Celibacy

For a more general discussion see sexual abstinence; for the religious view on the purpose and value of priestly celibacy see the article on chastity

Celibacy refers to an individual having decided to refrain from sexual activity (sexual abstinence), or to remain unmarried. Common reasons to deliberately abstain from the physical expression of sexual desire include religious or philosophical reasons (such as chastity), material reasons (to prevent undesired pregnancy or Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) transmission), or to conform to legal injunctions.

Some religions require celibacy of their priests, regarding sexual purity as essential in order to perform the rites and rituals that connect the people to heaven. Others regard the priestly function more in terms of ministering to the people, and thus a healthy marriage is considered as good if not better than celibacy. In monastic orders a vow of sexual abstinence is often viewed as essential in order to align ones mind and spirit to the path of spiritual growth, renouncing cares of the physical world, which include sexual relationships. Philosophers too have taken this path.

For many, however, celibacy is seen as unnatural, even unhealthy. While debate persists on this issue, religious teachings maintain that fidelity within marriage is vital to the sacrament and to the health of the marriage and ensuing family. Beliefs in the sacredness of marriage and human sexuality provide reasons for abstinence prior to marriage, fidelity to one's spouse after marriage, and lifelong abstinence if a person does not marry.

Definition

Celibacy or sexual abstinence is defined as abstention from sexual intercourse, or the state of being unmarried. Celibacy may be used as a synonym for "abstinence" or "chastity." A vow of celibacy may be a promise not to enter into marriage or to engage in sexual intercourse.

The word is derived from the Latin celibatus meaning "state of being unmarried," which itself came from the Proto-Indo-European roots of kaiwelo-libs meaning "alone living."

History

Much of the history of celibacy is tied to religious orders. In primitive societies shamanism was often practiced. Along with their intense experiences and extraordinary calling, shamans were committed to strict purity, which often included celibacy.

Eunuchs (castrated males) have had different roles in societies throughout history. The earliest record of intentional castration comes from the twenty-first century B.C.E. in Sumeria. Eunuchs have been called on to be courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In the Byzantine empire, eunuchs were men who had chosen to be celibate or not procreate rather than those who were physically castrated.

Ancient Roman society exalted the Vestal Virgins, who were the high priestesses of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. The Vestal Virgins were women who chose to become priests around puberty and dedicated themselves to thirty years of chastity.

The ancient Greek civilization developed two forms of celibacy for men: one was the sacerdotal celibacy of the priest; the other, the ascetic celibacy of the philosopher. Priests of various cults, such as the followers of Isis, were required to abstain from sexual activity in order to be qualified to practice the sacred rituals. The philosopher Pythagoras and his followers were devoted to study, and practiced celibacy and vegetarianism. Epictetus and others regarded celibacy as important to avoid distractions and allow the mind to focus clearly on the complex task of scholarly inquiry.

For the general populace in most societies lifelong celibacy was not expected. However, for many societies religious teachings informed social and legal standards. Since adultery has generally been regarded as a sin, and marriage was considered the legitimizer of sexual relations, maintaining virginity prior to marriage, which in early times often took place soon after puberty, was the norm. Yet, prostitution was a constant, whether openly practiced or conducted discretely, such as by the rich and those who traveled far from home (soldiers, sailors, merchants, and so forth).

The early Victorian period saw a tightening of sexual mores, followed by a strict puritanism from the late Victorian era to the mid 1900s. The First World War began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of abstinence before marriage was retained.

With the conclusion of the Second World War, the societal importance of abstinence declined swiftly. The advent of the first oral contraceptive pill and widely available antibiotics suppressed many consequences of promiscuous behavior, while social mores were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies. Perhaps even the reverse: it became expected, or recommended, that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider re-evaluation of moral values.

Anthropologists and social historians have noted that many cultures such as Victorian Britain or the rural areas in the modern United States, which formally place a high value on abstinence until marriage, actually have a large amount of premarital sexual activity. This activity, however, may take a form in which there is no actual sexual intercourse, thus preserving a state known as "technical virginity."

In some cultures, those who infringe the rules regarding chastity may be ostracized. Social re-acceptance can sometimes be regained by marriage between the two. In the West, even as late as the mid-twentieth century, there was a stigma attached to being a "one-parent family" and an illegitimate child could be legitimized by the marriage of the parents. This latter situation remains the case in many Western countries, though the lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has rendered this irrelevant to social acceptance.

Types

Reasons for celibacy are varied:

• Religious beliefs (religious celibacy)
• To avoid the risk of venereal disease and to prevent its spread
• To focus energies on other matters, like social issues
• To avoid contributing to overpopulation
• To cultivate a relationship according to an ideal of chastity
• An inability to obtain a willing sexual partner ("involuntary celibacy")
• A distaste or lack of appetite for sex (asexuality)
• To avoid persecution (such as prosecution for homosexual relations under sodomy laws)

Religious celibacy

Clerical or sacerdotal celibacy is a requirement for priests of some religions. In this understanding, the priest is in the position of mediator between God (or Heaven) and the people, and purity is required to fulfill this function. Since sexual power, or love of a woman, rivals the power of spirit and love for God, sexual abstinence is required for the office of priest.

In many religions some groups of people are expected to practice celibacy — to abstain from sex completely, and remain unmarried. These groups include monks, nuns, and priests in various sects of Christianity. Monastic orders of Hindu and Buddhist traditions also require celibacy. In these cases, however, the purpose is not to be a conduit to heaven, but rather for individual spiritual growth; sexual power is considered a distraction and obstruction to attainment of the highest levels of spiritual maturity.

Celibacy is also proclaimed by some religions as an ideal for laypeople, for the unmarried, or for homosexuals. Chastity is a virtue expected of the faithful of many religions, including Christians and Muslims. This usually includes abstinence from sex for the unmarried, and faithfulness to a marriage partner. From the Roman Catholic perspective everyone is called to chastity be they married, single, or in a religious order. Chastity is a function of one's respect for the dignity of another especially in a sexual context. Sex with one's spouse is not against chastity so long as both remain open to having children — contraceptives violate true chastity.

Buddhism

In Buddhism, according to the celibate, the main goal of living is to eliminate (or at least decrease) desire. Desire is seen as one of the main causes of suffering, both in the world and in the mind or heart. A commonly-used metaphor sees desire, especially sexual desire, to be like drinking salty water: the more one consumes, the greater the desire - and the worse one's (mental) state of health becomes.

In Buddhism, attachment to impermanent things is regarded as one of the major causes of suffering. Sex is arguably the strongest attachment to impermanent things that human beings have. Therefore in Buddhism celibacy has been regarded as essential to obtaining Nirvana (liberation from suffering):

If a man should go naked... feed on potherbs, wild rice, or Nivara

seeds...wear coarse hempen cloth, or carry out any other [ascetic] prac- tices... yet the state of blissful attainment in conduct, in heart, in intellect, have not been practiced by him, realized by him, then he is far from shramanaship, far from brahminship. But from the time, O Kassapa, when a monk has cultivated the heart of love that knows no anger, that knows no ill will—from the time when, by the destruction of the deadly intoxications, he dwells in that emancipation of heart, that emancipation of mind, that is free from those intoxications, and that he, while yet in this visible world, has come to realize and know—from that time, O Kassapa, is it that the monk is called a shramana, is called a brahmin! (

Digha Nikaya i.167, Kassapasihanada Sutta)

Christianity

The Catholic Church requires that its priests be celibate. This is so that they can devote themselves completely to the care of Christ's Flock (Matthew 19:12). The Church has not required celibacy of all ecclesiastics at all times in history (it was not required of the majority of ecclesiastics in the early Church, and in modern times certain converts are permitted to be married when receiving Holy Orders). The Catholic Church's practice of clerical celibacy among priests and bishops of the Latin Rite and bishops of all rites, Eastern and Western, was confirmed by the Second Vatican Council and reaffirmed by Pope Paul VI in his encyclical letter, Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, June 24, 1967.

Clerical celibacy was an important point of disagreement during the Reformation. Reformers argued that requiring a vow of celibacy from a priest was contrary to biblical teaching (1 Tim 4:1-5, Heb 13:4, 1 Cor 9:5), a degradation of marriage, and a reason for the widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation (discussed by John Calvin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion IV,12,23-28).

Catholics understand celibacy to be a reflection of life in Heaven, and a source of detachment from the material world, which aids in one's relationship with God. Catholic priests are called to be espoused to the Church itself, and espoused to God, without overwhelming commitments interfering with the relationship. The Apostle Paul explained this argument for celibacy:

But I would have you to be without solicitude. He that is without a wife is solicitous for the things that belong to the Lord, how he may please God. But he that is with a wife, is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may please his wife: and he is divided. And the unmarried woman and the virgin thinketh on the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and spirit. But she that is married thinketh on the things of this world how she may please her husband. And this I speak for your profit, not to cast a snare upon you, but for that which is decent and which may give you power to attend upon the Lord without impediment. (I Corinthians 7:7-8;32-35)

Yet, Catholics understand celibacy to be the calling of some, but not all.

Hinduism

In Hindu culture, celibacy is observed when the young child leads a student life. A Hindu renunciate may take the vow of celibacy at any age when they have understood that living for material/sensual pleasures will never bring the perfect happiness that their soul desires. Thus their life becomes centered on surrender to Guru and God with the firm hope of God realization and the perfect Divine Happiness. The Hindu tradition of Brahmacharya places great emphasis on abstinence as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of spiritual realization. In males, the semen (Veerja) is considered sacred and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life energy (Ojas) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and spiritual capacities.

In Hinduism, there is a difference between monks and priests. Historically, monks take vows of poverty and celibacy and are exempt from most public ceremonies and focus instead on prayer and meditation, focusing on the contemplative side of the Hindu tradition. Priests on the other hand do not have to be celibate and are responsible for the public ceremonies in the Hindu faith. However, the public roles between monks and priests have started to change and now some monks function within the social structure in needy areas of society.

Islam

Islam forbids intercourse outside of marriage, however maintaining celibacy as an act of piety is strongly discouraged, and marriage for all who are able is strongly encouraged. Similar to Judaism, abstinence is practiced during the time of a woman's menstruation. Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced during the dawn to dusk fasts of Ramadan or other fasting days.

Judaism

Judaism forbids intercourse outside marriage (which is termed zenuth or promiscuity), but has no ideal of abstinence for particular clerical groups. In fact, it is practically expected of men in religious functions (such as rabbis) to be married. Abstinence is practiced while a woman is menstruating and the week after cessation of flow (the law of niddah), as well as a set period after childbirth.

Premarital chastity

Many religious and ethical systems proscribe sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, including most denominational variations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as have, historically, many legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence is prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. "Chastity" is sometimes used synonymously with sexual abstinence, but the mechanisms of chastity are typically different for persons who assume different societal roles. For example, in most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, sexual intercourse within monogamous marriage is not considered to be opposed to chastity.

Among Catholics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS church also known as Mormons), homosexuals are expected to remain celibate. Those who identify as homosexual may not be able to become Catholic priests, however, even if they maintain celibacy.

Ascetism

Lifelong (or at least long-term) celibacy, often associated with religious ascetism, is distinguished from abstinence before marriage. Abstinence is often viewed as an admirable act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their "base urges." At other times abstinence has been seen as a great social ill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that celibacy allows one to achieve a required self-control or a self-consciousness.

In some religions, including some branches of Christianity, celibacy is required for those joining monastic orders. The Shakers impose celibacy as a requirement for all members. However, they may adopt a child if they wish, which is one way to maintain the population. Another way they could expand their community's population is to allow converts to join the Shaker society.

While there have been cultures which achieved total sexual abstinence, such as castration cults, most did not survive for a substantial period of time due to their lack of reproduction.

Medical aspects of abstinence

Throughout history, and especially prior to the twentieth century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of vitality. In modern times the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorus. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body. Before the "sexual revolution" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of nutrients through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality, and intellectual prowess. This thought was also applied to masturbation.

However, medical studies have not supported this view. In fact, it has been suggested that frequent ejaculation may be beneficial, such as reducing the risk of prostate cancer. It has also been suggested that excessive repression of the sexual instinct leads to an increase in the overall level of aggression.

Modern abstinence movements

With the increasing problems of unwanted teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, socially conscious educators began to promote abstinence for teenagers and recommending virginity prior to marriage. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive an unwanted child. By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one may also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs).

However, many STDs can also be transmitted non-sexually, and it has been noted that many do not consider oral sex or similar acts to violate abstinence. Many of these acts can transmit STDs. One study found that 55 percent of college students claiming abstinence had indeed performed oral sex.

Organizations such as SIECUS have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt." Author Judith Levine has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: "Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, chastity sweeter."

Advocates for sexual abstinence claim other, positive benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy and the resulting ability to focus on education and preparing for their future. It has also been noted that, contrary to the promiscuity norm following the "sexual revolution," preparation for a lifetime of happiness with a single, faithful marriage partner is well served by practicing self-restraint in situations of sexual temptation.

The effectiveness of abstinence programs and movements remains debated, but in spite of these criticisms, abstinence has become the de facto focus of sex education in the United States. Opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use and easy availability of condoms. Most nations of Western Europe use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the US, abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.

Notable celibates

Some notable self-proclaimed celibates in history include:

• Swami Vivekananda, the chief disciple of Ramakrishna and one of the most famous and influential spiritual leaders of the philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga
• Stevie Smith, poet and novelist, was celibate all her adult life, after sampling and rejecting romance and sex in her youth. She was fiercely critical of those who thought that her life must be emotionally impoverished by not having sexual relationships, emphasizing the depth of her friendships, especially her bond with the aunt with whom she lived.
• Nikola Tesla, who developed the system of alternating electrical current that became the worldwide standard, was a self-proclaimed celibate.
• Sigmund Freud undertook a strict vow of celibacy from about the age of forty-one, which he maintained up to his death.
• Sir Cliff Richard, British rock and roll star, converted to Christianity and became a vocal proponent of the abstinent lifestyle which he adopted.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Devine, Tony, Joon Ho Seuk, and Andrew Wilson. 2000. Cultivating Heart and Character: Educating for Life's Most Essential Goals. Chapel Hill, NC: Character Development Publishing. ISBN 1-892056-15-1
• Mitchell, F.S. 2006. Celebrating Celibacy. Xulon Press. ISBN 1597818720
• Mullaney, Jamie. 2005. Everyone Is NOT Doing It: Abstinence and Personal Identity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226547574
• Napier, Kristine. 1996. The Power of Abstinence. Avon Books. ISBN 0380783711
• Stanosz, Paul. 2006. The Struggle for Celibacy: The Culture of Catholic Seminary Life. Herder & Herder. ISBN 0824523814
• Stickler, Alphonso. 1995. The Case for Clerical Celibacy: Its Historical Development and Theological Foundations. Ignatius Press. ISBN 0898705339

External links

• Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• No New Money for Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Programs advocacy website Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• Pure Love Club advocacy group that encourages sexual abstinence and chastity Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• Real Love syndicated columnist and abstinence advocate Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• Silver Ring Thing abstinence pledge program Retrieved August 9, 2007.

• "Teen sex abstinence study sparks controversy" Shaoni Bhattacharya, NewScientist.com news service, 02 February 2005 Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• The True Love Thing to Do abstinence curriculum for teenagers Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• True Love Waits Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• "Uganda's HIV rate drops, but not from abstinence Sabin Russell, San Francisco Chronicle, 24 February 2005 Retrieved August 9, 2007.
• WAIT "Washington AIDS International Teens" Retrieved August 9, 2007.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Celibacy  ^history
• Sexual_abstinence  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Celibacy"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.