depressed immune system.[38] Similar conclusions have been reached by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, who have studied the beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation on stress and outlook.[39][40]

These programs correspond to a growing consensus in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, which has led to a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the National Institutes of Health's establishment of five research centers to explore the mind-body elements of disease.)

Notes

  1. ↑ As noted in the Online Etymology Dictionary, the use of the term "meditation" to describe the process of quiet contemplation is a later linguistic development (ca. 1400 C.E.), with previous usage pertaining to the discursive exploration of a subject. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  2. ↑ For instance, some medical researchers, requiring an explicit definition of meditation, described it as follows: "self-regulation of attention, in the service of self-inquiry, in the here and now." A. Maison et al. "Meditation, melatonin and breast/prostate cancer: hypothesis and preliminary data," Medical Hypotheses 44 (1) (1995): 39-46.
  3. ↑ Ramnarayan (R.N.) Vyas, The Bhagavad-Git' and Jivana Yoga (Abhinav Publications, 2003, ISBN 8170172039).
  4. ↑ Mikel Burley, Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 8120817052).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter, Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) (World Wisdom, 2005, ISBN 0941532895).
  6. ↑ It should be noted that this mystical insight tends to be described in similar terms, regardless of whether it is understood theistically (as in Christian and Islamic meditation) or non-theistically (as in Buddhist meditation).
  7. ↑ C. Tart, "Adapting Eastern spiritual teachings to Western culture." The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22: 149-166.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy." International Journal of Psychotherapy 5(1) (March 2000): 49.
  9. ↑ `Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks. (Bahá'í Distribution Service, (1912) 1995, ISBN 1870989570), 175.
  10. ↑ As described in the Satipatthana Sutta. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Rinpoche Sogyal, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994).
  12. ↑ For instance, from the Pali Canon, see MN 44 (Thanissaro, 1998a) and AN 3:88 (Thanissaro, 1998b). Retrieved July 12, 2021. In Mahayana tradition, the Lotus Sutra lists the Six Perfections (paramita) which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue (śīla), concentration (dhyāna) and wisdom (prajñā).
  13. ↑ See, for example, the critique and denouncement of yoga and meditation in Douglas Groothius' "Dangerous Meditations," Christianity Today 48:11 (November 2004), which argues that "no amount of chanting, visualizing, or physical contortions will melt away the sin that separates us from the Lord - however "peaceful" these practices may feel." This account stresses both the view of human beings as ontologically "Fallen" and the traditional Christian distrust of all non-intellectual forms of rationality.
  14. ↑ Livia Kohn and Yoshinobu Sakade, Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1989).
  15. ↑ Kedar Nath Dwivedi, "Review:Freedom from Self, Sufism, Meditation and Psychotherapy." Group Analysis 22 (4) (December 1989): 434-436.
  16. ↑ S.A. Nigosian, Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 8, 15.
  17. ↑ Nigosian, 111.
  18. ↑ Gerhard Böwering, "The Concept of Time in Islam," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 141(1) (March 1997): 55-66.
  19. ↑ Jain Vishwa Bharati, Preksha Meditation Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Rami Shapiro, Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation Judaism, Meditation and Yoga. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  21. ↑ Ozer Bergman, Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation (Breslov Research Institute, 2006, ISBN 978-11928822080).
  22. ↑ Guru Granth Sahib (English translation) Khalis Foundation. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  23. ↑ L. Shauna, E. R. Shapiro, Gary Schwartz, Craig Santerre, "Meditation and Positive Psychology" in Handbook of Positive Psychology, edited by C.R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 632-645.
  24. ↑ Alberto Perez-De-Albeniz and Jeremy Holmes, Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy International Journal of Psychotherapy 5(1) (Mar 2000): 49-59. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  25. ↑ S. Venkatesh, T.R. Raju, Y. Shivani, G. Tompkins, B.L. Meti, "A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states" Indian J Physiol Pharmacol (Apr 1997) 41(2): 149–153.
  26. ↑ C.K. Peng, et al., "Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques" Int J Cardiol. 70(2) (Jul 31, 1999): 101–107.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 S.W. Lazar, et al., "Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" NeuroReport 11(7) (May 15, 2000): 1581–1585
  28. ↑ James H. Austin, Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).
  29. ↑ Mark Kaufman, Meditation Gives Brain a Charge, Study Finds The Washington Post Company, January 3, 2005. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  30. ↑ Y. Yang et al., "Effect of combined Taiji and Qigong training on balance mechanisms: a randomized controlled trial of older adults," Medical Science Monitor 13(8) (Aug 2007):CR339-348.
  31. ↑ J.P. Manikonda et al., "Contemplative meditation reduces ambulatory blood pressure and stress-induced hypertension: a randomized pilot trial," Journal of Human Hypertension (Sep 6, 2007).
  32. ↑ M.S. Chaya, A.V. Kurpad, H.R. Nagendra, and R. Nagarathna, "The effect of long term combined yoga practice on the basal metabolic rate of healthy adults," BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 (Aug 31, 2006):28.
  33. ↑ M. Hill, R. Weber, and S. Werner, "The heart-mind connection," Behavioral Healthcare 26(9) (Sep 2006):30-32.
  34. ↑ D. Cysarz and A. Büssing, "Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen meditation," European Journal of Applied Physiology 95(1) (Sep 2005):88-95.
  35. ↑ H. Benson and R.K. Wallace, "The Physiology of Meditation" Scientific American 226(2) (1972): 84-90.
  36. ↑ N. Yardi, "Yoga for control of epilepsy," Seizure 10(1) (Jan 2001):7-12.
  37. ↑ N.E. Morone and C.M. Greco, "Mind-body interventions for chronic pain in older adults: a structured review," Pain Medicine 8(4) (May-Jun 2007):359-375.
  38. ↑ L.E. Carlson, Z. Ursuliak, E. Goodey, M. Angen, and M. Speca, "The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up." Support Care Cancer 9(2) (Mar 2001):112-123.
  39. ↑ Jon Kabat-Zinn, L. Lipworth, and R. Burney, "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8(2) (1985): 163-190.
  40. ↑ Richard J. Davidson et al., "Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation." Psychosomatic Medicine 65(4) (Jul-Aug 2003): 564-570.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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  • Bergman, Ozer. Where Earth and Heaven Kiss: A Guide to Rebbe Nachman's Path of Meditation. Breslov Research Institute, 2006. ISBN 978-1928822080.
  • Burley, Mikel. Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. ISBN 8120817052.
  • Dumoulin, Heinrich, James W. Heisig, and Paul F. Knitter. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). World Wisdom, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
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  • MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan. Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation. Islamic Supreme Council of America, 2005. (in English)
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