Outdoor education

Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. Drawing upon the philosophy and theory of experiential education and environmental education, outdoor educational programs often involve residential or journey-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses, and group games.

Survival training, a discipline that instructs individuals on the methods of surviving in isolated and dangerous environment without the benefit of modern conviences, is often considered a sub-category of outdoor education.

A group of Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a ropes course, c. 1996.

History

Modern outdoor education owes its beginnings to a number of separate initiatives. Organized camping was in evidence in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, the U.K., the U.S., Australia and New Zealand. The Scouting movement, established in 1907 by Robert Baden-Powell, employs non-formal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities. The first Outward Bound centre at Aberdovey in Wales was established during the WWII. The Forest Schools of Denmark are examples of programs with similar aims and objectives.

A key outdoor education pioneer was Kurt Hahn, a German educator who founded schools such as the Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, the Gordonstoun School in Scotland, Atlantic College in Wales, the United World Colleges movement, the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme (which emphasizes community service, craftsmanship skills, physical skill, and outdoor expeditions) and the Outward Bound movement. Hahn was inspired by the potential he saw in youth, but also believed that society at large was responsible for crushing out that potential as children became adults. He designed outdoor styles of education in order to foster discipline, the ability to overcome real, physical challenges and promote teamwork. The positive results of Hahn's systems inspired, and still does, others to develop similar curriculums.

The second half of the twentieth century saw rapid growth of outdoor education in all sectors (state, voluntary and commercial) with an ever-widening range of client groups and applications. In this period Outward Bound spread to over 40 countries around the world, including the USA in the 1960s. This, in turn, spawned many offshoot programs, including Project Adventure and the National Outdoor Leadership School. In some ways, the common physical education curriculms found throughout the world were inspired by outdoor education.

Theory and Practice

Hiking at Mt. Four Girls, SiChuan, China

Outdoor education is based upon the belief that people are at their rawest level when outdoors. We remember that we are part of a greater ecosystem and are not as bound by social customs and norms. In essence we are more true to ourselves and it is easier to see people as people regardless of race, class, religion etc. Outdoor education also helps instill the basic elements of teamwork because we are forced to work together and rely on others. For many people a high ropes course or an outdoor activity may stretch their comfort zone and cause them to challenge themselves physically which in turn can lead to challenging oneself mentally.

A wide range of social science and specific outdoor education theories and models have been applied in an effort to better understand outdoor education. Amongst the key theoretical models or concepts are:

• Group development theories
• the Outward Bound Process Model
• Stress, optimal arousal, and psychological flow theories
• Psychoevolutionary theory and the Biophilia hypothesis

Outdoor education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world. The relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. An outdoor education program can, for example, emphasize one (or more) of these aims:

• to reduce recidivism
• to enhance teamwork
• to teach outdoor survival skills
• to promote spirituality
• to understand natural environments
• to develop leadership skills
• to improve problem solving skills

Survival Training

Survival skills are skills that may help one to survive dangerous situations (such as storms or earthquakes), or in dangerous places (such as the desert, the mountains, and the jungle). Useful skills include lighting a fire, finding shelter, making water safe to drink, finding and identifying food, treating injuries, and climbing, swimming, and using specific or makeshift tools. Sometimes basic survival techniques, such as how to start a campfire, are taught to children in such organizations as The Boy Scouts. Other times, for those who work in hazardous conditions, such as Forest Rangers, who may encounter such conditions, the techniques taught are more involved. Nearly all military personnel around the world, especially Special Forces, are trained in survival methods.

Each type of environment challenges a person with a different range of dangers. An environment may be dry, wet, hot, cold, high altitude, low altitude, desert, rural, urban, wilderness, subterranean, or an island. Nevertheless, there are four basic necessities of life which apply in all of these cases; shelter, water, fire, and food (also oxygen for very high altitudes).

Survival priorities

In most survival situations, four priorities must be addressed before any other needs are met:

1. Finding or making shelter is the most important survival priority because it allows a person to stay protected from the elements, and thus hopefully warm and dry.
2. Finding and maintaining an adequate water supply is often crucial. Humans can live for only about three days without water. A lack of water causes dehydration, resulting in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential.
3. The ability to use Fire is often an important survival technique because of its many uses, which in include boiling water to kill pathogens, cooking food, including wild-caught fish and game, staying warm, particularly when wet, repelling dangerous animals, provides a sense of companionship and morale boost, signaling to rescuers (bright at night, smoky by day).
4. A human can survive for weeks without food, but hunger impairs judgment and clarity of mind, and makes one weak and susceptible to disease. A basic knowledge of animal trapping, hunting, and fishing will provide meat. Equally important is a knowledge of edible plants, fungi, and lichens. One cannot always rely on the most abundant or most easily accessible type of food. To survive for long periods of time, one must maintain a balanced diet. In order to do this, one must consume a balanced variety of foods.

These priorities may shift depending on the environment, though shelter is almost always the most important consideration. For example, in a desert environment, water is typically more immediately important than fire, with the priorities (perhaps) reversed in a cold-weather survival situation.

Wood fire in a dried-up river bed

First aid

First aid (and wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries that would otherwise kill or incapacitate him/her. The survivor may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or naturally-occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

Navigation

Many survival situations can be resolved, or at least ameliorated, by finding one's way to safety. This requires some navigation skills, such as Celestial navigation, using the sun and the night sky, Reading a map (particularly a topographic map), together with a compass Using a GPS receiver, if one is available.

Other survival skills

For long-term survival some other skills are useful, Knife or Multitool - usage and sharpening (a knife or Multitool is important and useful for many aspects of bushcraft), Climbing and Mountaineering techniques, Ropework, Making rope from materials such as the inner bark of trees, other plant fibers, or animal sinews, Knowledge of knots and their applications, Making a raft or boatand Basic rifle/handgun marksmanship, both for hunting and defense.

Training

Training survival skills has two components: mental competence and physical fitness. Physical fitness includes, among other abilities, carrying loads over long distances on rough terrain. Mental competence includes the skills listed in this article, as well as the ability to overcome panic and think clearly. Theoretical knowledge of survival skills is useful only if it can be applied effectively in a real survival situation.

Several organizations offer training in survival skills, which ranges from introductory courses lasting only a day, to field courses lasting as long as a month. In addition to teaching survival techniques for conditions of limited food, water, and shelter, many such courses seek to engender appreciation and understanding of the lifestyles of pre-industrialized cultures.

There are several books that teach one how to survive in dangerous situations and schools usually tell children what to do in the event of an earthquake or fire. Some cities also have contingency plans in case of a major disaster.

Survival manual

A survival manual is a book used as reference in case of emergency, when one's survival is threatened. Typically it will cover both preparation for a trip, and guidance, such as is contained in this article, for dealing with eventualities.

There are many different types of survival manuals. The military will usually have one as part of its standard documentation. These are sometimes republished for public distribution; for example the SAS Survival Handbook and United States Army Survival Manual: FM 21-76. Other manuals may be written for more specific uses, such as wilderness or maritime survival.

Presence of mind

It is also extremely important to use laughter as an essential part of survival. As Laurence Gonzales says in his book "Deep Survival," "laugh at threats...playing and laughing go together. Playing keeps the person in contact with what is happening around him. To deal with reality you must first recognize it as such." Keeping laughter and humor in a situation where a person is fighting for their lives only makes them more calm and relaxed, helping them to have a far better chance of survival. Another important aspect of survival that Gonzales discusses is helping others. When helping someone else you have to conquer your own personal fears. By doing this “you’re a rescuer, not a victim. And seeing how your leadership and skill buoy others up gives you more focus and energy to persevere.” By helping another person it gives you confidence and power. People begin to look to you for support and instructions. This allows one to become more educated on their situation and surroundings allowing them to survive.

An aspect of survival can be knowing whether you are lost or not. This can have a lot to do with what your behaviors are at the time. Being lost includes emotional and behavioral consequences, therefore it is extremely necessary to always keep this in mind during any high-risk activities. These high-risk activities are often what causes a person to be in a position of life and death, and in a position where they will feel they need to do something in order to survive.

A question often asked when discussing survival is "What were these people thinking?" or "Why would they put themselves in this frightening and dangerous situation?" The answer has a lot to do with adrenaline, and also a lot to do with the mastery of having one's life in one's own hands. Though some people think extremely high-risk activities are done just for fun, it is found they that are also done because it makes a person feel more alive. It essentially gives them a chance to save their own lives.

Around the world

Outdoor education occurs, in one form or another, in most if not all countries of the world. However, it can be implemented very differently, depending on the cultural context. Some countries, for example, view outdoor education as synonymous with environmental education, whilst other countries treat outdoor education and environmental education as distinct. Modern forms of outdoor education are most prevalent in UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Europe and to some extent Asia and Africa. A map is available of locations of outdoor education organisations, facilities, and people [1].

UK

After the second world war many local authorities in the UK emulated the Outward Bound principles and set up their own outdoor education centres for school children. Visits to these outdoor centres were often subsidised, allowing many children from the towns and cities their first real experience of the outdoor world.

By the late 1980s most UK local education authorities had an outdoor education centre, and there was a growing private sector offering similar experiences. Government moves to offer more autonomy to schools have badly affected this provision. Under regulations for the local management of schools that took effect in England and Wales from 1992 onwards, the majority of the money spent on education in the UK now goes direct to the school, and local authorities often find it difficult to subsidise their outdoor education centres. As a result many have closed.

One of the most significant changes in outdoor education in Great Britain came as a result of the Lyme Bay kayaking tragedy in March, 1993. This tragedy accelerated governmental discussions until, in January 1995, the Activity Centres (Young Persons’ Safety) Act 1995 was passed through Parliament in January 1995 and an independent licensing authority, the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA) was formed.

Overall, the AALA appears to have succeeded in its mission, but it has also created debate regarding whether it is possible for young people to experience adventure in an 'educational way' within tight regulations. Some people view AALA regulations as tight and thus, restricting their opportunity to provide what they believe to be meaningful outdoor education.

One further area worthy of note is the Campaign for Adventure (Campaign for Adventure, 2000a)^{[citation needed]}. This campaign started in 2000 following a one day conference titled “A Question of Balance.” Since then the campaign has concentrated on lobbying political individuals and parties to support risk taking and to acknowledge and work against the increasing trends indicated by a “culture of fear.” This phrase is the title of Furedi’s (1997) book, which is heavily cited in recent UK outdoor education literature. As with most political campaigns it is difficult to assess progress but the work of those involved in the campaign can be followed on line (Campaign for Adventure, 2000a)^{[citation needed]}. Consistent with this position, a recent report from the Office of Standards in Education, which covers England and Wales, concluded that outdoor education is uniquely placed to offer structured opportunities for students to identify hazards, calculate the related risks and decide the significance of a risk in order to determine and implement the precautions necessary to eliminate and minimise risk. Students’ involvement in risk management makes them aware of potential harm and contributes towards their being able to take greater responsibility for their own and others’ safety. (Ofsted, 2004, p. 13)^{[citation needed]}

While on the surface Ofsted may appear to be consistent with the Campaign for Adventure there are some significant inconsistencies here worthy of brief explanation. It appears that Ofsted is suggesting that the very idea of risk taking is to be avoided and the role of outdoor education could be to enable students to assess risk and then ‘eliminate or minimise’ it. A contrary position is taken by the Campaign for Adventure based on adventure and risk as, at least an educational value, and perhaps even as central to life and a way of being, which is threatened by a culture of fear. The Campaign for Adventure believe that life is best approached with a spirit of adventure and that absolute safety is unachievable.

Recently there has been concern expressed about the decline in the number and quality of school trips in the UK. In 2005 the Parliamentary select committee on Education published a report on 'Education outside the classroom' [2] which called on the UK government to do more to protect and promote outdoor education. In response the government promised to issue a manifesto for outdoor education, setting out what schools ought to offer their pupils.

North America

A team of Varsity Scouts getting ready to head out on a backpacking trip.

The origin of outdoor education in the USA is difficult to pinpoint. North American culture, particularly since European colonization in the 17th century, has embraced a pioneering spirit. This contributed to the extensive development of organized camping programs during the 20th century, Outward Bound programs since the 1960s, as well as many related off-shoot programs including Project Adventure, the National Outdoor Leadership School, the ropes course industry, and many other applications including wilderness orientation programs within colleges and universities and adventure therapy. In the 1970's, the Association for Experiential Education was also formed, along with the Journal of Experiential Education which continues to have a strong focus on adventure education scholarship and practice.

India

Outdoor education is relatively new to schools in India, though it is quite well established abroad. Acceptance is slowly increasing with a few schools advocating outbound adventure based programmes among students, to enhance personal growth through experiential learning and increase awareness about various subjects like the environment, ecology, wildlife, history, archaeology, geography and adventure sports. Some organisations that currently offer such programmes for schools are OETS and Wide Aware in Mumbai.Youreka& Ozonewho offer open summer programs based out of Delhi in north and Bangalore in South.

Germany

The term ‘outdoor education’ doesn’t seem to have an exact equivalent in the German language although Kurt Hahn, one of key figures in the development of outdoor education in the twentieth century was German. In general, outdoor or adventure education is not as widespread in Germany as in other developed regions, such as North America, Australia, and the UK. However, a closely related educational approach called experiential education (In German: “Erlebnispädagogik”) is commonly applied.

Most organisations and companies offering programs and activities based on experiential education for children and youth also offer similar programs for adults and especially corporate teams which are then mostly referred to as 'outdoor trainings'.

Judging from the kind of outdoor training programs available in an internet search, the main clientele of German outdoor training providers seem to be corporate teams and organisations seeking team building and personal development. There is also a wide range of organisations offering outdoor programs based on experiential education for children, adolescents, families and school classes with or without disabilities. German schools have seemingly started to make increased use of outdoor and experiential possibilities when planning their school trips but the experiential approach is rarely implemented in the normal school system and it is by no means as common for school students to experience outdoor education trips as it is other countries.

A more detailed summary of German outdoor education and experiential educational providers and networks is available[3].

Reactions

There is much anecdotal evidence about benefits of outdoor education experiences; teachers, for example, often speak of the improvement they have in relationships with students following a trip. However, hard evidence showing that outdoor education has a demonstrable long-term effect on behaviour or educational achievement is harder to identify; this may be in part because of the difficulty involved in conducting studies which separate out the effects of outdoor education on meaningful outcomes.

A major meta-analysis of 97 empirical outcome studies indicated a moderately positive overall effect of adventure education programs on outcomes such as self-concept, leadership, and communication skills. Interestingly, this study also indicated that there appeared to be ongoing positive effects, unless most educational interventions whose effects tend to fade.

Loynes (1998)^{[citation needed]} has suggested that outdoor education is increasingly an entertainment park consumption experience.

In a controversial paper critiquing the algorithmic paradigm Loynes (2002)^{[citation needed]} has also called for an increase in “creativity, spontaneity and vitality" (p. 124). These dialogues indicate a need for those working in outdoor education to examine assumptions to ensure that their work is educational (Hovelynck & Peeters, 2003)^{[citation needed]}.

External links

• Outdoor Education Apologetic - Defends outdoor education as a vital need in public education (Brookhaven Outdoor Education Center)
• Outdoors is Great - argues for the benefits of the outdoors (The Guardian)
• Out of Bounds - examines the 'decline' in school trips in the UK (The Guardian)
• Obituary of Kenneth Oldham - about one of the pioneers of outdoor education in the UK, who also wrote the first guide to the Pennine Way (The Guardian)
• Outdoor Education: Aspects of good practice - Office of Standards in Education, 2004 (UK)
• Research into residential opportunities available for young people through schools (UK)
• What is Outdoor Learning? A brief guide to outdoor learning (Institute for Outdoor Learning, UK)
• Victorian Outdoor Education Association
• VLM Adventure Consultants
• Wendigo Lake Expeditions Inc. - Wilderness Adventure Facility
• Where There Be Dragons

• ActionQuest worldwide adventures for teenagers

• Open Directory Project - Recreation/Outdoors/Schools and Education
• Open Directory Project - Science/Environment/Education/Outdoor Programs

• Broadreach Summer Adventures
• Christian Adventure Camps
• ATS Outdoor Education School

• OutdoorEd.com: Resource for outdoor & experiential education
• Outdoor Education Research & Evaluation Center

• SurvivalBlog
• Woodsmoke - UK School of Survival & Wilderness Bushcraft
• John Lofty Wiseman Author of world famous SAS Survival Skills Handbook
• Making fire with sticks
• Wilderness Survival Handbook
• Wilderness Survival Skills
• U.S Army Field Manual 3-05.70:Survival
• U.S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76

• Survival Skills and instruction - Ex SAS Survival Instructors Information and Skills and Advice
• Western Australian Police Manual
• Survival Topics

• OutdoorEd.com: Resource for outdoor & experiential education
• Outdoor Education Research & Evaluation Center

• Association for Environmental and Outdoor Education
• Institute for Outdoor Learning

• Open Directory Project - Recreation/Outdoors/Schools and Education
• Open Directory Project - Science/Environment/Education/Outdoor Programs

• Outdoor Education Apologetic - Defends outdoor education as a vital need in public education (Brookhaven Outdoor Education Center)
• Outdoors is Great - argues for the benefits of the outdoors (The Guardian)
• Out of Bounds - examines the 'decline' in school trips in the UK (The Guardian)
• Obituary of Kenneth Oldham - about one of the pioneers of outdoor education in the UK, who also wrote the first guide to the Pennine Way (The Guardian)
• Outdoor Education: Aspects of good practice - Office of Standards in Education, 2004 (UK)
• Research into residential opportunities available for young people through schools (UK)
• What is Outdoor Learning? A brief guide to outdoor learning (Institute for Outdoor Learning, UK)
• Outdoor Education and Environmental Responsibility - ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

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