Myanmar

Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw Union of Myanmar
Coat of arms of Myanmar
Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei
Capital		Naypyidaw 19°45′N 96°12′E
Largest city		Yangon (Rangoon)
Official languages		Burmese
Government		Military junta
Independence
Area
-	Total	676,578 km² (39th) 261,227 sq mi
-	Water (%)	3.06%
Population
-	July 2005 estimate	50,519,0001 (24th)
-	1983 census	33,234,000
GDP (PPP)		2005 estimate
-	Total	$76.2 billion (66th)
-	Per capita	$1,800 (187th)
Currency		kyat (K) (mmK)
Time zone		MMT (UTC+6:30)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+6:30)
Internet TLD		.mm
Calling code		+95
Note: estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.

Myanmar - swift and strong (from the native words, myan meaning swift and ma meaning strong). Officially known as the Union of Myanmar, this nation is the largest in Southeast Asia, and has a population of just over 50 million people. It has gone from being the wealthiest Southeastern Asian nation in the early twentieth century to one of the poorest in the world in the twenty-first century. Its people are known to be kind and gentle, having maintained their dignity through much political and social upheaval in the last century.

Origin and history of the name

In 1989 the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar. It also changed the English versions of many place names in the country. It's former capital, Rangoon, is now known as Yangon. The official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change, however. The new name is a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. Because some believe that the military junta had no authority to "officially" change the English name and it was never approved by any sitting legislature in Burma, the change was politically controversial. The U.S. Government did not adopt the name, and many in the West feel the change is less inclusive of minorities, and linguistically unscholarly. Acceptance of the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow, with many people still referring to the country as Burma. Major news organizations like the BBC and western governments, including those of the United States and the United Kingdom, still officially refer to it as Burma. The Economist and The New York Times are among several Western publications to regularly use the term "Myanmar."

Geography

Myanmar is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia. Located between Bangladesh and Thailand, with India and China to the north, Myanmar covers an area of 678,500 square kilometers (261,970 square miles), of which almost half is forest or woodland. The Andaman Sea lies to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. There are over 2,000 kilometers (1,243 miles) of coastline.

In the north, the Hengduan Shan Mountains form the border with China. The fertile plains of the Irrawaddy and Thanlwin Rivers are in the central lowlands of Myanmar. Most of the country's population lives in this central lowland. The Shan Plateau lies east of Mandalay. In the south, the Irrawaddy River fans out into a wide and fertile delta. Many crops are grown in this region, which borders the Andaman Sea. The Gulf of Martaban also indents the southern coast of Myanmar. It drains into the Andaman Sea.

The country itself is divided into two classifications, Lower Myanmar and Upper Myanmar. Lower Myanmar is comprised of coastal areas with thick tropical forests. Almost half of Myanmar is covered in forests that are comprised of teak, rubber, cinchona, acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, coconut, and betel palm, while the northern highlands are comprised of oak, pine and many varieties of rhododendron. Citrus, bananas, mangoes, and guavas are just a few of the tropical fruits found in the coastal region. The interior of the country is located in what is known as Upper Myanmar.[1]

Map of Myanmar

A major topographical feature of Myanmar is the Irrawaddy River system. Because its deltaic plains are very fertile and cover about 18,000 square miles (47,000 square km), it is considered to be the most important part of the country. Hkakabo Razi, the highest peak in Southeast Asia at 19,295 feet (5,881 meters), is located in Myanmar. A barrier between India and Myanmar, the Arakan Yoma Range has peaks that range between 915 meters (3,000 feet) and 1,525 meters (5,000 feet).[2]

Tigers and leopards are commonly found in Myanmar's jungles. In Upper Myanmar's highlands, the elephant, rhinoceros, wild buffalo and wild boar can be found along with many species of deer and antelope. Smaller animals make the forests their home and include the gibbon, which is a small species of ape that lives in trees. Other small animals to be found in Myanmar include several monkey species, the flying fox, the wildcat and the tapir.[3]

The exotic parrot is the best known of Myanmar’s bird species. Other species include crows, pheasants, peafowl and paddybirds. Some of the common reptiles in Myanmar include crocodiles, pythons, cobras, geckos and turtles.[4]It is not uncommon to find geckos in homes and snakes in yards, even in large cities.

History

The Mon are considered to be the first inhabitants of Myanmar, possibly settling as early as 3,000 B.C.E. The Mon settled in central Myanmar and along the Bay of Bengal covering the eastern coast. Irrigation systems were created and contacts, both cultural and commercial, were established with India. The Mon had contact and influence upon their Mon neighbors in Siam, modern-day Thailand. The Mons traveled the Irrawaddy River to find suitable settlement locations. Following the Mons, were the Pyu, although they arrived much later in time. They started a capital in 628 C.E., near modern day Prome, but in the mid-ninth century, the arrival of the Burmans led to the absorption of the Mon and Pyu settlements. [5]

The Pagan Kingdom brought about the first unified state of Myanmar, through King Anawrahta (reigned 1044-1077). The state resembled a Hindu kingdom, with support coming from household taxes. By the thirteenth century, Myanmar was starting to decline, in part due to large amounts of money and time being spent on building pagodas. In 1287 Kublai Khan ransacked Pagan, thus starting a period of conflicts that continued for many centuries.[6]

In a series of wars (1824–1826, 1851–1852 and 1885–1886) Burma lost territory to the British and became a province of India under British rule. On April 1, 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony independent of the Indian administration. During World War II, Burma became a major front in the Southeast Asian Theater. After initial successes by the Japanese in the Burma Campaign which saw them expel the British from most of Burma, the British fought back and by July 1945 had retaken the country. Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles and formations such as the American-Kachin Rangers fought for the Allies, and the Burmese National Army under the command of U Aung San fought for the Japanese. By the end of the war, the Burmese National Army was known as the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL), still under the leadership of U Aung San.

After the war, the AFPFL talked with the British in an attempt to gain the independence of Myanmar and in April 1947 won a majority of the constitutional assembly seats. Three months later, U Aung San's political adversary, U Saw, had him, along with most of his cabinet, assassinated. Myanmar's leader, as well as the AFPFL's, during its early years of independence was U Nu, a former student leader and the foreign minister of Ba Maw.[7]

A British 1825 lithography of Shwedagon Pagoda, located in Yangon

On January 4, 1948, the nation became an independent republic, known as the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first prime minister. There was a bicameral parliament consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.

Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by General Ne Win. Ne Win ruled for nearly 26 years, bringing in harsh reforms. In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years, but the landslide victory of the NLD (National League of Democracy), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, was voided when the military refused to step down.

Burma's national hero in the twentieth century is the founder of the modern Burmese army and one of the leaders of the fight for independence, General Aung San, a student-turned activist. His daughter is the 1991 Nobel Peace Laureate and worldwide peace, freedom and democracy icon Aung San Suu Kyi of the NLD, who has been under house arrest intermittently since 1989.

Another well-known Burmese figure in the world is U Thant, who was U.N. Secretary General for two terms and highly respected in the history of the United Nations, most notably for his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Politics

The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988, and its political system today remains under the tight control of its military dictatorship, since 1992, led by Senior General Than Shwe. Senior General Than Shwe holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until October 19, 2004, when he was replaced by Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers.

United States sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective, due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of mainly Asian businesses to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.

File:Propagandamandalay.jpg

A government slogan at Mandalay Palace stating, "Tatmadaw and the people, cooperate and crush all those harming the union"

The regime's human rights record is a subject of concern for a large number of international organizations. There is no independent judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Internet access is highly restricted. The state uses software-based filtering from U.S. company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free e-mail services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.

In 1988 protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression resulted in what came to be known as the 8888 Uprising. On August 8, approximately three thousand people were shot and killed by the military. The uprising resulted in the fall of the dictator U Ne Win, The following month, September 1988, the Defense Minister, Genreal Saw Maung, declared the establishment of a State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) that promised to re-establish law and order.[8]

The 1988 uprising played a key role in causing elections to be held in 1990. Aung San Suu Kyi's opposition party, the NLD, won 83 percent of the parliamentary seats in the election. But, the military refused to acknowledge the election results. As a result of her efforts to restore democratic rule to Myanmar, she won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. However, she has been repeatedly placed under house arrest by the military junta. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure by ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on May 27, 2006.

The junta faces increasing international isolation. Burma's situation was referred to the U.N. Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, with China supporting the junta, any dramatic change in the country's political situation seems unlikely.

In November 2005, the military junta began shifting the seat of government from Yangon to the Pyinmana area of central Burma. On March 27, 2006, they officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "seat of kings."

Administrative Divisions

Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions.

Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions. Divisions are predominantly Bamar, the dominant ethnic group that is about 68 percent of the population. States, in essence, are divisions in which particular ethnic minorities exist. Within the states, there are ethnic-based movements for self-autonomy and independence. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

Major cities such as Yangon and Mandalay have larger metropolitan areas. Therefore, townships in the suburbs of such cities are designated as myo-thit (New Town). Upon reaching the government's installed development markers, the New Towns become townships.

Divisions

• Ayeyarwady Division (Irrawaddy Division)
• Bago Division (Pegu Division)
• Magway Division
• Mandalay Division
• Sagaing Division
• Tanintharyi Division (Tenasserim Division)
• Yangon Division (Rangoon Division)

States

• Chin State
• Kachin State
• Kayin State (Karen State)
• Kayah State (Karenni State)
• Mon State
• Rakhine State (Arakan State)
• Shan State

Economy

The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment

Under British colonial administration, Myanmar was the wealthiest country in Southeast Asia and was believed to be on the fast track to development. Today, it is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from the 1962 military takeover and the Burmese Way to Socialism plan, a plan to consolidate and nationalize all industries. During this period, there was economic mismanagement and stagnation. It is a resource-rich country that suffers from pervasive government controls, inefficient economic policies, and rural poverty. In 1989 the government of Myanmar began decentralizing economic control and has since liberalized certain sectors of the economy. However, the lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain under the control of the military government. The United Nations lists Myanmar as a least-developed country. Tourism is being encouraged by the government, however fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the Tatmadaw (the official name of the military). In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government due to Myanmar’s extensive oil reserves.

Some nations, such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, have imposed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore and Thailand.

The most productive sectors continue to be in extractive industries, especially oil and gas, mining, and timber. Other areas, such as manufacturing and services, are struggling with inadequate infrastructure, unpredictable import/export policies, deteriorating health and education systems, and corruption. A major banking crisis in 2003 shuttered the country's 20 private banks and disrupted the economy. As of December 2005, the largest private banks operate under tight restrictions limiting the private sector's access to formal credit.[9]

Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-Thai border and along the Irawaddy River. Railroads are rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the nineteenth century. Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities. Energy shortages are common throughout the country. Myanmar is the second-largest producer of heroin in the world. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, and metals. The lack of an educated workforce also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.

Published statistics on foreign trade are greatly understated because of the size of the black market and unofficial border trade—often estimated to be as large as the official economy. Burma's trade with Thailand, China, and India is rising. Though the Burmese government has good economic relations with its neighbors, better investment and business climates and an improved political situation are needed to promote foreign investment, exports, and tourism.[10]

Demographics

Much of Yangon's population reside in densely-populated apartment buildings

All population figures in Myanmar are at best educated guesses. The British took the last accurate census in the 1930s. The largely unorganized results of the last pre-World War II censuses were destroyed during the Japanese invasion. The CIA World Factbook gives an unsupported estimate of about 42.9 million and another branch of the U.N. reports there are about 50 million. Other reports speak of 40 to 55 million inhabitants.

Roughly three quarters of the population are rural inhabitants, with the remaining population living in urban Yangon, Mandalay and Moulmein.

Language and Ethnicity

Burmese, the language of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to Tibetan and, more distantly, to the Chinese languages. It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters adopted, with modifications, from the Mon script, which in turn originated in southern India. The language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age-oriented. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the eleventh century. The script is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism.

Because of years of British colonization, English is still spoken in Bamar-dominant areas. English instruction begins during primary school, and most textbook materials from secondary school upward are exclusively written in English. Ethnic minorities, with the exception of overseas groups, tend to speak Burmese as a second language.

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognizes over one hundred distinct ethnic groups, the actual number is much lower. The dominant ethnic group are the Bamar, who form what is guessed to be 68 percent of the population and speak Burmese. Ten percent of the population are Shan, who speak Shan dialects, related to Laotian and Thai. The Kayin (Karen) make up seven percent of the population, and speak a variety of Tibeto-Burman languages.

The Rakhine (Arakanese), who constitute four percent of the population, are ethnically related to the Bamar, but are culturally different. Overseas Chinese (mainly Hokkien and Cantonese speakers) form approximately three percent of the population, but are primarily unrecognized by the government (in terms of citizenship). Mon, who form two percent of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer. Overseas Indians (mainly Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali speakers) comprise two percent as well, and like the Chinese, do not have citizenship rights. The remainder are Kachin, Chin, and other ethnic minorities. The Anglo-Burmese, once forming around 8 percent of the population of the country in total, and forming at least a quarter of the population of Rangoon itself, have decreased in number to around only 52,000 nationwide, with an estimated 1.6 million outside of Burma's borders (see Anglo-Burmese). There are no trustworthy census numbers for the country since the 1930s. All of the estimates with regard to percentages of population are only guesswork with no scientific basis.

A young Padaung girl in Myanmar, 2004

The existing government continues to honor both colonial laws and laws passed after independence regarding citizenship, granting it only to those who have lineage in Myanmar’s former entities prior to colonization. Overseas groups, particularly the Indians and Chinese, to obtain such citizenship, have intermarried with the local populace, making the percentages more obscure. A person of two ethnic backgrounds is known as kabya. "Citizenship" is generally of dubious value because of open discrimination. Large portions of the population have for years functioned without official citizenship.

After the “Burmese Way to Socialism” was enacted in the 1960s, millions of people left the country. Anti-Chinese riots took place during the 1960s and 1970s causing a large but temporary exodus of ethnic Chinese. However, many Chinese have entered the country in recent years. Wars with various ethnic groups in the border areas forced many more people out of the country. In addition, many Indians (Muslim and non-Muslim) returned to Pakistan and India because of similar discriminatory policies.

The government is widely known for its persecution of minority groups throughout the country, particularly because of civil unrest and calls for secession and autonomy. Throughout the mid-1990s, the government negotiated treaties to end warfare. However, the government continues to detain and relocate minority groups further from Bamar-dominant areas. In addition, massive refugee camps exist along the borders of both Thailand and Bangladesh.

Education

Education in Myanmar has suffered under the military regime mainly as a result of the government's disproportionate expenditure on the military. According to the United Nations, the government spends 222 percent more on the military than on both education and health.

Children of military families and wealthy Bamars receive most of the benefits of the limited opportunities for education, and the education that is available is in Burmese or English; there is little to no formal education in the minority languages. The official literacy rate listed by the Burmese government in 1999 was 83 percent, although some organizations, including the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), estimate functional literacy is closer to 30 percent. A 1995 survey by UNICEF found the following education statistics for Myanmar:

• 30 percent of children do not start schooling
• 40 percent of school-aged children have never attended primary school
• 26 percent of parents cannot afford the cost of primary schooling for their children
• 60 percent of those who do start school are unable to finish at the primary level

After the pro-democracy 8888 Uprising in 1988, the ruling military junta forced the closure of all universities in Myanmar for several years. The government then began to open new universities in the suburbs and rural areas of Mandalay and Yangon to disperse students to several campuses in order to prevent major unrest.

The University of Rangoon was once the most prestigious of all universities in Southeast Asia. Originally formed as Rangoon College, an associate college of the University of Calcutta, it later merged with the former Judson College (also known as 'Karen College' because of the large number of ethnic Karen students) to form the University of Rangoon. With the advent of military rule and the banning of English in the 1960s, the university lost its prestige and today is part of the University of Yangon.

Religion

Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly Theravada Buddhism and is practiced by 89 percent of the population, especially the Bamar (and its subgroups, including the Rakhine), Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity is practiced by 4 percent of the population, predominantly among the hill dwelling Kachin, Chin and Kayin as a result of missionary work in their respective areas. Christianity is also prevalent among the Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indians. Most Christians are Protestants, in particular Baptists of the Myanmar Baptist Convention, founded by the American missionary Adoniram Judson in the ninteenth century. Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, Mormons, Seventh Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses are all represented as well. Four percent of the population practices Islam; these Muslims include Indians of Indo-Burmese descent, Persian, Arab and Panthay of Chinese descent, and the Rohingya Muslims of Rakhine State. The Muslim population is socially marginalized, and is widely segregated. Small segments of the population practice Hinduism or animism. Due to a lack of accurate census data these percentages are only estimates. There are no reliable figures for the percentages of the population that follow particular religions.

Buddhism has been patronized since independence by both civilian and military governments. Large sums of state funds under both military governments and the government of U Nu in the 1950s have been provided for the creation of Buddhist monuments and the general support of Buddhism. The government continually persecutes Christians and Muslims. Religious tolerance is often undermined because of long-held prejudice.

Culture

An ear-piercing ceremony in Mandalay

Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the dominant culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighboring China, India, and Thailand. This is reflected in various aspects of its language, cuisine, music, dance and theater. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism is practiced along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one of a pantheon of 37 Nats (ghost spirits).

In a traditional Burmese village, there is at least one monastery and monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. The majority of Burmese monks reside in Mandalay Division and Sagaing Division. A novitiation ceremony called Shinbyu is the most important coming of age event for a boy when he briefly enters a monastery. His sisters may have an ear-piercing ceremony (na htwin) at the same time. Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival (hpaya pwe). Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.

British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modeled after that of Great Britain, and colonial architectural influences are most evident in cities such as Yangon and Mawlamyine.

Burmese society, from historical times to the present-day, has stressed the importance of education. Literacy in Myanmar is considered important for interpreting religious texts of Theravada Buddhism.

International rankings

• GDP per capita - 187th of 232 countries
• Index of Economic Freedom - overboard of 157 countries
• Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index - 163rd of 167 countries
• Corruption Perceptions Index 2004, Transparency International - 142nd of 146 countries
• Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004 Children's index - 114th of 157 countries
• Environmental Sustainability Index - 46th of 146 countries
• Population, Population (U.S. Census Bureau) - 25th most populated country in the world
• Area/Size of Country - 40th largest out of 194
• WHO ranking of the health systems - 190th out of 190 countries
• Earthquake Prone Countries - Listed in 57 most-earthquake prone countries
• HIV Infected Population - 24th largest among 148 countries
• Labor Force - 22nd largest in the world
• Inflation Rate - Consumer Prices - third highest in the world
• Opium Production (UNODC) - second largest in the world
• Human Development Index (UNDP) - 131st out of 175
• Internet User Density (CIA) - 155th out of 217 (0.0596%)
• Rice grower (by area of land) - eighth largest in the world

External links

Government

• Official Kachin Government Website
• Official Interim Shan Government Website
• Official Karen Government Website
• National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma
• Official Myanmar Website
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Ministry of Home Affairs
• Ministry of Communications, Posts, and Telegraphs
• Ministry of Religious Affairs
• Ministry of Education
• Ministry of Information

Other

• Myanmar's location on a 3D globe (Java)
• BBC Country Profile
• CIA Factbook Myanmar Profile
• BBC Burmese News
• Burma Campaign UK
• U.S. Campaign for Burma
• RFA Burmese News
• Native Myanmar Discussion Forums
• The Chin Forum
• Myanmar Web Directory in Burmese language
• Burma Border Projects
• Kachin National Organization
• Shan News Agency Website
• Pictures from Myanmar
• Pictures from Myanmar in Polish
• Zomi Re-Unification Organization
• ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus
• Images from Myanmar
• Burma Labor Solidarity Organization

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