Difference between revisions of "Maghreb" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[Image:Maghreb.png|right|thumb|289px|the [[Arab Maghreb Union]]]]
 
[[Image:Maghreb.png|right|thumb|289px|the [[Arab Maghreb Union]]]]
  
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The Maghreb (المغرب العربي {{unicode|'''al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī'''}}; also rendered ''[[Maghrib (disambiguation)|Maghrib]]'' (or rarely ''Moghreb'') is a collection of countries in the northern portion of the African continent that lie along the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The modern definition of the Maghreb includes: [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Libya]], although former definitions of the region where not limited to these five countries. The earliest definitions of the Maghreb were geographically quite broad, as the word Maghreb simply refers to meaning "place of [[sunset]]" or "[[west]]ern" in [[Arabic]].
  
 +
==Geography==
  
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The '''Maghreb''' (المغرب العربي {{unicode|'''al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī'''}}; also rendered ''[[Maghrib (disambiguation)|Maghrib]]'' (or rarely ''Moghreb''), meaning "place of [[sunset]]" or "[[west]]ern" in [[Arabic]]. It is generally applied to all of [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]] but in older Arabic usage pertained only to the area of the three countries between the high ranges of the [[Atlas Mountains]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Historically some writers also included [[Spain]] — especially during its period of [[Muslim]] domination — in the definition. Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mts. and the [[Sahara]], the Maghreb has long been closely tied in terms of [[climate]], [[landforms]], [[population]], [[economy]], and [[history]] to the Mediterranean basin, more so than the rest of [[Africa]], although it has important historical ties to [[sub-Saharan Africa]], in terms of populations, commerce and religious influences. The region as a single political entity was united only during the first years of Arab rule (early 8th century), and again under the [[Almohads]] (1159–1229). The [[Arab Maghreb Union]] was established in 1989 to promote cooperation and integration among the Arab states of [[North Africa]]. Its members are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, [[Libya]] and recently, [[Mauritania]]. Envisioned initially by [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]] as an Arab superstate, the organization is expected eventually to function as a North African common market, although economic and political unrest, especially in Algeria, have hindered progress on the union’s joint goals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartelby.com/65/ma/Maghreb.html |title=Maghreb |accessdate=2007-07-11 |format=html |work=The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.  2001-05. }}</ref>
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The Maghreb is primarily defined through a series of physical geographic features that seperate the area from the rest of [[Africa]]. The first feature to shape the Maghreb is the [[Atlas Mountain Range]], which define the region's northern border. The Atlas Mountains provide a series of plateaus that recieve an annual rainfall of over 100mm a year. Not all the regions of the Maghreb are lucky enough to recieve the same steady rainfall as the Atlas Mountains, as the southern portions of the Maghreb fall within the dry lands of the [[Sahara]]. While the size of the desert zone varies among the countries in the Maghreb, with it consuming about half of Tunisia but over eighty percent of Algeria, the desert environment impacted growth and devlopment in the Maghreb. In particular, the broad expanse of the Sahara to the South and the trechorous Atlas mountains to the North led the Maghreb to develop a closely knit culture based on physical proximity. The geographic isolation of the Maghreb also led to formation of an independent trade system that tied together the population along economic lines.  
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==Culture==
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 +
===Population===
  
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==Population==
 
 
[[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Algiers]] at night.]]
 
[[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Algiers]] at night.]]
 
[[Image:Tunis.png|thumb|200px|left|Night view from [[Tunis]]]]
 
[[Image:Tunis.png|thumb|200px|left|Night view from [[Tunis]]]]
 
[[Image:Centre casablanca.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]]]]
 
[[Image:Centre casablanca.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]]]]
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A majority of the current population in the Maghreb consider themselves generally Arab in identity, regardless of mixed ethnic or linguistic heritage, but there are significant non-Arab or non-Arab identifying populations in the region. Most important of the non-Arab populations that found throughout the Maghreb, particularly in Morocco and Algeria, are the Berbers, who represented the majority of the pre-Islamic population, and subsequently assimilated in large numbers to Arab or mixed Arab-Berber ethnic identities. Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In particular in northern coastal towns several waves of European immigrants have influenced the population — most notably the [[morisco]]s and [[muladi]]es, that is, indigenous [[Spaniards]] who had earlier converted to the Muslim faith and were fleeing, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, from the [[Reconquista|Catholic Reconquista]]. Other European contributions include French, Italians, and others captured by the [[Privateer|corsairs]]. Among West Asians are Turks who came over with the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A large Turkish descended population exists, particularly in Tunisia and Algeria. Additionally, historically the Maghreb was home to important [[Jew]]ish communities, including unusually  the [[Berber Jews]] who predated even the introduction and conversion of the majority of [[Berbers]] to Islam in the 7th century. Later Spanish [[Sephardic Jews]] fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, established a presence, largely in the urban trading centers, and have contributed to the wider population through conversion and assimilation. Sub-Saharan African influences to the population mix were reinforced during centuries of trans-Saharan trade, bringing slaves and traders to the Maghreb from the Sahel region, while on the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb also has small black populations, sometimes called Haratine, apparently descended from black populations inhabiting the Sahara during its last wet period and which migrated north. In Algeria especially, a large European minority, the "[[pied noir]]s", immigrated under French colonial rule; the overwhelming majority of these, however, left following independence. France maintains a close relationship with the Maghreb countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files_156/north-africa_5493/france-and-maghreb_5495/an-enhanced-partnership-with-the-maghreb-20.03.07_8821.html |title=France and Maghreb - An enhanced partnership with the Maghreb (March 20, 2007) |accessdate=2007-07-11 |format= |work=French ministry of Foreign and European Affairs }}</ref>
 
  
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The Maghreb largely shares a common culinary tradition; indeed, it was jocularly defined by [[Habib Bourguiba]] as the part of the Arab world where [[couscous]] is the staple food, as opposed to Arab countries of the Eastern Arab world, where white rice is the staple food. In terms of food, similarities are found throughout the Arab world.
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Traditionally, the MAghreb has been linked to the Middle East through linguistic and cultural ties. Even today, a majority of the population of the Maghreb identifies as Arab, despite the fact that the [[Berber]] people were actually the first population group to inhabitate the region. The remaining Berbers in the area, while a minority to the Arab identifying population, represent a sizable portion of the population in Morocco and Algeria. Ethnic groups boasting smaller populations that those of the Arabs and the Berbers also exist in the Maghreb, notably enclaves of Europeans settlers, who fled the to Africa seeking fortunes or asylum from pursecution, and a substantial Turkish population in Tunisia and Algeria.  
 +
 
 +
===Religion===
  
−
==Religion==
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The Maghreb region first experienced religious unity under the rule of the Roman Empire in the [[Pax Romana]] from 27 B.C.E. and 180 C.E. With the Roman Empire dominating the region, a period of political stability was ushered in that allowed individuals to practice relgion without being threatened. Eventually, the Maghreb became a cultural and religious center where the new ideas of Christianity were discussed. By the second century the ideas of Christianity had taken root in the Maghreb and the area boasted a a rich Christian culture, including among its population the writer Tertullian (c 155 - c 202), many Christian Church martyrs, leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage , Righteous Monica and her son the philosopher Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I, and St Julia of Carthage (5th century).  
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Historic record of religion in the Maghreb region begins with its gradual inclusion in the Classical World and coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the second century common era, the area had started to become a center of Latin-speaking Christianity as gradually, both Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. The region produced figures such as Christian Church writer Tertullian (c 155 - c 202), Christian Church martyrs or leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage (+ 258), Righteous Monica, her son the philosopher Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1), and St Julia of Carthage (5th century).  
 
−
 
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The domination of Christianity was ended with the first Arab invasion, bringing Islam in 647, with Carthage falling in 698 and the remainder of the region following in the decades after. Gradual Islamization proceeded subsequently, although letters from Christians in the region to Rome up to the ninth century indicate that Christianity was still a living faith at that time. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active with relations continuing with Rome with record towards the end of the century, under Pope Benedict VII (974-983) of a priest being sent to Rome to be consecrated Archbishop of Carthage. However, record of Christianity in the region faded through the tenth century.{{fact|date=July 2007}}
 
  
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==Islam==
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The first challenge to religious homogeny in the region came in 429 C.E. when the Vandals led a series of attacks along the African Mediterranean coast. Under the leadership of King Gaeseric the Vandals waged a highly sucessful campaign, which culminated in the Vandals achieving control over much of the Maghreb by 442. The Catholic Church played a major role in opposing the Vandal rule, a position which turned the military invasion into a conflict of relgigious ideologies, with Catholisism pitted the Aryan beliefs of the Vandals. The Catholics suceeded in removing the Vandals from power by 533 C.E.
 +
 
 +
In 647 C.E. the Maghreb again faced religious turmoil, when and Arab invasion forcibily introduced Islam to the region. While Islam quickly gained converts, Christianity continued to be actively and widely practiced in the area. In fact, the Christian population was large enough in the ninth century to cause Pope Benedict VII (974-983) to consecrate a new Archbishop of Carthage. Beginning with the tenth century, however, records of actively practiced Christianity are very sparse. {{fact|date=July 2007}} Islam had succeeded Christianity as the religion of the majority.
 +
 
 +
While Islam has remained the predominant relgion since the first Arab invasion in 647 C.E., small communities of minority relgions have managed to coexist peacefully in the Maghreb. A notable minority population is Jewish community, many of whose members fled to the Maghreb in the tenth century from Baghdad, where social and political conditions had rendered it unsafe for them to practice their faith. From this origin exodus to Mahreb, a unique Jewish identity called the Maghribis emerged, where Jewish men involved in trade passed this identification on to their sons.<ref>{{cite paper
 +
  | author = [[Avner Greif]]
 +
  | title = Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition
 +
  | version =  
 +
  | publisher = [[American Economic Association]] in its journal [[American Economic Review]]
 +
  | date = June 1993
 +
  | url = http://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v83y1993i3p525-48.html
 +
  | format =
 +
  | accessdate = 2007-07-11 }}</ref>
  
−
From the 7th century onward, the region has been almost entirely [[Muslim]] in religion, with a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most follow the [[Sunni]] [[Maliki]] school, although small [[Ibadi]] communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating [[marabout]]s and saint's tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by so called Berbers, still commemorated by the proliferation of "[[Sidi]]"s on any map of the region, though this tradition has substantially decreased over the twentieth century.  A network of [[zaouia]]s traditionally helped proliferate basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.
 
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
  
 +
===The Pre-Colonial Period===
 
From the end of the [[Ice Age]], when the [[Sahara]] dried up, contact between the Maghreb and [[sub-Saharan Africa]] was apparently extremely limited. Arab expansion and the spread of [[Islam]] pushed the development of [[trans-Saharan trade]], which while restricted due to the cost and dangers, was important and highly profitable, trading such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and [[Islamic slave trade|slaves]] available from the Sahel regions.
 
From the end of the [[Ice Age]], when the [[Sahara]] dried up, contact between the Maghreb and [[sub-Saharan Africa]] was apparently extremely limited. Arab expansion and the spread of [[Islam]] pushed the development of [[trans-Saharan trade]], which while restricted due to the cost and dangers, was important and highly profitable, trading such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and [[Islamic slave trade|slaves]] available from the Sahel regions.
  
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The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early [[Umayyad]] times, but their control over it was quite weak, and various Islamic "heresies" such as the Ibadis and the [[Shia]], adopted by some Berbers, quickly threw off [[Caliph]]al control in the name of their interpretations of Islam.  The Arabic language became widespread only later, as a result of the invasion of the [[Banu Hilal]] (unleashed, ironically, by the Berber [[Fatimid]]s in punishment for their [[Zirid]] clients' defection) in the 1100s.  Throughout this period, the Maghreb fluctuated between occasional unity (as under the [[Almohad]]s, and briefly under the [[Hafsid]]s) and more commonly division into three states roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and [[Tunisia]].
 
The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early [[Umayyad]] times, but their control over it was quite weak, and various Islamic "heresies" such as the Ibadis and the [[Shia]], adopted by some Berbers, quickly threw off [[Caliph]]al control in the name of their interpretations of Islam.  The Arabic language became widespread only later, as a result of the invasion of the [[Banu Hilal]] (unleashed, ironically, by the Berber [[Fatimid]]s in punishment for their [[Zirid]] clients' defection) in the 1100s.  Throughout this period, the Maghreb fluctuated between occasional unity (as under the [[Almohad]]s, and briefly under the [[Hafsid]]s) and more commonly division into three states roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and [[Tunisia]].
  
−
After the Middle Ages, the area east of Morocco was loosely under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. After the 19th century, it was colonized by [[France]], [[Spain]] and later [[Italy]].
+
After the Middle Ages, the area east of Morocco was loosely under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]].  
 +
 
 +
===The Colonial Period===
 +
After the 19th century, it was colonized by [[France]], [[Spain]] and later [[Italy]].
 +
 
 +
===The Post-Colonial Period===
  
 
Today over two and a half million Maghrebins live in France, especially from Algeria, as well as many more French of Maghrebin origin. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
 
Today over two and a half million Maghrebins live in France, especially from Algeria, as well as many more French of Maghrebin origin. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
−
 
−
== Maghrebi traders in Jewish history ==
 
−
In the tenth century, as the social and political environment in [[Baghdad]] became increasingly hostile to Jews, many Jewish traders there left for the Maghrib, [[Tunisia]] in particular. Over the following two (three?) centuries, a distinctive social group of traders throughout the Mediterranean World became known as the Maghribis, passing on this identification from father to son.<ref>{{cite paper
 
−
  | author = [[Avner Greif]]
 
−
  | title = Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition
 
−
  | version =
 
−
  | publisher = [[American Economic Association]] in its journal [[American Economic Review]]
 
−
  | date = June 1993
 
−
  | url = http://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v83y1993i3p525-48.html
 
−
  | format =
 
−
  | accessdate = 2007-07-11 }}</ref>
 
  
 
==Modern territories of the Maghreb==
 
==Modern territories of the Maghreb==
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* Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. ''The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914''. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886
 
* Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. ''The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914''. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886
 
* Mostyn, Trevor. ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905
 
* Mostyn, Trevor. ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905
 +
* [http://maghrebcenter.org/index.shtml, The Maghreb Center] Retrieved August 19, 2007.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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* [http://maghrebi-studies.nitle.org/ literature, cinema and music of the Maghreb]
 
* [http://maghrebi-studies.nitle.org/ literature, cinema and music of the Maghreb]
 
* [http://www.magharebia.com News and Views of the Maghreb]
 
* [http://www.magharebia.com News and Views of the Maghreb]
 +
  
 
{{Regions of the world}}
 
{{Regions of the world}}

Revision as of 22:08, 19 August 2007

the Arab Maghreb Union

The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī; also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) is a collection of countries in the northern portion of the African continent that lie along the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The modern definition of the Maghreb includes: Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, although former definitions of the region where not limited to these five countries. The earliest definitions of the Maghreb were geographically quite broad, as the word Maghreb simply refers to meaning "place of sunset" or "western" in Arabic.

Geography

The Maghreb is primarily defined through a series of physical geographic features that seperate the area from the rest of Africa. The first feature to shape the Maghreb is the Atlas Mountain Range, which define the region's northern border. The Atlas Mountains provide a series of plateaus that recieve an annual rainfall of over 100mm a year. Not all the regions of the Maghreb are lucky enough to recieve the same steady rainfall as the Atlas Mountains, as the southern portions of the Maghreb fall within the dry lands of the Sahara. While the size of the desert zone varies among the countries in the Maghreb, with it consuming about half of Tunisia but over eighty percent of Algeria, the desert environment impacted growth and devlopment in the Maghreb. In particular, the broad expanse of the Sahara to the South and the trechorous Atlas mountains to the North led the Maghreb to develop a closely knit culture based on physical proximity. The geographic isolation of the Maghreb also led to formation of an independent trade system that tied together the population along economic lines.

Culture

Population

Algiers at night.
Night view from Tunis
File:Centre casablanca.jpg
Casablanca, Morocco

Traditionally, the MAghreb has been linked to the Middle East through linguistic and cultural ties. Even today, a majority of the population of the Maghreb identifies as Arab, despite the fact that the Berber people were actually the first population group to inhabitate the region. The remaining Berbers in the area, while a minority to the Arab identifying population, represent a sizable portion of the population in Morocco and Algeria. Ethnic groups boasting smaller populations that those of the Arabs and the Berbers also exist in the Maghreb, notably enclaves of Europeans settlers, who fled the to Africa seeking fortunes or asylum from pursecution, and a substantial Turkish population in Tunisia and Algeria.

Religion

The Maghreb region first experienced religious unity under the rule of the Roman Empire in the Pax Romana from 27 B.C.E. and 180 C.E. With the Roman Empire dominating the region, a period of political stability was ushered in that allowed individuals to practice relgion without being threatened. Eventually, the Maghreb became a cultural and religious center where the new ideas of Christianity were discussed. By the second century the ideas of Christianity had taken root in the Maghreb and the area boasted a a rich Christian culture, including among its population the writer Tertullian (c 155 - c 202), many Christian Church martyrs, leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage , Righteous Monica and her son the philosopher Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I, and St Julia of Carthage (5th century).

The first challenge to religious homogeny in the region came in 429 C.E. when the Vandals led a series of attacks along the African Mediterranean coast. Under the leadership of King Gaeseric the Vandals waged a highly sucessful campaign, which culminated in the Vandals achieving control over much of the Maghreb by 442. The Catholic Church played a major role in opposing the Vandal rule, a position which turned the military invasion into a conflict of relgigious ideologies, with Catholisism pitted the Aryan beliefs of the Vandals. The Catholics suceeded in removing the Vandals from power by 533 C.E.

In 647 C.E. the Maghreb again faced religious turmoil, when and Arab invasion forcibily introduced Islam to the region. While Islam quickly gained converts, Christianity continued to be actively and widely practiced in the area. In fact, the Christian population was large enough in the ninth century to cause Pope Benedict VII (974-983) to consecrate a new Archbishop of Carthage. Beginning with the tenth century, however, records of actively practiced Christianity are very sparse. [citation needed] Islam had succeeded Christianity as the religion of the majority.

While Islam has remained the predominant relgion since the first Arab invasion in 647 C.E., small communities of minority relgions have managed to coexist peacefully in the Maghreb. A notable minority population is Jewish community, many of whose members fled to the Maghreb in the tenth century from Baghdad, where social and political conditions had rendered it unsafe for them to practice their faith. From this origin exodus to Mahreb, a unique Jewish identity called the Maghribis emerged, where Jewish men involved in trade passed this identification on to their sons.[1]


History

The Pre-Colonial Period

From the end of the Ice Age, when the Sahara dried up, contact between the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa was apparently extremely limited. Arab expansion and the spread of Islam pushed the development of trans-Saharan trade, which while restricted due to the cost and dangers, was important and highly profitable, trading such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and slaves available from the Sahel regions.

Paleo-anthropological evidence suggests that originally most of the Maghreb was inhabited by "Caucasoid" Cro-Magnoids (Iberomaurusians) in the north. Later, about 8000 B.C.E., there came from the east "Caucasoid" speakers of northern Afro-Asiatic languages such as Berber at least since the Capsian culture.

Many ports along the Maghreb coast were occupied by Phoenicians, particularly Carthaginians; with the defeat of Carthage, many of these ports naturally passed to Rome, and ultimately it took control of the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains, apart from some of the most mountainous regions like the Moroccan Rif.

The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early Umayyad times, but their control over it was quite weak, and various Islamic "heresies" such as the Ibadis and the Shia, adopted by some Berbers, quickly threw off Caliphal control in the name of their interpretations of Islam. The Arabic language became widespread only later, as a result of the invasion of the Banu Hilal (unleashed, ironically, by the Berber Fatimids in punishment for their Zirid clients' defection) in the 1100s. Throughout this period, the Maghreb fluctuated between occasional unity (as under the Almohads, and briefly under the Hafsids) and more commonly division into three states roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and Tunisia.

After the Middle Ages, the area east of Morocco was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

The Colonial Period

After the 19th century, it was colonized by France, Spain and later Italy.

The Post-Colonial Period

Today over two and a half million Maghrebins live in France, especially from Algeria, as well as many more French of Maghrebin origin. [citation needed]

Modern territories of the Maghreb

Medieval regions of the Maghreb

  • Ifriqiya
  • Djerid
  • Sous
  • Zab
  • Hodna
  • Rif
  • Maghreb al-Awsat (Central Maghreb)
  • Morocco (Maghreb al-Aqsa)
  • Tamesna
  • Tripolitania

References and notes

  1. ↑ Avner Greif (June 1993). "Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition". American Economic Association in its journal American Economic Review. Retrieved 2007-07-11.
  • Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886
  • Mostyn, Trevor. ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905
  • The Maghreb Center Retrieved August 19, 2007.

See also

  • Arab Maghreb Union
  • Barbary Coast
  • Berber
  • Moors
  • History of Algeria
  • Maghreb toponymy
  • North Africa
  • Tamazgha
  • Mashriq
  • Northwest Africa
  • Maghrebi script
  • Jews and Judaism in North Africa

External links


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