Manchukuo
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Manchukuo (1932–1945, 満州国, lit. "State of Manchuria") was a former puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia created by former Qing Dynasty officials with help from Imperial Japan in 1932. The puppet state was founded and administered by Imperial Japan, with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, as the nominal regent and emperor.[1] Manchukuo's government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. Despite the name, Manchus were only a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest ethnic group were Han Chinese. There were also Koreans, Japanese, Mongols and smaller minorities. The Mongol regions of western Manchukuo were ruled under a slightly different system in acknowledgement of the Mongolian traditions there.
History
After Manchu tribes conquered China they replaced the Ming Dynasty with the Qing, the Manchu emperors did not fully integrate their homeland into China. This legal, and to a degree ethnic, division persisted until the Qing dynasty began to fall apart in the 1800s.
As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many outlying areas either broke free (like Kashgar) or fell under the control of Imperialist powers. In the 1800s, Imperial Russia was most interested in the northern lands of the Qing Empire. In 1858, Russia gained nominal control over a huge tract of land called Outer Manchuria thanks to the Supplementary Treaty of Beijing that ended the Second Opium War. But Russia was not satisfied, and as the Qing Dynasty continued to weaken, they made further efforts to take control over the rest of Manchuria. Inner Manchuria came under strong Russian influence in the 1890s with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok.
However, Japanese influence replaced Russia's in Inner Manchuria as a result of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5). In 1906, Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway to Port Arthur (Japanese: Ryojun). Between World War I and World War II Manchuria became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Japan moved into Outer Manchuria as a result of the chaos following the Russian Revolution of 1917. A combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced the Japanese to withdraw from the area, however, and Outer Manchuria returned to Soviet control by 1925.
| Name | |
|---|---|
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 滿洲國 |
| Simplified Chinese | 满洲国 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Mǎnzhōu Guó |
| Wade-Giles | Man-chou-kuo |
| Japanese Name | |
| Kanji (Kyūjitai) | 滿州國 or 滿洲國 |
| Kanji (Shinjitai) | 満州国 or 満洲国 |
| Hepburn Romaji | Manshū-koku |
During the warlord period in China, the warlord Zhang Zuolin established himself in Inner Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later the Japanese Kantogun found him too independent and assassinated him in 1928. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the former Emperor of China, Puyi, was invited to come with his followers and act as the nominal head of state for Manchuria; he accepted this request. On February 18, 1932 the "Great Manchu Nation" (Manchukuo, Pinyin: Manzhouguo)[2] was declared to exist and recognized by Japan. The city of Changchun, renamed Hsinking (Xinjing, 新京) or "New capital," became the capital of the new entity. Chinese in Manchuria organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required a war lasting several years to pacify the country.
The Japanese initially installed Puyi as chief executive in 1932 but two years later he was declared Emperor of Manchukuo with the era name of "Kang De" or "Tranquility and Virtue." Manchukuo thus became the "Great Manchu Empire." Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. A palace, Wei Huang Gong, was built for the emperor. All of the Manchu ministers served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions.
In this manner Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China in the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on adherence to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. Confucius' teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. The regime used numerous festivals, sport events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens[3]. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese language taught in Manchukuo schools.
Out of 80 then-existing nations, only 23 recognised the new state. The League of Nations (via the Lytton Report) declared that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign its membership in 1934. The Manchukuo case prompted the United States to articulate the so-called Stimson Doctrine, under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by force of arms. Of the major powers Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, Vichy France, Fascist Italy, Francoist Spain and Nazi Germany recognised Manchukuo diplomatically. In addition Manchukuo gained recognition from the Japanese collaborationist government of China under Wang Jingwei, as well as El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. Although the Chinese government did not recognise Manchukuo, the two countries established official ties for trade, communications and transportation.
Dates of recognition of Manchukuo by other states (up to 1941) were as follows: Japan, 16 Sept 1932; El Salvador, 3 Mar 1934; Vatican, 18 Apr 1934 (de facto); Italy, 29 Nov. 1937; Spain, 2 Dec 1937; Germany, 12 May 1938; Poland, 19 Oct 1939 (de facto); Hungary, 9 Jan 1939; Slovakia, 1 June 1940 (puppet state of Nazi Germany which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); ‘New’ China, 30 Nov. 1940 (date of pact); Rumania, 1 Dec 1940; Bulgaria, 10 May 1941; Finland, 18 July 1941; Croatia, 2 Aug 1941 (puppet state of Nazi Germany which was recognized by Manchukuo on this date); and Thailand, 5 Aug 1941.
Prior to World War II, the Japanese colonised Manchukuo and used it as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939 a border dispute between Manchukuo and Mongolia resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, when a combined Soviet-Mongolian force defeated the Japanese Kantogun.
On August 8, 1945 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from outer Manchuria. This was called Operation August Storm. During the Soviet offensive the Army of Manchukuo, theoretically a two hundred-thousand-man force, well armed and trained along Japanese lines, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Emperor Kang De had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the communist government in China, where the authorities had him imprisoned as a war criminal along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.
From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria (Inner Manchuria) served as a base area for the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang (KMT). With Soviet encouragement, the Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantogun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces.
Politics
Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state or colony of Imperial Japan[4] because of the Japanese military's strong presence and strict control of the government administration, in addition to Japan's wartime atrocities on the local population in Manchukuo. Chinese historians generally refer to the state as 'Wei Manzhouguo' ('false Manchukuo') to emphasise its alleged lack of legitimacy. Japan also expanded the industry and transportation system of Manchukuo to further develop it into a war base for military campaigns against China. In addition, some historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building an ideal Japanese state in Asia that failed due to the pressures of war.[5]
Administrative division of Manchukuo
- See List of administrative divisions of Manchukuo for a complete list of prefecture-level divisions.
During its short-lived existence, Manchukuo was divided into between five (in 1932) and 19 (in 1941) provinces, one special ward of Beiman (Japanese:北満特別区) and two Special cities which were Xinjing (Japanese : 新京特別市) and Harbin (Japanese : 哈爾浜特別市). Each province was divided into between four (Xingan-dong) and 24 (Fengtian) prefectures. Beiman lasted less than 3 years (July 1 1933 - January 1 1936) and Harbin was later incorporated into Binjiang province. Heilongjiang also existed as a province in the 1932 before being divided into Heihe, Longjiang and Sanjiang in 1934. Andong and Jinzhou provinces separated themselves from Fengtian while Binjiang and Jiandao from Kirin separated themselves in the same year.
| Year | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1932 | 1934 | 1937 | 1939 | 1941 | 1943 |
| Heilongjiang 龍江省 |
Heihe Kokuga 黒河省 |
Heihe Kokuga 黒河省 |
Heihe Kokuga 黒河省 |
Heihe Kokuga 黒河省 |
Heihe Kokuga 黒河省 |
| Sanjiang Sanko 三江省 |
Sanjiang Sanko 三江省 |
Sanjiang Sanko 三江省 |
Sanjiang Sanko 三江省 |
Sanjiang Sanko 三江省 | |
| Longjiang Ryuko 龍江省 |
Longjiang Ryuko 龍江省 |
Longjiang Ryuko 龍江省 |
Longjiang Ryuko 龍江省 |
Longjiang Ryuko 龍江省 | |
| Beian Hokuan 北安省 |
Beian Hokuan 北安省 |
Beian Hokuan 北安省 | |||
| Kirin 吉林省 |
Binjiang Hinko 濱江省 |
Binjiang Hinko 濱江省 | |||
| Binjiang Hinko 濱江省 |
Binjiang Hinko 濱江省 |
Binjiang Hinko 濱江省 | |||
| Mudanjiang Botanko 牡丹江省 |
Mudanjiang Botanko 牡丹江省 |
Mudanjiang Botanko 牡丹江省 |
東満総省 | ||
| Dongan Toan 東安省 |
Dongan Toan 東安省 |
東満総省 | |||
| Jiandao Kanto Gando 間島省 |
Jiandao Kanto Gando 間島省 |
Jiandao Kanto Gando 間島省 |
Jiandao Kanto Gando 間島省 |
東満総省 | |
| Jilin Kirin 吉林省 |
Jilin Kirin 吉林省 |
Jilin Kirin 吉林省 |
Jilin Kirin 吉林省 |
Jilin Kirin 吉林省 | |
| Fengtian 奉天省 |
Andong Anto 安東省 |
Andong Anto 安東省 |
Andong Anto 安東省 |
Andong Anto 安東省 |
Andong Anto 安東省 |
| Tonghua Tsuka 通化省 |
Tonghua Tsuka 通化省 |
Tonghua Tsuka 通化省 | |||
| Fengtian Hoten 奉天省 |
Fengtian Hoten 奉天省 |
Fengtian Hoten 奉天省 |
Fengtian Hoten 奉天省 |
Fengtian Hoten 奉天省 | |
| Xiping Shihei 四平省 |
Xiping Shihei 四平省 | ||||
| Jinzhou Kinshu 錦州省 |
Jinzhou Kinshu 錦州省 |
Jinzhou Kinshu 錦州省 |
Jinzhou Kinshu 錦州省 |
Jinzhou Kinshu 錦州省 | |
| Xingan Koan 興安省 |
Xingan 興安省 |
Xingan Koan 興安省 |
Xingan-bei Koan-Kita 興安北省 |
Xingan-bei Koan-Kita 興安北省 |
興安総省 |
| Xingan-dong Koan-higashi 興安東省 |
Xingan-dong Koan-higashi 興安東省 |
興安総省 | |||
| Xingan-nan Koan-minami 興安南省 |
Xingan-nan Koan-minami 興安南省 |
興安総省 | |||
| Xingan-xi Koan-nishi 興安西省 |
Xingan-xi Koan-nishi 興安西省 |
興安総省 | |||
| Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
Rehe Netsuka 熱河省 |
| Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Xinjing Shinkyō 新京特別市 |
Demographics
In 1908 the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000.
In early 1934 the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, 680,000 Koreans, and 98,431 other nationalities (Russians, Mongols, etc). Around 80% of the population was rural. Other statistics indicate that in Manchukuo the population rose by 18,000,000.
From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Heilongjiang, Jehol, Kirin, Liaoning (Fengtien) and Hsingan provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period evaluated the total population as 36,933,000 residents.
Around the same time the Soviet Union was promoting the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials promoted the Fugu Plan to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation efforts. The Japanese wanted to exploit the Jews' innate capability to generate wealth, or so they believed from naive readings of anti-Semitic propaganda.
Financing of the settlement was expected to come from rich Jews, but the German government preferred the Final Solution. In any case, Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union made such population transfer impossible, since the Axis powers did not control the necessary sea lanes. In the end, only a few Jews made it to Manchukuo.[citation needed]
Population of main cities
- Yingkow (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940)
- Mukden (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940)
- Hsinking or Changchung (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940)
- Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940)
- Dairen (400,000 or 555,562 in 1939)
- Antung (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940)
- Kirin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940)
- Tsitsihar (75,000 in 1940)
Japanese population
In 1931–2 there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 inhabitants of Japanese nationality. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Hsinking they made up 25% of the population. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea, this migration stopped.
When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946–7. Many Japanese orphans in China were left behind in the confusion by then Japanese government and were adopted by Chinese families. Some of them were stigmatized as Japanese during the Cultural Revolution, and in the 1980s Japan began to organise a repatriation programme for them; however, returnees often faced rejection by their biological families and poor prospects in Japan due to their insufficient command of the Japanese language.[citation needed]
Economy
Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. Its industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production surpassed Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernised during Manchukuo era.
See also:
- Central Bank of Manchou
- Manchukuo yuan
- Manshukoku Hikoki Seizo KK
- Manshukoku Koku KK
- Showa Steel Works
Slave labor and mass graves
According to a joint study of historians Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Showa period army for slave work in Manchukuo under the supervision of the Koa-in. (Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific war, 2002).
The Chinese slave laborers often suffered illness due to high-intensity toil works. Some badly ill workers were directly pushed into Mass graves in order to avoid the medical expenditure [6]and the world most serious mine disaster Benxihu Colliery happened in Manchukuo
Bacteriological weapons experiments
Bacteriological weapons were experimented on humans by the infamous unit 731 located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to vivisection, sometimes without anesthesia.
Transport
Manchukuo built an efficient and massive railway system that still functions well today.
Military
- Manchukuo Imperial Army
- Manchukuo Imperial Guards
- Manchukuo Imperial Navy Forces
- Manshukoku Hombu (Manchu Air Force)
- List of weapons of the Manchukuo Imperial forces
- List of Japanese and Manchu secret agents (Manchukuo)
Education
Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. They set up or founded many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. There were 1,600 private schools (with Japanese permits), 150 missionary schools and in Harbin 25 Russian schools.
Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, student were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production.
Stamps and postal history
Manchukuo issued its first postage stamps on July 28, 1932. A number of denominations existed, with two designs: the pagoda at Liaoyang and a portrait of Puyi. Originally the inscription read (in Chinese) "Manchu State Postal Administration"; in 1934, a new issue read "Manchu Empire Postal Administration." An orchid crest design appeared in 1935, and a design featuring the Sacred White Mountains in 1936.
1936 also saw a new regular series featuring various scenes and surmounted by the orchid crest. Between 1937 and 1945, the government issued a variety of commemoratives: for anniversaries of its own existence, to note the passing of new laws, and to honor Japan in various ways, for instance, on the 2600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire in 1940. The last issue of Manchukuo came on May 2, 1945, commemorating the 10th anniversary of an edict.
After the dissolution of the government, successor postal authorities locally handstamped many of the remaining stamp stocks with "Republic of China" in Chinese and so forth. In addition, the Port Arthur and Dairen Postal Administration overprinted many Manchukuo stamps between 1946 and 1949.
| Personal Names | Period of Reigns | era names (年號) and their corresponding range of years | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All given names in bold. | ||||
| Aixinjuelo Puyi 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2 | March 1932–August 1945 | Datong (大同 da4 tong2) 1932 Kangde (康德 kang1 de2) 1934 | ||
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See also
- Battle of Khalkhin Gol
- Battle of Lake Khasan
- Collaborationist Chinese Army
- Evacuation of Manchukuo
- Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905-1940)
- Kempeitai Political Department and Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory
- List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931-1945)
- List of Japanese supporters of the WWII period
- Marco Polo Bridge Incident
- Mukden Incident
- Nomonhan
- Operation August Storm
- Projected White Russian state in Outer Manchuria
- Transport in Manchukuo
- War crimes in Manchukuo
External links
- Manchukuo Imperial Army
- Manchu Money Museum
- Education in Mongolia and Manchukuo
- Museum of Manchukuo
- Ministry of Financial Affairs
| Imperial Japanese Army special research units |
|---|
| Unit 100 (Shenyang) | Unit 516 (Qiqihar) | Unit 543 (Hailar) | Unit 731 (Pingfang) / Unit 200 (Manchuria) / Unit 8604 or Nami Unit (Guangzhou) | Unit 773 (Songo) | Unit Ei 1644 (Nanjing) | Unit 1855 (Nanjing) | Unit 2646 or Unit 80 (Hailar) | Unit 9420 or Oka Unit (Singapore) |
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