Difference between revisions of "Daoism" - New World Encyclopedia

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:''For other uses of the words "tao" and "dao", see [[Dao (disambiguation)]].''
 
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!style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid" colspan=2 align=center|[[Chinese name|Names]]
 
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|align=right|[[Chinese language|Chinese]]:||道教, also 道家
 
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|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:||Dàojiào, Dàojia
 
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|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||Tao-chiao, Tao-chia
 
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|align=right|English:||[[Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue|Taoism or Daoism]]
 
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| [[Image:Yin yang.png|250px|thumb|The [[Yin-Yang]] or [[Taiji]] diagram, often used as a symbol in [[Daoism]]. It represents two polar [[essence]]s of nature and their relationship. The black spot in the white symbolizes a black "seed" that will regenerate white and transmute it into black, and the reverse, indicating the constancy of change in the [[Universe]].]]
 
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'''Daoism''' or the '''School of Dao''' refers to a set of [[philosophy|philosophical]] teachings and [[religion|religious]] practices rooted in a specific [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] understanding of the [[Chinese character]] '''[[Dao]]'''. For Daoists, Dao could be described as the continuity principle behind the whole process of the constantly changing [[Universe]].
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'''Daoism''' is the English name for a cluster of Chinese religious and philosophical traditions.  These traditions have developed over more than two-thousand years in China, Korea, and Japan and some have now have spread throughout the world.<ref>Miller (2003), p. ix.</ref>  While there is a great deal of debate over how (and whether) Daoism should be subdivided, some scholars have divided it into the following three categories.<ref>Kohn (2000), p. XI.</ref>
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# a [[philosophy|philosophical school]] based on the texts the ''[[Dao De Jing]]'' (ascribed to [[Laozi]] and alternately spelled Tao Te Ching) and the ''[[Zhuangzi]]'';
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# a family of organized [[Religion in China|Chinese]] religious movements such as the [[Zhengyi]] ("Orthodoxy") or [[Quanzhen]] ("complete reality") sects, which collectively trace back to [[Zhang Daoling]] in the late [[Han Dynasty]];
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# the [[Chinese folk religion]].<ref>Kohn (2000), p. XXIX.</ref>
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[[Image:Dao4.PNG|thumb|100px|left|The [[Chinese character]] [[:wikt:道|道]] ([[pinyin]] ''Dào'', [[Wade-Giles]] ''Dao<sup>4</sup>'') "Way".]]
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The English word Daoism is used to translate the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] terms ''Daojiao'' (道教 "teachings/religion of the Dao") and ''Daojia'' (道家 "school of the Dao"). The character ''[[Dao]]'' 道 (or ''Tao'', depending on the romanization scheme) means "path" or "way", but in [[Chinese religion]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]] it has taken on more abstract meanings. The compound ''Daojiao'' refers to Daoism as a religion; ''Daojia'' refers to the activity of scholars in their studies. It must be noted that this distinction is itself controversial and fraught with [[hermeneutic]] difficulty. Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao, and that the distinction is propagated by people who are not familiar with Daoism.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 3.</ref>
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Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of Daoism. In some countries and contexts (for example, the Daoism organizations of [[China]] and [[Taiwan]]), the label is applied to [[Chinese folk religion]], which would otherwise not have a readily recognizable English name.  However many, if not most, of its practitioners would not recognize Daoism (in any language) as the name of their religion. Moreover, the several forms of what we might call organized Daoism often distinguish their ritual activities from those of the folk religion, which some professional Daoists (''Daoshi'') tend to view as debased.
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[[Alchemy#Chinese alchemy|Chinese alchemy]], [[Chinese astrology|astrology]], [[Chinese cuisine|cuisine]], several [[Chinese martial arts]], [[Chinese traditional medicine]], [[fengshui]], and many styles of [[qigong]] breath training disciplines have some relationship with Daoism.
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==History==
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Daoism's origins may be traced to prehistoric [[Chinese]] religions in [[China]]; to the composition of the ''[[Dao De Jing]]'' ([[3rd century B.C.E.|3rd]] or [[4th century B.C.E.]]); or to the activity of Zhang Daoling ([[2nd century AD]]). Alternatively, one could argue that Daoism as a religious identity only arose later, by way of contrast with the newly-arrived religion of Buddhism, or with the fourth-century codification of the Shangching and Lingbao texts.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 2.</ref>
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Other accounts credit Laozi (reputed author of the ''Dao De Jing'') as the teacher of both Buddha, and Confucius, and alleged Laozi to have had thirteen incarnations starting in the reign of [[Fuxi]], one of the [[Three August Ones and Five Emperors]] up until his last as Laozi who lived over 800 years. They describe early Daoism to ancient picture writing, mysticism, and indigenous Ancestor worship. Symbology on tortoise shells predates early Chinese calligraphy and is the basis of written Chinese from artifacts dated from prior to 1600 B.C.E.
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Legend has it that while passing through the hills of [[China]], Laozi was asked by a bridge keeper to write a book containing his thoughts and beliefs, which yielded the text of ''[[Dao De Jing]]''.
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===Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.&ndash;220 C.E.)===
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In the early [[Han Dynasty]], the Dao came to be associated with or conflated with the [[Xian Di Emperor]]. A major text from the Huang-Lao movement would be the ''[[Huainanzi]]'', which interprets earlier Daoist teachings in light of the quest for immortality. [[Zhang Daoling]] claimed to have begun receiving new revelations from Laozi and went on to found the [[Tianshi Dao|Celestial Masters]] sect as the "First Celestial Master". He performed spiritual healing, and collected dues of five pecks of rice from his followers (thus providing an alternative name for his movement). Zhang Daoling's major message was that the world-order would soon come to an end, and be succeeded by an era of "Great Peace" (''Taiping'').Their activities did hasten the downfall of the [[Han Dynasty]], largely because Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state into what is now [[Sichuan]] province. The same could be said of their contemporaries and fellow Daoists, the [[Yellow Turban]] sect.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 54-55.</ref> Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century CE.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 50.</ref> The [[Yin and Yang]] and [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|five elements]] theories date from this time, but were not yet integrated into Daoism.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 7.</ref>
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The name ''Daojia'' comes from the Han Dynasty. In [[Sima Qian]]'s history (chapter 63) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi. ''Daojiao'' came to be applied to the religious movements mentioned above. The two terms were used interchangeably until modern times. (We owe the distinction to Confucian writers.) The earliest commentary on the ''Dao De Jing'' is that of Heshang Gong (the "Riverside Master"), a legendary figure depicted as a teacher to the Han emperor.<ref>Kohn (2000), p. 6.</ref>
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===Three Kingdoms Period (220&ndash;265)===
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The Xuanxue (Mysterious Wisdom) school, including [[Wang Bi]], focused on the texts of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Many of the school's members, including Wang Bi himself, were not religious in any sense.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 6</ref> Wang Bi mostly focused on reconciling Confucian thought with Daoist thought. Because the version of the Dao De Jing that has been passed on to the present is the one that Wang Bi commented upon, his interpretations became very influential as they were passed on alongside the Dao De Jing. In addition, his commentary was compatible with Confucian ideas and Buddhist ideas that later entered China. This compatibility ensured Daoism would remain an important aspect of Chinese culture, and made the merging of the three religions easier in later periods, such as the Tang dynasty.<ref>http://www.iep.utm.edu/w/wangbi.htm</ref>
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===Six Dynasties (316&ndash;589)===
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Daoist alchemist [[Ge Hong]], also known as Baopuzi (抱扑子 The "Master Embracing Simplicity") was active in the third and fourth centuries and had great influence on later Daoism.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 78.</ref> Major scriptures were produced during this time period, including The [[Shangqing]] (上清 "Supreme Clarity") (365&ndash;370) and [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] (靈寶 "Sacred Treasure") scriptures (397&ndash;402) received at Maoshan. The Shangqing revelations were received by Yang Xi, a relative of Ge Hong's; the revelations emphasised meditative visualisation (內觀 ''neiguan''). They spoke of the Shangqing heaven, which stood above what had been previously considered the highest heaven by Celestial Master Daoists. Yang Xi's revelations consisted of visitations from the residents of this heaven (the "Zhen Ren") many of whom were ancestors of a circle of aristocrats from southern China. These Zhen Ren spoke of an apocalypse which was to arrive in 384, and claimed that only certain people from this aristocratic circle had been chosen to be saved. For the first century of its existence, Shangqing Daoism was isolated to this aristocratic circle. However, Tao Hongjing (456&ndash;536) codified and wrote commentaries on Yang Xi's writings and allowed for the creation of Shangqing Daoism as a popular religion.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 116-117.</ref> The Lingbao scriptures added some Buddhist elements such as an emphasis on universal salvation.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 153.</ref>
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The ''Huahujing'' (化胡經 "Scripture of Conversion of Barbarians") claimed that Laozi went to India, where he taught less advanced doctrines under the name of Buddha. Buddhists found this claim objectionable, and emperors regularly condemned it. A similar claim is made in the ''Xishengjing'' (西升經 the "Scripture of Western Ascension").
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The oldest known book that details the coming apocolypse was also produced in this period under the name ''Taishang dongyuan shenzhou jing'', or ''[[The Divine Incantations Scripture]]''.<ref>DeBary & Bloom (1999), p. 406.</ref> The earliest portions of the book have been traced back to the beginning of the fifth century.  They offered a new route to transcendence that was was different from the Celestial Masters movement it branched off of. This scripture sought to clarify the gods are, "in a word, merely the officials of the celestial bureaucracy."<ref>DeBary & Bloom (1999), p. 407.</ref> The text was unique for the time in that it promised the aid of celestial "ghost troops" to those who upheld its teachings and acknowledged the dynamic obedience and simultaneous danger of various "daemon kings" that also existed in a fantastical version of the metaphysical world.  These characteristics draw interesting parallels with the cosmic and celestial warfare depicted in the [[Book of Revelations]] from the Christian [[New Testament]].  The book also urges Daoists to "assiduously convert the unenlightened," and demands scriptural exclusivity when receiving the scripture. <ref>DeBary & Bloom, (1999), p. 409.</ref>
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===Tang Dynasty (618&ndash;907)===
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Daoism gained official status in China during the [[Tang Dynasty]], whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 184.</ref>  However, it was forced to compete with [[Confucianism]] and [[Buddhism]], its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Emperor [[Xuanzong]] (685&ndash;762), who ruled at the height of the Tang, wrote commentaries on texts from all three of these traditions, which exemplifies the fact that in many people's lives they were not mutually exclusive. This marks the beginning of a long-lived tendency within imperial China, in which the government supported (and simultaneously regulated) all three movements.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 186.</ref>
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The [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Gaozong Emperor]] added the ''Dao De Jing'' to the list of classics (''jing,'' 經) to be studied for the imperial examinations.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 185.</ref>
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===Song Dynasty (960&ndash;1279)===
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Several Song emperors, most notably [[Emperor Huizong (Song Dynasty)|Huizong]], were active in promoting Daoism, collecting Daoist texts and publishing editions of the ''[[Daozang]].''<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 213.</ref>
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The [[Quanzhen]] school of Daoism was founded during this period, and together with the Zhengyi Celestial Masters is one of the two schools of Daoism that have survived to the present.<ref>Kohn (2000), p. 567.</ref>
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The Song Dynasty saw an increasingly complex interaction between the elite traditions of organised Daoism as practised by ordained Daoist ministers (''daoshi'') and the local traditions of folk religion as practised by spirit mediums (''wu'') and a new class of non-ordained ritual experts known as ''fashi''.<ref>Kohn (2000), p. 415.</ref> This interaction manifested itself in the integration of 'converted' local deities into the bureaucratically organised Daoist pantheon and the emergence of new exorcistic rituals, including the [[Celestial Heart Rites]] and the [[Thunder Rites]].<ref>Kohn (2000), p. 416-418, 423</ref>
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Aspects of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the [[Neo-Confucian]] school, which eventually became Imperial [[orthodox]]y for state bureaucratic purposes.<ref>Kohn (2000), p. XVII.</ref>
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===Yuan Dynasty (1279&ndash;1367)===
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[[Image: Baiyun.jpg|thumb|500px|White Cloud Monastery, Beijing]]
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While Daoism suffered a significant setback in 1281 when all copies of the ''Daozang'' were ordered burned, this holocaust gave Daoism a chance to renew itself.<ref>Schipper and Verellen (2004), p. 30.</ref> ''[[Neidan]]'', a form of [[internal alchemy]], became a major emphasis of the [[Quanzhen]] sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of its leaders, Qiu Chuji became a teacher of [[Genghis Khan]] (and used his influence to save millions of lives). Originally from [[Shanxi]] and [[Shandong]], the sect established its main center in [[Beijing]]'s Baiyunguan ("White Cloud Monastery").<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 223-224.</ref> Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial Masters sect (and [[Buddhism]]) again gained preeminence.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 15.</ref>
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===Ming Dynasty (1368&ndash;1644)===
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In 1406, emperor [[Zhu Di]] commanded that all Daoist texts be collected and combined into a new version of the ''Daozang.'' The text was finally finished in 1447, and took nearly forty years to complete.<ref>Schipper and Verellen (2004), p. 1-2.</ref>
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===Qing Dynasty (1644&ndash;1912)===
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The ruin of the Ming dynasty and the subsequnt establishment of the Qing dynasty by the non-Chinese Manchus was blamed by some literati on religion, specifically Daoism. They sought to regain power by advocating a return to Confucian orthodoxy in a movement called ''Hanxue'', or 'National Studies.' This movement returned the Confucian classics to favor and completely rejected Daoism. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virutally all Daoist books.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 19.</ref> By the beginning of the twentieth century, Daoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the ''Daozang'' still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 220.</ref>
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===Nationalist Period (1912&ndash;1949)===
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[[Guomindang]] (China Nationalist Party) leaders embraced science, modernity, and Western culture, including (to some extent) Christianity. Viewing the popular religion as reactionary and parasitic, they confiscated some temples for public buildings, and otherwise attempted to control traditional religious activity.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 18.</ref>
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===People's Republic of China (1949&ndash;present)===
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The [[Communist Party of China]], officially atheistic, initially suppressed Daoism along with other religions. During the [[Cultural Revolution]] from 1966 to 1976, many Daoist temples and sites were damaged or destroyed and Monks and priests were sent to labor camps.<ref>Dean (1993), p. 41.</ref>
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Persecution of Daoists stopped in 1979, and many Daoists began reviving their traditions.<ref>Dean (1993), p. 41.</ref> Subsequently, communist leaders have recognised Daoism as an important traditional religion of China and also as a potential lucrative focus for [[tourism]], so many of the more scenic temples and [[Wudangshan|monasteries]] have been repaired and reopened.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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Daoism is one of five religions recognised by the PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Daoist Association).<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006"]|30.6&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 31400 bytes —>}} An address given to the Delegation EU-China of the European Parliament.</ref> Sensitive areas include the relationship of the Zhengyi Daoists with their sect's lineage-holder, who lives in Taiwan,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and various traditional temple activities such as astrology and shamanism, which have been criticised as "superstitious".<ref>[http://www.oslocoalition.org/html/project_china/report_china_visit_2000.html Report from The Oslo Coalition "Visit to China"]</ref>
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==Adherents==
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The number of Daoists is difficult to estimate, partly for definitional reasons (who counts as a Daoist?), and partly for practical ones (it is illegal for private parties to conduct surveys in China). The number of people practicing some aspect of the [[Chinese folk religion]] might number in the hundreds of millions. ([http://www.adherents.com Adherents.com] estimates "Traditional Chinese religion" at nearly four hundred million). The number of people patronising ''Daoshi'' (Daoist priests or masters) would be smaller by several orders of magnitude, while the number of literary ''Daojia'' would be smaller yet. At the same time, most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Daoist tradition.
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Geographically, Daoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: inland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Daoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and these countries' folk religions have many common elements. Organized Daoism seems not to have attracted a non-Chinese following until modern times.
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==Beliefs==
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{{main|Three Jewels of the Dao}}
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[[Image:Incense taiwan temple fu dog.jpg|250px|thumb|A Daoist Temple in Taiwan. The religious practice of incense burning as well as images of the [[Fu Dog]] and [[Dragon]] guardian spirits can be seen.]]
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Daoism has never been a unified religion and has always consisted of different teachings based on many different original revelations. Therefore different branches of Daoism often have very different beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that all the schools share.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 1.</ref>
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Beyond the Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, or substances are said to positively affect one's physical health (even to the point of immortality); align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces; or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts seem basic to Daoism in its elite forms.
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The philosophical aspect of Daoism emphasizes various themes found in the ''Dao De Jing'' such as natureness, vitality, peace, "nonaction" (''[[wu wei]]''), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), and  in ''Zhuang Zi'' such as receptiveness, spontaneity, the [[relativism]] of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior. Most philosophical debate concerns dao—what way we should follow, but really, Daoists more directly question what dao is, how or if we can know it and emphasize more than other schools the ways social daos depend on and presuppose natural daos. Their more detached discussion and their reluctance to formulate or advocate a social dao of their own means their discussions tend to be more playful and paradoxical than dogmatic. This makes their tone strikingly different from Confucian and Mohist texts.
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Daoist commentators have been puzzled by the opening lines of the ''Dao De Jing'', which has usually been translated:
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{{quotation|The way which can be way-ed (followed), is not the eternal Way.<br><br>The name which can be named, is not the eternal Name.}}
  
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Daoism has had a deep and long-lasting influence in many domains of [[Chinese culture]], including [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]], [[Chinese art|the arts]], [[Chinese literature|literature]], [[Chinese traditional medicine|medicine]],  and [[Chinese cuisine|cuisine]]. It has spread widely throughout [[East Asia]]. Daoism emphasizes [[freedom]], [[nature]], [[cosmology]], [[self]]-cultivation, and even the search for [[immortality]]. Some accounts prefer to separate two Daoisms: one being mostly philosophical, metaphysical and aesthetical, the other focused on religious practices and encompassing [[exorcism]], [[alchemy]], and a wide set of popular beliefs. Often considered as the counterpart of mainstream [[Confucianism]] and challenged by [[Buddhism]], Daoism is more accurately seen as an integral element of the vast and diverse [[China|Chinese]] experience.
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The original words are
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{{quotation|道可道，非常道。 (dao (ways) can be way-ed, not usual ways)<br><br>名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names))}}
  
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==Early Daoism==
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In Chinese, "道" or "Dao" is used both as a noun and verb. 'Way' works well for the noun, but the translation for the verb "to speak" seems unmatched in meaning, unless we think in terms of "to advocate, to preach, to formulate etc." Notice in the second line, the noun and verb use of '名' seem closer in meaning, "names" and "to name". Concretely, a road is a dao—a guide for where to go or how to get where we want to go. However, daos can be marked in other ways—e.g. simply by pointing or putting signs "along the way" etc. Daoists are intrigued both by how daos are made by our walking (wearing a path) and by how we can read what way to go from natural signals (animal paths). The verb probably would be something like pointing, marking, setting an example or otherwise signaling which way to go.
  
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===Origins===
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It should also be noted that while the above has become a standard translation, scholars have noted it is grammatically and conceptually problematic. Grammatically, it has no article so could be read "a/any dao can be dao-ed, (but) this is not the constant dao-ing. A name can be named, (but) this is not the constant naming". Conceptually, the character for "constant"(常) is used philosophically to describe a dao that does not need to change in different times or societies and reliably guides behavior. Laozi later describes a dao as "reversing" and the texts emphasises opposites, i.e.: high and low, hard and soft, etc. The [[Mawangdui]] version of the text contains similar passages, vide: ch.1, 3, 40). 
  
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Rooted in the ancient Chinese systems of beliefs, influenced by primitive [[shamanism]] and observation of natural cycles, Daoism recognizes [[Laozi]] as its founder and [[Zhuangzi]] as one of its most brilliant representatives. Early Daoism developed as an original answer to the bitter debates during the philosophically fertile time of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]], corresponding to the [[Warring States Period]].  Action through inaction ([[Wu-wei|wei wu wei]]), the power of emptiness, detachment, receptiveness, spontaneity, the strength of softness, the relativism of human values, and the search for a long life are some of its preferred themes. Elements of primitive Daoist thought include the cyclic progression of seasons, growth and death of sentient beings and their endless generation, and questions about the origins of life. Observation of natural processes led to divine practices where the operator tried to detect opportunities in natural phenomena (like crackles made in bones).
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Thus, any terms we use to advocate a dao can be reversed and still guide behavior. The other term in the title (which, compounded with 'dao', formed the Chinese term for 'ethics') is 'de.'. It is "the dao within" which may comprise the capacity we have to learn a way of life and the result of learning/practicing it. De should interpret the learned "way of life" into a correct pattern of behavior—hence its usual translation as "virtue" or "excellence."
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Other terms were later integrated into philosophical Daoism including [[yin and yang]] (closely related to [[Dialectical monism]]) and [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|five elements]] (五行, ''wuxing'') theories, and the concept of [[qi]]. Originally belonging to rival philosophical schools, these themes entered Daoism by way of Han Confucianism which focused on cosmic cycles and portents to guide the ruler's deportment dress, and so forth. They blend into Daoism as examples of "natural" dao with which any viable human dao must harmonise.
  
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The oldest Chinese scripture is said to be the ''[[Yi Jing|I Ching (Yì Jīng)]]'', a compilation of readings based on sixty-four hexagrams. The hexagrams are combinations of eight trigrams or ''gua'' (collectively called ''[[Bagua|bagua]]''), resulting in sixty-four possible combinations. Laozi was intimately familiar with the ''Yi Jing'', and his work, the ''[[Dao De Jing]]'', shows that he was profoundly inspired by it.
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{{quotation|The way which can be uttered, is not the eternal Way.}}
  
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Readings of the ''Yi Jing'' are based on the hexagrams, i.e., six lines that are either [[Yin and Yang|Yin or Yang]].  Each hexagram has two trigrams that provide the imagery that the reading is based on. The trigrams are "changing transitional states," generated on the simple basis of the alternation of Yin-Yang polarity. This is recognized in the saying "A (stage of) Yin, a (stage of) Yang, is what is called Dao" (一阴一阳之谓道). Dao is the underlying principle on which the Yi Jing is built.  The cycle of Yin and Yang depicts the complements of opposite forces or qualities: creative-receptive, sunny-shady, male-female, heaven-earth, the sum total of life: the universe.
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While academic deconstructions of this phrase result in much confusion, there is also a much simpler interpretation by metaphor: The Way is like dancing. You can talk about dancing, but your talk about dancing isn't the dance itself. Nor does your description really teach someone else how to dance unless they figure out how to apply it for themselves. No matter how complicated the description (words, sketches even video) it always lacks the entirety of what is.   
  
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During the [[Han dynasty]], the Daoist school of thought gained disciples and defenders. It enlarged its audience and founded many religious [[Sect|sects]] with hierarchies of divinities and [[Ritual|ritual practices]]. Daoist ideas and sects have been spiritually challenged by Buddhism and socially denigrated by Confucianism. However, a typically Chinese form of [[Syncretism|syncretism]] has generally allowed differing belief systems to coexist within society, even within the same person. Beyond the debates and confrontations, Daoism has remained a highly influential stream of thought in East Asia, with [[philosophy]], [[art]], [[poetry]], [[medicine]], and [[divination]] as its main domains.
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This interpretation shares [[Korzybski]]'s observation that "[[Map-territory relation|the map is not the territory]]".
  
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===The ''Dao'' of Daoism===
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==Deities==
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[[Image:DaoTao.png|250px|thumb|The Chinese character Dao.  ''Dao'' refers to ''The Way'' of Daoism and the universe.]]
 
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{{main|Dao}}
 
  
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In Chinese thought, the word ''Dao'' often has the meaning of ''way''&mdash;a space-time sequence. An individual walks a particular way, as does a village and even a country. Several schools of ancient Chinese philosophy used the term "Dao" to indicate their views on the proper conduct of individuals, the nature of human society, and the relationship of humans with the universe as a whole.
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Traditional Chinese religion is determinedly [[polytheism|polytheistic]]. Its deities are arranged into a heavenly civil service that mirrors the bureaucracy of imperial China. Deities may be promoted or demoted. Many are said to have once been virtuous humans. The particular deities worshipped vary somewhat according to geography, and much more according to historical period (though the general pattern of worship is more constant).<ref>Maspero (1981), p. 92.</ref>
  
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In Daoism, the ''Dao'' (or "Great Dao") is the grand cosmic harmony. It is thus obvious, as [[Shen Dao]] 慎到 argued, that everyone and everything follows the Great Dao. One may also speak of the ''Natural'' (sometimes "Heavenly") ''Dao''. This would roughly resemble any course of history that conforms to the laws of nature&mdash;with the same consequence, and the idea that one need not ''try'' to follow it&mdash;one cannot fail. Both "nature's way" and the "great way" may inspire the typical Daoist detachment from moral or normative doctrines. Since Dao is thought of as the course by which everything comes into being, it seems hard to imagine that one must select from various accounts of its normative content. It may thus be seen as an efficient principle of "emptiness" that reliably underlies the operation of the universe.  
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There is also something of a disconnection between the set of gods which currently receive popular worship, and those which are the focus of elite Daoist texts and rituals. For example, the [[Jade Emperor]] is at the head of the popular pantheon, while the [[Way of the Celestial Master|Celestial Masters]]' altar recognizes the deified Laozi (''Laojun'', "Lord Lao") and the [[Three Pure Ones]] in that position.<ref>Maspero (1981), p. 88.</ref><ref>Robinet (1997), p. 63.</ref> Some texts explain that Laozi has sponsored the apotheosis of various other gods.
  
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Other ways one might term "possible ways" or ways that actually serve as a guide (''dao'' used as a verb). These, however, according to the ''[[Dao De Jing]]'' (''Daodejing'') are not invariable. That is, one may choose different guiding Daos, interpret them differently and disagree about their meaning. One may attempt to follow them and fail. These are prescriptive ways, such as the moral way of [[Confucius]] or those of [[Laozi]] or of [[Jesus of Nazareth|Jesus]]. Nevertheless, the ''Dao De Jing'' says that the nature of all things is beholden to the Dao, suggesting that even these paths will serve this ultimate principle.
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In some Daoist systems, [[Hong-jun lao-zu]] (鸿钧老祖 or 鸿元老祖, the great primal originator) is the common ancester/teacher of all the deities.
  
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===Sources of Daoism===
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While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the ''Zhuangzi'', and to a lesser extent in the ''Dao De Jing'' (e.g., the "mysterious female" in chapter 6), these have generally not become the objects of cultic worship. We must not confuse Dao with the western concept of [[monotheism]]. The Dao is not personal, nor is it an unchanging spiritual entity similar to the Hindu [[Atman]]. The Chinese word Dao can mean a process or a path, but not an entity. It is only to be followed, not to be worshipped. Dao merely means the natural way of the universe. Being one with the Dao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but merely live with the change and accept the way of nature; that of impermanence and flexibility. Early texts describe Dao not as equal to "the One", but as a principle underlying both the One and the Many. One revealing phrase used to describe it is ''huntun'' (roughly, "chaotic mixture"). In the wake of Wang Bi, philosophical Daoists have tended to describe it as "nothingness", which is the origin of "being." (Cf. the [[apophatic]] tendencies of theism, including [[negative theology]].)
  
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As with most Chinese spiritual traditions, Daoism tried to find its justification in the earliest past and rooted itself in both legendary figures and ancient scriptures. It refers, mainly, to three sources:
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==Practices==
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# The oldest is that of the mythical "[[Yellow Emperor]]", said to be the ancestor of all Han Chinese and to have invented the principles of [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]]. In the legend, his wife [[Luo Zu]] taught the Chinese how to weave [[silk]] from [[silkworms]], and his historian [[Cang Jie]] created the first [[Chinese characters]].
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[[Image:Daoist ritual from plum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Detail of circa 1700 painting of a Daoist ritual for the dead, illustrating a scene from ''[[The Plum in the Golden Vase]]''.  Note the plaques at the back of the altar of the Three Purities, and the various ritual implements including incense burner and ritual sword on the right. (According to the novel the sword is engraved with the seven stars of the big dipper.)  Bowls hold food offerings for the deceased woman, Li Ping'er.]]
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# The most famous source is the book of mystical [[aphorism]]s, the ''[[Dao De Jing]]'', allegedly written by Laozi, whom legend depicts as an older contemporary of [[Confucius]].
 
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# The third source, the works of the philosopher Zhuangzi, is collected in the [[Zhuangzi#The Book|eponymous book]].
 
  
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Other books have developed Daoism, such as the ''True Classic of Perfect Emptiness'', by [[Lie Zi]]; and the ''[[Huainan Zi]]'' compilation. Additionally, many regard the ancient ''[[Yi Jing]]'' (''The Classic of Changes'') and related cosmogonical views of prehistoric China as an original source of Daoism. Finally, there are the myriad other books of the [[Daoist Canon]], many of which purport to be from Laozi, the Yellow Emperor, or other originators of Daoism.
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Nearly all forms of Chinese traditional religion involve ''baibai'' (拜拜)—bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one's hand. (Some schools prescribe the use of three sticks of incense in the hand at one time.<ref>Silvers (2005), p. 74</ref> ) This may be done at home, or in a temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional (such as a ''Daoshi'' 道士); and the altar may feature any number of deities or ancestral tablets. ''Baibai'' is usually done in accordance with certain dates of the lunar/solar calendar (see [[Chinese calendar]]).
  
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===''Dao De Jing''===
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At certain dates, food may be set out as a [[sacrifice]] to the gods and/or spirits of the departed.  (See, for example, [[Qingming Festival]].) This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of [[Hell Bank Notes]], on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use.
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{{main|Dao De Jing}}
 
  
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The ''Dao De Jing'' (''The Book of the Way and its Power'') emerged as a written text in a time of seemingly endless feudal warfare and constant conflict. According to tradition (largely rejected by modern scholars), the book's author, [[Laozi]], served an emperor of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (approximately 1122&ndash;256 B.C.E.) as an archivist in the grand library, a minor court official. He became disgusted with the petty intrigues of court life and set off alone to travel the vast western wastelands. As he reached the point of passing through the gate at the last western outpost, a guard, having heard of his wisdom, asked Laozi to write down his philosophy, and the ''Dao De Jing'' resulted. It should be noted that this is an [[allegory]] and that the western gate may refer to death.
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Also at certain dates, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. Street parades may also include [[lion dance]]s and [[dragon dance]]s; [[human-occupied puppet]]s (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); ''jitong'' (乩童 male "Mediums") who mutilate their skin with knives; ''Bajiajiang'', which are [[gongfu]]-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and [[palanquin]]s carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the god in question.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 28-29.</ref>
  
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Laozi reflected on a way for humanity to follow which would put an end to [[conflict]]s and strife. This became the original book of [[Daoism]]. The scholarly evidence (supported by a cluster of recent [[archeology|archaeological]] finds of versions of the text) suggests that the book took shape over a long period of time in pre-[[Han Dynasty|Han]] [[China]] (before the 3rd century <small>B.C.E.</small>) and circulated in many versions and edited collections until it was standardized shortly after the Han Dynasty.
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[[Fortune-telling]]—including [[astrology]], [[Yi Qing]] (I Ching), and other forms of [[divination]]—has long been considered a traditional Daoist pursuit.<ref>Silvers (2005), p. 129-132.</ref>  [[Mediumship]] is also widely encountered. We may distinguish between martial forms of mediumship (like the aforementioned ''jitong'') and more literary forms in which the possessed medium communicates messages from the spirit world by writing them with a special utensil (such as use of the "planchette").<ref>Silvers (2005), p. 132. Discussing planchette</ref>
  
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===''Zhuangzi''===
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Isabelle Robinet's book ''Daoist Meditation'' describes various practices given in the [[Maoshan]] texts. These include controlling bodily fluids such as urine, saliva, and the breath; visualisation practices in which various internal organs are imaginarily linked with corresponding gods and/or celestial bodies (e.g. the stars of the ''bei tou'', the "Big Dipper"); and heavenly journeys via the Great Pole, which is reached by a limping shamanic dance called the "Step of Wu".
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[[Zhuangzi]] is often considered as one of the most brilliant and eccentric writers of classical Chinese literature. His work may be seen as a highly remarkable exception in the wide landscape of Chinese poetic essays: it may be the only one which does not focus on politics. With colorful language and imaginative illustrations, Zhuangzi used irony as a tool to undermine the rigidity of the Confucian system of values being built at his time.
 
  
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=== Influences ===
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[[Image:Tien hau charm.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Daoist charm from [[Matsu (goddess)|Tien Hau]] Temple in San Francisco.]]
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Daoist thought partly inspired [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]] philosophers, whose theories where used by [[Qin Shi Huang]], founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of [[Hanfei Zi]], a prominent Legalist thinker who commented the [[Dao De Jing]]. Hanfei Zi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.
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Many Daoists also participated in the reading and writing of books. Daoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Daoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation. [[Wang Bi]], one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the [[Laozi]] (and [[Yijing]]) was in fact a Confucian.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 192.</ref>
  
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Primitive Daoism is also partly responsible for the important resonance theory, elaborated during [[Han dynasty]], that underlies many of the cultural productions of traditional China. If a common Dao is at the source of everything, then there must be a homothety between macrocosm and microcosm, a structural commonality between the world, the country, the family, and the individual. The commonality underscores the Five Elements theory: the five directions (including center) correspond to five seasons (including a buffer one) and to five tastes, or the five elements themselves. Because of this resonance between separate domains, an Emperor's familial disorder will result in natural disaster and political troubles. Though this theory has been questioned by [[Wang Hong]], it displays the Chinese traditional reticence to exclusive categories.
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For many educated Chinese people (the Literati), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private aspect, with Daoist aspirations. Night-time, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Daoism and reread Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.
  
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=== Daoism and Confucianism ===
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A number of martial arts traditions, particularly [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]], [[Bagua Zhang]], and [[Xingyiquan|Xing Yi Quan]], embody Daoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Daoism.<ref>Silvers (2005), pp. 135-137</ref>  The accuracy of these claims varies greatly depending on the particular art and/or practitioner.
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Daoism as a tradition has, along with its traditional counterpart [[Confucianism]], shaped Chinese culture for more than 2,000 years. Daoism places emphasis upon spontaneity and teaches that natural kinds follow ways appropriate to themselves. As humans are a [[Natural kind|natural kind]], Daoism emphasizes natural societies with no artificial institutions. Often considered skeptical and sarcastic about human values such as morality, benevolence, and proper behavior, many Daoist writers do not share the Confucian belief in civilization as a way to build a better world. Rather, they share the will to live alone in the mountains or as simple peasants in small [[Autarky|autarchic]] villages.
 
  
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== Daoism in Imperial China ==
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==Scriptures==
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During the [[Han dynasty]], Confucianism became official doctrine. Daoism was adopted as a state religion by some emperors of the [[Tang dynasty]], while others were more inclined to Buddhism. Since the [[Song dynasty]] and until the foundation of the [[People's Republic of China]] by [[Mao Zedong]], [[Neo-Confucianism]] was the official state doctrine; but Daoism and Buddhism existed as parallel personal religions.
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[[Image:Taopriest.jpg|thumb|Daoist Priest in [[Macau]], February 2006]]
  
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===Daoist religion===
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The [[Daozang]] (道藏, ''Treasury of Dao'') is sometimes referred to as the "Daoist canon." While it had been compiled during the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin]], [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasties, the version that survives today is the one published during the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] dynasty.<ref>Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 1.</ref><ref>Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 30.</ref>The Ming ''Daozang'' includes almost 1500 texts.<ref>Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36.</ref> Following the example of the Buddhist [[Tripitaka]], it is divided into three ''dong'' 洞 ("caves", often translated "grottoes"), arranged here from highest to lowest:
  
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{{main|Daoist doctrine}}
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#The ''[[Zhen]]'' ("real" or "truth") grotto. Includes the [[Shangqing]] texts.
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#The ''[[Xuan]]'' ("mystery") grotto. Includes the [[Lingbao]] scriptures.
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#The ''[[Shen]]'' ("divine") grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan revelations.<ref>Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15.</ref><ref>Litte (2000), p. 46</ref>
  
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[[Image:Incense_taiwan_temple_fu_dog.jpg|200px|thumb|A Daoist Temple in Taiwan.  The religious practice of incense burning as well as images of the [[Fu Dog]] and [[Dragon]] guardian spirits can be seen.]]
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The ''[[Dao De Jing]]'', written around the 4th century B.C.E., is widely considered to be the most influential Daoist text.<ref>Miller (2003), p. ix</ref> The ''[[Dao De Jing]]'' constitutes an appendix (''fu'') to the first grotto. Other appendices include the ''Taipingjing'' ("Scripture of Great Peace") as well as various alchemical texts, and scriptures from the Celestial Masters tradition.
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As the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi became widely known in China, schools formed based on their teaching.  These schools eventually acquired the features of a structured religion and evolved into a religious faith by [[440]] CE. Laozi became a deity to many Chinese. Around [[300]] CE various denominations developed with distinct views. Some sought immortality, similar to the Buddhist concept of [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]].  Others practiced [[alchemy]] and [[magic]], using herbal potions or wearing [[charms]].  [[Polytheistic]] elements were added, worshipping many gods; some were closely identified with Buddhism, others from [[Chinese folklore]], and still others were gods of nature, previously unknown. Especially popular were the [[Eight Immortals]], celestial entities who were human but gained immortality through belief. In the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang period]] from [[600]] to [[900]] CE many Buddhist concepts and practices such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, and the celibacy of the clergy were incorporated into Daoism.
 
  
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===Daoism and Buddhism===
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However, Daoism is not a religion which regards the entire scripture as the primary source of truth. Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the [[Daozang]], but use individual texts that may be included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.<ref>Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44.</ref> The receipt of permission to do the ritual is considered more important than knowledge of the texts' contents.
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The relationships between Daoism and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Daoism to renew and restructure itself and address existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Daoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Daoist vocabulary. Zen (Chan) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Daoism.
 
  
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===Daoism and the arts===
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The [[Shangqing]] school does have a tradition of approaching Daoism through scriptural study, with recitation of certain texts was often enough for an adherent to gain immortality.<ref>Robinet (1997), p. 132.</ref>
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For many educated Chinese people (the [[Literati]]), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private aspect, with Daoist aspirations. Home, nighttime, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Daoism and reread Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as [[calligraphy]], [[painting]], and [[poetry]], or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.
 
  
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==Modern Daoism==
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Some Chinese movements emphasise newly-revealed scriptures. In Taiwan, one often finds Buddhist texts being chanted in Daoist temples.
  
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===In China===
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==Daoist symbols and images==
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[[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|thumb|200px|'''Taijitu''']]
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There are many Symbols and Images that are associated with Daoism. Like in [[Christianity]] the "[[Christian cross|cross]]", and in [[Buddhism]] the "[[Dharmacakra|wheel]]", Daoism has Laozi, actual Chinese characters, and many other symbols that are often represented or associated with it. 
  
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From the early 1950s to 1982, Daoism was suppressed along with other religions in accordance with [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] policy. Much of the Daoist infrastructure was destroyed. Monks and priests were sent to labor camps. This practice intensified during the [[Cultural Revolution]] from 1966 to 1976, nearly eradicating most Daoist sites.
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The ''[[Taijitu]]'' ("yin and yang") symbol 太極圖 as well as the [[Bagua (concept)|''Bagua'']] 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Daoist symbolism.<ref>Little (2000), pp. 131-139</ref> While almost all Daoist organisations make use of the [[yin and yang]] symbol, one could also call it Confucian, [[Neo-Confucian]] or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang make a backwards "S" shape, with yang (white or red) on top. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Daoist organisation flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to [[Song Dynasty]] sources, it originated around the 10th century.<ref>Little (2000), p. 131</ref>  Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.<ref>Little (2000), p. 131</ref>
  
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[[Deng Xiaoping]] eventually restored some religious tolerance beginning in 1982. Subsequently, communist leaders have recognized Daoism as an important traditional religion of China devoted to universal unity and peace, and many temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.  
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The five directions as conceived by the ancient Chinese (east, south, west, north, center) each have their own attributes, as follows in the chart below.<ref>Little (2000), p. 129</ref>
  
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There are scholars who argue that Daoism is still a prevalent belief within China itself, estimating that the true number of Daoists worldwide, once Chinese believers are accounted for, may be over one billion, making it the second largest religion of the world; however, due to the intertwined nature of [[Chinese traditional religion]] and other restrictions, a census on the number of adherents in China is not possible.
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{| table class="wikitable" width="60%"
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|-
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| '''Direction''' || '''Element / Phase''' || '''Animal''' || '''Force'''
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|-
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| East || Wood || Azure Dragon || ''Yang''
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|-
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| South || Fire || Vermilion Bird || ''Yang''
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|-
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| West || Metal || White Tiger || ''Yin''
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|-
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| North || Water || Dark Warrior || ''Yin''
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|-
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| Center || Earth || none || Neutral
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|}
  
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[[Image:Tien_hau_charm.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Taoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco.]]
 
  
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=== Daoism outside China ===
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Daoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.<ref>Kohn (2004), p. 116.  (Translating a monastic rule.)</ref>  Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.<ref>Kohn (2004), p. 119</ref>
  
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Modern estimates put the number of Daoists outside of Mainland China at 31,000,000, located predominantly in [[Taiwan]]. Around 30,000 Daoists live in North America.  The oldest Daoist temple in the United States is [[Matsu_%28goddess%29|Tien Hau]] Temple in San Francisco, built in 1852. Daoism has had a significant influence worldwide: in many Western societies it can be seen in [[acupuncture]], [[herbalism]], [[holistic medicine]], [[meditation]], [[martial arts]], [[Feng Shui]], and [[Tai Chi]].
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[[Image:Taoistlanterns.jpg|thumb|Paper lanterns outside of Daoist Benevolence Temple (Cíhuì Gōng) in Banqiao, [[Taipei]].]]
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One sometimes sees a zigzag with seven stars, representing the [[Big Dipper]] (or the "Bushel", the Chinese equivalent). In the [[Shang dynasty]] the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the [[Han dynasty]], it was considered a ''qi'' path of the circumpolar god, ''Taiyi''.<ref>Little (2000), p. 128</ref>
  
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People in countries other than China practice the Daoist philosophy in various forms, especially in [[Vietnam]] and in [[Korea]]. [[Kouk Sun Do]] in Korea exemplifies one such variation. The [[Yao people|Yao]] have a written religion based on medieval Chinese Daoism, although in recent years there have been many converts to Christianity and Buddhism. Outside of China, Daoists are to be found in Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.
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Daoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature [[Chinese dragon]]s and [[fenghuang|phoenix]]es made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.<ref>Schipper (1993), p. 21.</ref> But in general, Chinese Daoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it particularly from other structures.<ref>Little (2000), p. 74</ref>
  
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Daoist philosophy has found a large following throughout the world, and several traditional Daoist lineages have set up teaching centers in countries outside China.
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==Relations with other religions and philosophies==
  
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Today, some of the vivid intuitions of Laozi and Zhuangzi, especially their focus on accordance with internal and external nature, resonate with modern inclinations towards [[personal development]] and [[ecology]].
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The origins of Daoism and other philosophical schools are intimately related. The authorship of the ''Daodejing'' is assigned to Laozi, traditionally thought to be a teacher of Confucius, yet appears to be reacting against Confucian doctrine (suggesting the text comes after [[Confucianism]]). [[Zhuangzi]] (Chuang Tzu), the other defining philosopher of Daoism, reacted both to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes and to related developments in theory of names (language). There is little evidence of a link between Laozi and Zhuangzi—whose most frequent interactions are with Hui Shi (of the school of names). However, the chapters of the Zhuangzi written after his death include dialogues between Laozi and Confucius that mimic (or inspire?) the style of the ''Daodejing'', suggesting the first association of the two texts dates from around that time. The "history of thought" contained in the Zhuangzi cites Laozi as a prior step (and demotes Hui Shi to a postscript). It includes the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication and a cluster of other less well known thinkers.
  
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==Debates==
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The terms ''Dao'' and ''De'' (virtue/excellence) are shared terms of debate in this period. Most of the texts of ancient Chinese philosophy argued for some ''dao'' or other and advocated cultivating ''de'' in that favored ''dao''. While ''dao'' was initially ethical-social norms, it quickly broadened to include the norms of language use and of claiming or attributing knowledge. This broadening dialectic about ''dao'' is what warrants describing the views of Laozi and Zhuangzi as Daoism. Daoism represents the view that the norms for language, knowledge, ethics and society are grounded in and continuous with natural norms. So any discussion of ''dao'' and ''de'' involves us in reflections on the nature of human society and its place in the universe as a whole.
  
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===Abuse of "Tao (Dao)"===
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These early Daoist texts reject numerous basic assumptions of Confucianism, embracing instead values based on nature, perspectivalism, and spontaneity. They express skepticism of conventional moralities and Mozi's Utilitarian or Mencius' benevolence based revisions. Since politics was conceived by these traditional schools as a scheme for unifying all "under the [[Tian|Heaven]]" in their favored ''dao'', Daoists tend toward [[anarchism]], mistrustful of hierarchical social structures and particularly, governments. (Zhuangzi argues that the proponents of benevolence and morality are usually found at the gates of feudal lords who have stolen their kingdoms.)    Although philosophical Daoist appear to be anarchist, it is clearly an over statement.  [[Mitigated Anarchism]] would better categorise the philosophical Daoists, they tend to believe in the idea that the government should act in a 'non acting' or 'wu wei' manner. This means that they should only act when necessary and their actions should not be felt directly by the people, nor should they be visible to the people. Chapters 57-81 of the Dao De Ching all deal with government, ruling, and appeasing the people.
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In the West, Daoist philosophy has inspired a number of popular spiritual works ranging from [[Fritjof Capra]]'s ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'' to [[Benjamin Hoff]]'s ''[[The Tao of Pooh]]''. In these cases the concept of "Tao (Dao)" is generalized beyond its original cultural context.
 
  
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In popular Western parlance, "Daoist" has come to mean generally just being "cool" or "going with the flow". It has also become common to see books and articles titled ''The Dao of'' business strategy, marketing, programming, etc. Links between these works and strict Daoism are often quite tenuous; many authors use "Daoism" as an excuse for obfuscatory speech, while many others use "Dao" to mean a way of doing something whether it is in accord with actual Daoist philosophy or not. Some authors writing ''The Dao of'' books even contradict what seems to have been the original intentions of Laozi and Zhuangzi. For example, a book on the "Tao of Marketing" would be very hard pressed to actually follow the Dao De Jing's anti-materialistic mores.
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Daoist thought partly inspired [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]] philosophers, whose theories were used by [[Qin Shi Huang]], founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of [[Han Fei Zi]], a prominent Legalist thinker who commented on the ''Dao De Jing''. Han Feizi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.
  
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===Daoism: A philosophy or a religion?===
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The entry of [[Buddhism]] into China was via its dialectic with later Daoism which transformed them both. Over the centuries of Chinese interactions, Buddhism gradually found itself transformed from a competitor of Daoism, to a fellow inhabitant of the Chinese cultural ecosystem.<ref>Maspero (1981), p. 46.</ref> Originally seen as a kind of foreign Daoism, its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Daoist vocabulary. [[Chan Buddhism]] in particular is inspired by crucial elements of philosophical Daoism, ranging from distrust of scripture, text and language to its more positive view of "this life", practice, skill and the absorption in "every-moment". In the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang period]] Daoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of emptiness, and the amassing of a vast collection of scripture into tripartite organisation.<ref>Maspero (1981), p. 50-51.</ref> 
  
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There is some debate about a distinction between Daoism as a religious tradition and Daoism as a philosophical system. When most Westerners think of Daoism, they are often referring to the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi. These thought systems may be seen as ''philosophies'' rather than religions, as they include nothing within themselves about gods, worship or ritual. This type of Daoism is often referred to in Chinese as &#36947;&#23478; ([[pinyin]] Dàojïa), or "Daoist School of Thought" (though, more literally, as "Dao specialists").  
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Ideological and political rivals in ancient times, Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism have inevitably deeply influenced one another, and eventually achieved a kind of ''modus vivendi'' in which each has its own particular ecological niche within Chinese society. With time, most Chinese people likewise came to identify to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalised by the time of the [[Song Dynasty]], when aspects of the three schools were consciously synthesised in the [[Neo-Confucian]] school, which eventually became Imperial [[orthodoxy]] for state bureaucratic purposes.  
  
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Another aspect of Daoism, more familiar in China or countries under Chinese cultural influence, includes worship of Laozi and other divinities, magic, alchemy, [[qigong]], perfection of immortality, and many other practices. This aspect of Daoism encompasses teaching lineages (where teachers pass on texts, rituals and beliefs to select students), temples, and sects. It is often referred to as Daoist ''religion'', or &#36947;&#25945; ([[pinyin]] Dàojiào). 
+
[[The Vinegar Tasters]] (sometimes called Three Vinegar Tasters) is a popular painting (usually in scroll format) that explained Daoist ideals in relation to the [[Neo-Confucian]] school which began in the [[10th century]] and gained prominence in the [[12th century]]. The image depicts Laozi together with [[Gautama Buddha|The Buddha]], and [[Confucius]]. In these paintings the three are gathered around a vat of vinegar and the motto associated with the grouping is "the three teachings are one."  (However, see [[The Vinegar Tasters]] for an alternate interpretation.)
  
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The relationship between Daoist religion and Daoist philosophy is complex. One of the original founders of Daoist religious sects, [[Zhang Daoling]], said he had received revelations from Laozi himself. Most Daoist religious sects hold Laozi to be at least a god, if not the highest divinity. Daoist religious practice often includes beliefs strongly founded on the ''Dao De Jing''. There are also hints in the ''Zhuangzi'' of immortality, a common feature of Daoist religious practice. Further, many Chinese traditional religious practices are considered "Daoist" even when there is little that specifically makes them so.  
+
In spreading Catholic Christianity to China, Jesuit [[Matteo Ricci]] sought to ally the Church with Confucianism. In so doing the Jesuits encouraged the view that China lacked a [[high religion]] of its own (since Confucianism was not regarded as such). Until well into the twentieth century, Christians have tended to view religious Daoism as a hodgepodge of primitive superstitions, or even as a form of [[demonolatry]] due to insufficient understanding.
  
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A clear and definitive distinction between that which is religion and that which is philosophy in Daoism is difficult. Moreover, a clear distinction between ideas and practices originating with Daoism and those from other sources in Chinese culture is also often impossible.
+
In the last century or so, Daoism (along with Confucianism and Buddhism) has become incorporated into the theology of the [[Way of Former Heaven]] sects, notably [[Yiguandao]]. The same could be said with respect to Vietnam's religion of [[Caodaism]].
  
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===Relation to other practices===
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Western [[New Age]]rs have embraced some aspects of Daoism: the name and concept of Dao, the names and concepts of [[yin and yang]]; an appreciation for Laozi and Zhuangzi, and a respect for other aspects of Chinese tradition such as qigong. At the same time, Western appropriations differ in subtle (or not so subtle) ways from their Asian sources. For example, the word Dao is used in numerous book titles which are connected to Chinese culture only tangentially. Examples would include [[Fritjof Capra]]'s ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'', or [[Benjamin Hoff]]'s [[The Tao of Pooh]].
  
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In [[Surat Shabd Yoga]], the term "Dao" is often considered to represent the same esoteric concept as the term "Shabda."
+
Daoism has also been a resource for those in environmental philosophy, who see the non-anthropocentric nature of Daoism as a guide for new ways of thinking about nature and environmental ethics.  Some consider Daoism to fit naturally with the radical environmental philosophy of [[deep ecology]].  ''Daoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape'' edited by N. J. Girardot, James Miller, and Liu Xiaogan is currently the most thorough introduction to studies done on concepts of nature and ecology within Daoism.
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
−
* [[Chaordic]]
+
* [[Taoic religion]]
−
* [[Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue]]
+
* [[Western interpretations of Taoism]]
−
* [[Dialectical monism]]
 
 
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
 
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
−
* [[List of Daoists]]
+
* [[Anarchism]]
−
* [[Tao of Pooh]]
+
* [[Mitigated Anarchism]]
−
* [[Qigong]]
+
* [[List of Taoists]]
−
* [[Taijiquan]]
+
* [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]]
−
* [[Dao Yin]]
+
* [[Tao Yin]]
−
* [[Daoist diet]]
+
* [[Taoist diet]]
 
* [[Yingtan]]
 
* [[Yingtan]]
−
* [[Zen Buddhism]]
+
* [[Korean Taoism]]
−
* [[Three jewels of the Dao]]
+
* [[Taoism in Vietnam]]
 +
* [[Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue]]
 +
* [[Taoist Doctrine]]
 +
* [[Taoist places of worship]]
 +
 
 +
==Notes==
 +
{{reflist|2}}
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm Religious Tolerance: Taoism]
+
*Chang, Stephen T.  ''The Great Tao'' (Tao Longevity LLC, 1985).  ISBN 0-942196-01-5.
−
*[http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/taoism.html University of Virginia: Taoism]
+
*Dean, Kenneth. ''Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China'' (Princeton: Princeton University, 1993).
−
* Henri Maspero, ''Taoism and Chinese Religion'' (Amherst:University of Massachusets Press,1981). ISBN 0870233084
+
*Graham, A.C. ''Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'' (Open Court, 1993). ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
−
*Singh, K. (1999). ''[http://www.ruhanisatsangusa.org/naam/contents.htm Naam or Word]''. Blaine, WA: Ruhani Satsang Books. ISBN 0942735943
+
*Graham, A.C. (translator). ''Chuang-tzu: The Inner Chapters'' (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001). ISBN 0-87220-581-9   
−
*Grigg, Ray, ''The Tao of Zen'' (Tuttle,1994). ISBN 0785811257
+
*Jordan, David K. ''Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors: The Folk Religion of a Taiwanese Village'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
−
*Bryce, Gavin, ''100% Awareness'' (Epic 2005). ISBN 0392089302
+
*Kaltenmark, Max. ''Lao Tzu and Taoism'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969 [original French 1965]).
 +
*Knauer, Elfried R. "The Queen Mother of the West: A Study of the Influence of Western Prototypes on the Iconography of the Taoist Deity." In ''Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World''. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. 2006 Pp. 62-115. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
 +
*Kohn, Livia. ''The Taoist Experience: An Anthology'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993).
 +
*Kohn, Livia, ed. ''Daoism Handbook'' (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
 +
*Kohn, Livia.  ''The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the <u>Fengdao Kejie</u>'' (New York: Oxford University Press 2004)
 +
*Lau, D. C. ''Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching''  (London: Penguin Classics, 1963). ISBN 0-14-044131-X
 +
*Little, Stephen and Shawn Eichman, et al. ''Taoism and the Arts of China'' (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2000).  ISBN 0-520-22784-0
 +
*Maspero, Henri.''Taoism and Chinese Religion'' (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981). ISBN 0-87023-308-4
 +
*Miller, James. ''Daoism: A Short Introduction'' (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003).  ISBN 1-85168-315-1
 +
*Ni, Hua-Ching. ''Tao: The Subtle Universal Law and the Integral Way of Life'' (SevenStar Communications, 1998). ISBN 0-937064-65-3
 +
*Robinet. Isabelle. ''Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity'' (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993 [original French 1989]).
 +
*Robinet, Isabelle. ''Taoism: Growth of a Religion'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]).
 +
*Schipper, Kristopher. ''The Taoist Body'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]).
 +
*Schipper, Kristopher and Franciscus Verellen. ''The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Daozang'' (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004).
 +
*Silvers, Brock.  ''The Taoist Manual'' (Honolulu: Sacred Mountain Press, 2005).
 +
*Sivin, Nathan. ''Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies'' (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1968).
 +
*Sommer, Deborah. ''Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources'' (Oxford University Press, 1995). ISBN 0-19-508895-6
 +
 
 +
==Further reading==
 +
 
 +
* Saso, Michael R. ''Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal (Second Edition)'' Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-87422-054-4
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
 
{{commons|Taoism}}
 
{{commons|Taoism}}
 
{{wikisourcepar|Dao De Jing}}
 
{{wikisourcepar|Dao De Jing}}
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* [http://www.Tao.org Center of Traditional Taoist Studies] &mdash; Taoist temple providing training in the Taoist arts and philosophy.
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*[http://www.citadel01.co.nr/tao/ Taoist Wayfaring] Taoist texts, original essays and practical application of philosophy
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* [http://www.edepot.com/taoism.html Daoism Depot] &mdash; one of the largest Taoism sites on the net.
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* [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html 老子Lǎozĭ 道德經Dàodéjīng - 拼音Pīnyīn+王弼WángBì+馬王堆Mǎwángduī+郭店 Guōdiàn] +new English+German translations: verbatim+analogous+poetical (Dr.Hilmar KLAUS)
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* [http://www.taoism.net Taoism.net] &mdash; information on Taoism and original Taoist philosophic stories and writings.
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*[http://web.archive.org/web/20010430052927/www.thetemple.com/alt.philosophy.taoism/taofaq.htm alt.philosophy.taoism FAQ], original Taoism Internet FAQ
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* [http://www.taopage.org Taoism Initiation Page] &mdash; provides teachings on Taoism including online courses.
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*[http://www.personaltao.com/ A Personal Tao], "modern Tao Te Ching book exploring Taoism, life and how to find oneself"
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* [http://www.taoism-directory.org Taoism Directory] &mdash; Directory of sites with content related to Taoism and Taoism issues.
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*[http://www.taoism-directory.org/ Taoism Directory], directory of sites with content related to Taoism and Taoist issues.
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* [http://www.religionfacts.com/taoism/index.htm Taoism] &mdash; glossary, timeline, fast facts, etc.
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*[http://www.thetao.info/ About the Tao], Taoism Texts, explanations, software, images and video
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* [http://www.rotten.com/library/religion/taoism/ Rotten Library] &mdash; article on Taoism
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*[http://www.daoistcenter.org/ Center for Daoist Studies], web-based resource for the study and practice of Daoism
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* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Daodejing English, French, and German translations of the ''Dao De Jing'']
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*[http://daozang.com/ Jade Purity], central documents of philosophical Daoism
−
* [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html Dàodé Jīng online] &mdash; German and English
+
*[http://www.shuhai.hawaii.edu Shuhai Wenyuan], academically rigorous texts and tools in an innovative Worktable format to facilitate the reading, researching, and understanding of ancient Chinese philosophy, University of Hawaii
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* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/taote.htm ''Tao te Ching''] &mdash; English translation
+
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm Taoism], Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance
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* [http://www.thetao.info/index.htm "About the Tao" website] &mdash; includes downloadable "Daily Tao" quotes and screensaver, etc.
+
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/taoism/index.htm Taoism], Religion Facts
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* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010430052927/www.thetemple.com/alt.philosophy.taoism/ The orginal Taoism Internet FAQ for alt.philosphy.taoism]
+
*[http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/taoism.html Taoism], Religious Movements Homepage, University of Virginia
−
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ Taoism] &mdash; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ Taoism], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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* [http://www.taorestore.org Taoist Restoration Society] &mdash; Introduction to Taoism articles, other articles on Taoist topics.
+
*[http://www.taoarts.com/ourcustomers.html Tao Arts, "Our customers"], photographs of modern Daoist altars.
 +
*[http://www.eng.taoism.org.hk/ Taoist Culture & Information Centre], Hong Kong Fung Ying Seen Koon Daoist Centre
 +
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/ Taoist Texts], Internet Sacred Text Archive
 +
*[http://www.taopage.org/ Taoism Initiation Page], Provides teachings on Taoism and related topics like tao, yin-yang, wu, wu-wei and the I-ching
 +
*[http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l= The Way and Its Power], English, French, and German translations of the ''Dao De Jing''
 +
*[http://www.taoisminfo.com Taoism Info] Philosophical Taoism
 +
*[http://www.wuchitao.com Wu Chi Tao Library], Taoist, religious, and mystical writings
  
 
[[Category: Taoism (Daoism)| ]]
 
[[Category: Taoism (Daoism)| ]]
  
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[[category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[category:Philosophy and religion]]

Revision as of 15:54, 23 March 2007


Daoism is the English name for a cluster of Chinese religious and philosophical traditions. These traditions have developed over more than two-thousand years in China, Korea, and Japan and some have now have spread throughout the world.[1] While there is a great deal of debate over how (and whether) Daoism should be subdivided, some scholars have divided it into the following three categories.[2]

  1. a philosophical school based on the texts the Dao De Jing (ascribed to Laozi and alternately spelled Tao Te Ching) and the Zhuangzi;
  2. a family of organized Chinese religious movements such as the Zhengyi ("Orthodoxy") or Quanzhen ("complete reality") sects, which collectively trace back to Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty;
  3. the Chinese folk religion.[3]
The Chinese character 道 (pinyin Dào, Wade-Giles Dao4) "Way".

The English word Daoism is used to translate the Chinese terms Daojiao (道教 "teachings/religion of the Dao") and Daojia (道家 "school of the Dao"). The character Dao 道 (or Tao, depending on the romanization scheme) means "path" or "way", but in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. The compound Daojiao refers to Daoism as a religion; Daojia refers to the activity of scholars in their studies. It must be noted that this distinction is itself controversial and fraught with hermeneutic difficulty. Many scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao, and that the distinction is propagated by people who are not familiar with Daoism.[4]

Much uncertainty exists over the meaning of Daoism. In some countries and contexts (for example, the Daoism organizations of China and Taiwan), the label is applied to Chinese folk religion, which would otherwise not have a readily recognizable English name. However many, if not most, of its practitioners would not recognize Daoism (in any language) as the name of their religion. Moreover, the several forms of what we might call organized Daoism often distinguish their ritual activities from those of the folk religion, which some professional Daoists (Daoshi) tend to view as debased.

Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines have some relationship with Daoism.

History

Daoism's origins may be traced to prehistoric Chinese religions in China; to the composition of the Dao De Jing (3rd or 4th century B.C.E.); or to the activity of Zhang Daoling (2nd century AD). Alternatively, one could argue that Daoism as a religious identity only arose later, by way of contrast with the newly-arrived religion of Buddhism, or with the fourth-century codification of the Shangching and Lingbao texts.[5]

Other accounts credit Laozi (reputed author of the Dao De Jing) as the teacher of both Buddha, and Confucius, and alleged Laozi to have had thirteen incarnations starting in the reign of Fuxi, one of the Three August Ones and Five Emperors up until his last as Laozi who lived over 800 years. They describe early Daoism to ancient picture writing, mysticism, and indigenous Ancestor worship. Symbology on tortoise shells predates early Chinese calligraphy and is the basis of written Chinese from artifacts dated from prior to 1600 B.C.E.

Legend has it that while passing through the hills of China, Laozi was asked by a bridge keeper to write a book containing his thoughts and beliefs, which yielded the text of Dao De Jing.

Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.)

In the early Han Dynasty, the Dao came to be associated with or conflated with the Xian Di Emperor. A major text from the Huang-Lao movement would be the Huainanzi, which interprets earlier Daoist teachings in light of the quest for immortality. Zhang Daoling claimed to have begun receiving new revelations from Laozi and went on to found the Celestial Masters sect as the "First Celestial Master". He performed spiritual healing, and collected dues of five pecks of rice from his followers (thus providing an alternative name for his movement). Zhang Daoling's major message was that the world-order would soon come to an end, and be succeeded by an era of "Great Peace" (Taiping).Their activities did hasten the downfall of the Han Dynasty, largely because Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state into what is now Sichuan province. The same could be said of their contemporaries and fellow Daoists, the Yellow Turban sect.[6] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid second century CE.[7] The Yin and Yang and five elements theories date from this time, but were not yet integrated into Daoism.[8]

The name Daojia comes from the Han Dynasty. In Sima Qian's history (chapter 63) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi. Daojiao came to be applied to the religious movements mentioned above. The two terms were used interchangeably until modern times. (We owe the distinction to Confucian writers.) The earliest commentary on the Dao De Jing is that of Heshang Gong (the "Riverside Master"), a legendary figure depicted as a teacher to the Han emperor.[9]

Three Kingdoms Period (220–265)

The Xuanxue (Mysterious Wisdom) school, including Wang Bi, focused on the texts of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Many of the school's members, including Wang Bi himself, were not religious in any sense.[10] Wang Bi mostly focused on reconciling Confucian thought with Daoist thought. Because the version of the Dao De Jing that has been passed on to the present is the one that Wang Bi commented upon, his interpretations became very influential as they were passed on alongside the Dao De Jing. In addition, his commentary was compatible with Confucian ideas and Buddhist ideas that later entered China. This compatibility ensured Daoism would remain an important aspect of Chinese culture, and made the merging of the three religions easier in later periods, such as the Tang dynasty.[11]

Six Dynasties (316–589)

Daoist alchemist Ge Hong, also known as Baopuzi (抱扑子 The "Master Embracing Simplicity") was active in the third and fourth centuries and had great influence on later Daoism.[12] Major scriptures were produced during this time period, including The Shangqing (上清 "Supreme Clarity") (365–370) and Lingbao (靈寶 "Sacred Treasure") scriptures (397–402) received at Maoshan. The Shangqing revelations were received by Yang Xi, a relative of Ge Hong's; the revelations emphasised meditative visualisation (內觀 neiguan). They spoke of the Shangqing heaven, which stood above what had been previously considered the highest heaven by Celestial Master Daoists. Yang Xi's revelations consisted of visitations from the residents of this heaven (the "Zhen Ren") many of whom were ancestors of a circle of aristocrats from southern China. These Zhen Ren spoke of an apocalypse which was to arrive in 384, and claimed that only certain people from this aristocratic circle had been chosen to be saved. For the first century of its existence, Shangqing Daoism was isolated to this aristocratic circle. However, Tao Hongjing (456–536) codified and wrote commentaries on Yang Xi's writings and allowed for the creation of Shangqing Daoism as a popular religion.[13] The Lingbao scriptures added some Buddhist elements such as an emphasis on universal salvation.[14]

The Huahujing (化胡經 "Scripture of Conversion of Barbarians") claimed that Laozi went to India, where he taught less advanced doctrines under the name of Buddha. Buddhists found this claim objectionable, and emperors regularly condemned it. A similar claim is made in the Xishengjing (西升經 the "Scripture of Western Ascension").

The oldest known book that details the coming apocolypse was also produced in this period under the name Taishang dongyuan shenzhou jing, or The Divine Incantations Scripture.[15] The earliest portions of the book have been traced back to the beginning of the fifth century. They offered a new route to transcendence that was was different from the Celestial Masters movement it branched off of. This scripture sought to clarify the gods are, "in a word, merely the officials of the celestial bureaucracy."[16] The text was unique for the time in that it promised the aid of celestial "ghost troops" to those who upheld its teachings and acknowledged the dynamic obedience and simultaneous danger of various "daemon kings" that also existed in a fantastical version of the metaphysical world. These characteristics draw interesting parallels with the cosmic and celestial warfare depicted in the Book of Revelations from the Christian New Testament. The book also urges Daoists to "assiduously convert the unenlightened," and demands scriptural exclusivity when receiving the scripture. [17]

Tang Dynasty (618–907)

Daoism gained official status in China during the Tang Dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[18] However, it was forced to compete with Confucianism and Buddhism, its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Emperor Xuanzong (685–762), who ruled at the height of the Tang, wrote commentaries on texts from all three of these traditions, which exemplifies the fact that in many people's lives they were not mutually exclusive. This marks the beginning of a long-lived tendency within imperial China, in which the government supported (and simultaneously regulated) all three movements.[19]

The Gaozong Emperor added the Dao De Jing to the list of classics (jing, 經) to be studied for the imperial examinations.[20]

Song Dynasty (960–1279)

Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Daoism, collecting Daoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.[21]

The Quanzhen school of Daoism was founded during this period, and together with the Zhengyi Celestial Masters is one of the two schools of Daoism that have survived to the present.[22]

The Song Dynasty saw an increasingly complex interaction between the elite traditions of organised Daoism as practised by ordained Daoist ministers (daoshi) and the local traditions of folk religion as practised by spirit mediums (wu) and a new class of non-ordained ritual experts known as fashi.[23] This interaction manifested itself in the integration of 'converted' local deities into the bureaucratically organised Daoist pantheon and the emergence of new exorcistic rituals, including the Celestial Heart Rites and the Thunder Rites.[24]

Aspects of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.[25]

Yuan Dynasty (1279–1367)

White Cloud Monastery, Beijing

While Daoism suffered a significant setback in 1281 when all copies of the Daozang were ordered burned, this holocaust gave Daoism a chance to renew itself.[26] Neidan, a form of internal alchemy, became a major emphasis of the Quanzhen sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of its leaders, Qiu Chuji became a teacher of Genghis Khan (and used his influence to save millions of lives). Originally from Shanxi and Shandong, the sect established its main center in Beijing's Baiyunguan ("White Cloud Monastery").[27] Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial Masters sect (and Buddhism) again gained preeminence.[28]

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

In 1406, emperor Zhu Di commanded that all Daoist texts be collected and combined into a new version of the Daozang. The text was finally finished in 1447, and took nearly forty years to complete.[29]

Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)

The ruin of the Ming dynasty and the subsequnt establishment of the Qing dynasty by the non-Chinese Manchus was blamed by some literati on religion, specifically Daoism. They sought to regain power by advocating a return to Confucian orthodoxy in a movement called Hanxue, or 'National Studies.' This movement returned the Confucian classics to favor and completely rejected Daoism. During the eighteenth century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virutally all Daoist books.[30] By the beginning of the twentieth century, Daoism had fallen so much from favor, that only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.[31]

Nationalist Period (1912–1949)

Guomindang (China Nationalist Party) leaders embraced science, modernity, and Western culture, including (to some extent) Christianity. Viewing the popular religion as reactionary and parasitic, they confiscated some temples for public buildings, and otherwise attempted to control traditional religious activity.[32]

People's Republic of China (1949–present)

The Communist Party of China, officially atheistic, initially suppressed Daoism along with other religions. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, many Daoist temples and sites were damaged or destroyed and Monks and priests were sent to labor camps.[33]

Persecution of Daoists stopped in 1979, and many Daoists began reviving their traditions.[34] Subsequently, communist leaders have recognised Daoism as an important traditional religion of China and also as a potential lucrative focus for tourism, so many of the more scenic temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.[citation needed]

Daoism is one of five religions recognised by the PRC, which insists on controlling its activities through a state bureaucracy (the China Daoist Association).[35] Sensitive areas include the relationship of the Zhengyi Daoists with their sect's lineage-holder, who lives in Taiwan,[citation needed] and various traditional temple activities such as astrology and shamanism, which have been criticised as "superstitious".[36]


Adherents

The number of Daoists is difficult to estimate, partly for definitional reasons (who counts as a Daoist?), and partly for practical ones (it is illegal for private parties to conduct surveys in China). The number of people practicing some aspect of the Chinese folk religion might number in the hundreds of millions. (Adherents.com estimates "Traditional Chinese religion" at nearly four hundred million). The number of people patronising Daoshi (Daoist priests or masters) would be smaller by several orders of magnitude, while the number of literary Daojia would be smaller yet. At the same time, most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Daoist tradition.

Geographically, Daoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: inland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Daoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and these countries' folk religions have many common elements. Organized Daoism seems not to have attracted a non-Chinese following until modern times.

Beliefs

A Daoist Temple in Taiwan. The religious practice of incense burning as well as images of the Fu Dog and Dragon guardian spirits can be seen.

Daoism has never been a unified religion and has always consisted of different teachings based on many different original revelations. Therefore different branches of Daoism often have very different beliefs. Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that all the schools share.[37]

Beyond the Chinese folk religion, various rituals, exercises, or substances are said to positively affect one's physical health (even to the point of immortality); align oneself spiritually with cosmic forces; or enable ecstatic spiritual journeys. These concepts seem basic to Daoism in its elite forms.

The philosophical aspect of Daoism emphasizes various themes found in the Dao De Jing such as natureness, vitality, peace, "nonaction" (wu wei), emptiness (refinement), detachment, the strength of softness (or flexibility), and in Zhuang Zi such as receptiveness, spontaneity, the relativism of human ways of life, ways of speaking and guiding behavior. Most philosophical debate concerns dao—what way we should follow, but really, Daoists more directly question what dao is, how or if we can know it and emphasize more than other schools the ways social daos depend on and presuppose natural daos. Their more detached discussion and their reluctance to formulate or advocate a social dao of their own means their discussions tend to be more playful and paradoxical than dogmatic. This makes their tone strikingly different from Confucian and Mohist texts.

Daoist commentators have been puzzled by the opening lines of the Dao De Jing, which has usually been translated:

The way which can be way-ed (followed), is not the eternal Way.

The name which can be named, is not the eternal Name.

The original words are

道可道，非常道。 (dao (ways) can be way-ed, not usual ways)

名可名，非常名。 (names can be named, not usual names))

In Chinese, "道" or "Dao" is used both as a noun and verb. 'Way' works well for the noun, but the translation for the verb "to speak" seems unmatched in meaning, unless we think in terms of "to advocate, to preach, to formulate etc." Notice in the second line, the noun and verb use of '名' seem closer in meaning, "names" and "to name". Concretely, a road is a dao—a guide for where to go or how to get where we want to go. However, daos can be marked in other ways—e.g. simply by pointing or putting signs "along the way" etc. Daoists are intrigued both by how daos are made by our walking (wearing a path) and by how we can read what way to go from natural signals (animal paths). The verb probably would be something like pointing, marking, setting an example or otherwise signaling which way to go.

It should also be noted that while the above has become a standard translation, scholars have noted it is grammatically and conceptually problematic. Grammatically, it has no article so could be read "a/any dao can be dao-ed, (but) this is not the constant dao-ing. A name can be named, (but) this is not the constant naming". Conceptually, the character for "constant"(常) is used philosophically to describe a dao that does not need to change in different times or societies and reliably guides behavior. Laozi later describes a dao as "reversing" and the texts emphasises opposites, i.e.: high and low, hard and soft, etc. The Mawangdui version of the text contains similar passages, vide: ch.1, 3, 40).

Thus, any terms we use to advocate a dao can be reversed and still guide behavior. The other term in the title (which, compounded with 'dao', formed the Chinese term for 'ethics') is 'de.'. It is "the dao within" which may comprise the capacity we have to learn a way of life and the result of learning/practicing it. De should interpret the learned "way of life" into a correct pattern of behavior—hence its usual translation as "virtue" or "excellence." Other terms were later integrated into philosophical Daoism including yin and yang (closely related to Dialectical monism) and five elements (五行, wuxing) theories, and the concept of qi. Originally belonging to rival philosophical schools, these themes entered Daoism by way of Han Confucianism which focused on cosmic cycles and portents to guide the ruler's deportment dress, and so forth. They blend into Daoism as examples of "natural" dao with which any viable human dao must harmonise.

The way which can be uttered, is not the eternal Way.

While academic deconstructions of this phrase result in much confusion, there is also a much simpler interpretation by metaphor: The Way is like dancing. You can talk about dancing, but your talk about dancing isn't the dance itself. Nor does your description really teach someone else how to dance unless they figure out how to apply it for themselves. No matter how complicated the description (words, sketches even video) it always lacks the entirety of what is.

This interpretation shares Korzybski's observation that "the map is not the territory".

Deities

Traditional Chinese religion is determinedly polytheistic. Its deities are arranged into a heavenly civil service that mirrors the bureaucracy of imperial China. Deities may be promoted or demoted. Many are said to have once been virtuous humans. The particular deities worshipped vary somewhat according to geography, and much more according to historical period (though the general pattern of worship is more constant).[38]

There is also something of a disconnection between the set of gods which currently receive popular worship, and those which are the focus of elite Daoist texts and rituals. For example, the Jade Emperor is at the head of the popular pantheon, while the Celestial Masters' altar recognizes the deified Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones in that position.[39][40] Some texts explain that Laozi has sponsored the apotheosis of various other gods.

In some Daoist systems, Hong-jun lao-zu (鸿钧老祖 or 鸿元老祖, the great primal originator) is the common ancester/teacher of all the deities.

While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Dao De Jing (e.g., the "mysterious female" in chapter 6), these have generally not become the objects of cultic worship. We must not confuse Dao with the western concept of monotheism. The Dao is not personal, nor is it an unchanging spiritual entity similar to the Hindu Atman. The Chinese word Dao can mean a process or a path, but not an entity. It is only to be followed, not to be worshipped. Dao merely means the natural way of the universe. Being one with the Dao does not indicate a union with an eternal spirit in the Hindu sense, but merely live with the change and accept the way of nature; that of impermanence and flexibility. Early texts describe Dao not as equal to "the One", but as a principle underlying both the One and the Many. One revealing phrase used to describe it is huntun (roughly, "chaotic mixture"). In the wake of Wang Bi, philosophical Daoists have tended to describe it as "nothingness", which is the origin of "being." (Cf. the apophatic tendencies of theism, including negative theology.)

Practices

Detail of circa 1700 painting of a Daoist ritual for the dead, illustrating a scene from The Plum in the Golden Vase. Note the plaques at the back of the altar of the Three Purities, and the various ritual implements including incense burner and ritual sword on the right. (According to the novel the sword is engraved with the seven stars of the big dipper.) Bowls hold food offerings for the deceased woman, Li Ping'er.

Nearly all forms of Chinese traditional religion involve baibai (拜拜)—bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one's hand. (Some schools prescribe the use of three sticks of incense in the hand at one time.[41] ) This may be done at home, or in a temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional (such as a Daoshi 道士); and the altar may feature any number of deities or ancestral tablets. Baibai is usually done in accordance with certain dates of the lunar/solar calendar (see Chinese calendar).

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods and/or spirits of the departed. (See, for example, Qingming Festival.) This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use.

Also at certain dates, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. Street parades may also include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); jitong (乩童 male "Mediums") who mutilate their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are gongfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the god in question.[42]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, Yi Qing (I Ching), and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Daoist pursuit.[43] Mediumship is also widely encountered. We may distinguish between martial forms of mediumship (like the aforementioned jitong) and more literary forms in which the possessed medium communicates messages from the spirit world by writing them with a special utensil (such as use of the "planchette").[44]

Isabelle Robinet's book Daoist Meditation describes various practices given in the Maoshan texts. These include controlling bodily fluids such as urine, saliva, and the breath; visualisation practices in which various internal organs are imaginarily linked with corresponding gods and/or celestial bodies (e.g. the stars of the bei tou, the "Big Dipper"); and heavenly journeys via the Great Pole, which is reached by a limping shamanic dance called the "Step of Wu".

Daoist charm from Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco.

Many Daoists also participated in the reading and writing of books. Daoists of this type tend to be civil servants, elderly retirees, or in modern times, university faculty. While there is considerable overlap with religious Daoism, there are often important divergences in interpretation. Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on the Laozi (and Yijing) was in fact a Confucian.[45]

For many educated Chinese people (the Literati), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private aspect, with Daoist aspirations. Night-time, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Daoism and reread Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang, and Xing Yi Quan, embody Daoist principles to a greater or lesser extent, and some practitioners consider their art to be a means of practicing Daoism.[46] The accuracy of these claims varies greatly depending on the particular art and/or practitioner.

Scriptures

Daoist Priest in Macau, February 2006

The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Dao) is sometimes referred to as the "Daoist canon." While it had been compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties, the version that survives today is the one published during the Ming dynasty.[47][48]The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[49] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripitaka, it is divided into three dong 洞 ("caves", often translated "grottoes"), arranged here from highest to lowest:

  1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth") grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
  2. The Xuan ("mystery") grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
  3. The Shen ("divine") grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan revelations.[50][51]

The Dao De Jing, written around the 4th century B.C.E., is widely considered to be the most influential Daoist text.[52] The Dao De Jing constitutes an appendix (fu) to the first grotto. Other appendices include the Taipingjing ("Scripture of Great Peace") as well as various alchemical texts, and scriptures from the Celestial Masters tradition.

However, Daoism is not a religion which regards the entire scripture as the primary source of truth. Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but use individual texts that may be included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[53] The receipt of permission to do the ritual is considered more important than knowledge of the texts' contents.

The Shangqing school does have a tradition of approaching Daoism through scriptural study, with recitation of certain texts was often enough for an adherent to gain immortality.[54]

Some Chinese movements emphasise newly-revealed scriptures. In Taiwan, one often finds Buddhist texts being chanted in Daoist temples.

Daoist symbols and images

Taijitu

There are many Symbols and Images that are associated with Daoism. Like in Christianity the "cross", and in Buddhism the "wheel", Daoism has Laozi, actual Chinese characters, and many other symbols that are often represented or associated with it.

The Taijitu ("yin and yang") symbol 太極圖 as well as the Bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Daoist symbolism.[55] While almost all Daoist organisations make use of the yin and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang make a backwards "S" shape, with yang (white or red) on top. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Daoist organisation flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.[56] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[57]

The five directions as conceived by the ancient Chinese (east, south, west, north, center) each have their own attributes, as follows in the chart below.[58]

Direction Element / Phase Animal Force
East Wood Azure Dragon Yang
South Fire Vermilion Bird Yang
West Metal White Tiger Yin
North Water Dark Warrior Yin
Center Earth none Neutral


Daoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.[59] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[60]

Paper lanterns outside of Daoist Benevolence Temple (Cíhuì Gōng) in Banqiao, Taipei.

One sometimes sees a zigzag with seven stars, representing the Big Dipper (or the "Bushel", the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[61]

Daoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[62] But in general, Chinese Daoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it particularly from other structures.[63]

Relations with other religions and philosophies

The origins of Daoism and other philosophical schools are intimately related. The authorship of the Daodejing is assigned to Laozi, traditionally thought to be a teacher of Confucius, yet appears to be reacting against Confucian doctrine (suggesting the text comes after Confucianism). Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), the other defining philosopher of Daoism, reacted both to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes and to related developments in theory of names (language). There is little evidence of a link between Laozi and Zhuangzi—whose most frequent interactions are with Hui Shi (of the school of names). However, the chapters of the Zhuangzi written after his death include dialogues between Laozi and Confucius that mimic (or inspire?) the style of the Daodejing, suggesting the first association of the two texts dates from around that time. The "history of thought" contained in the Zhuangzi cites Laozi as a prior step (and demotes Hui Shi to a postscript). It includes the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication and a cluster of other less well known thinkers.

The terms Dao and De (virtue/excellence) are shared terms of debate in this period. Most of the texts of ancient Chinese philosophy argued for some dao or other and advocated cultivating de in that favored dao. While dao was initially ethical-social norms, it quickly broadened to include the norms of language use and of claiming or attributing knowledge. This broadening dialectic about dao is what warrants describing the views of Laozi and Zhuangzi as Daoism. Daoism represents the view that the norms for language, knowledge, ethics and society are grounded in and continuous with natural norms. So any discussion of dao and de involves us in reflections on the nature of human society and its place in the universe as a whole.

These early Daoist texts reject numerous basic assumptions of Confucianism, embracing instead values based on nature, perspectivalism, and spontaneity. They express skepticism of conventional moralities and Mozi's Utilitarian or Mencius' benevolence based revisions. Since politics was conceived by these traditional schools as a scheme for unifying all "under the Heaven" in their favored dao, Daoists tend toward anarchism, mistrustful of hierarchical social structures and particularly, governments. (Zhuangzi argues that the proponents of benevolence and morality are usually found at the gates of feudal lords who have stolen their kingdoms.) Although philosophical Daoist appear to be anarchist, it is clearly an over statement. Mitigated Anarchism would better categorise the philosophical Daoists, they tend to believe in the idea that the government should act in a 'non acting' or 'wu wei' manner. This means that they should only act when necessary and their actions should not be felt directly by the people, nor should they be visible to the people. Chapters 57-81 of the Dao De Ching all deal with government, ruling, and appeasing the people.

Daoist thought partly inspired Legalist philosophers, whose theories were used by Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of Han Fei Zi, a prominent Legalist thinker who commented on the Dao De Jing. Han Feizi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.

The entry of Buddhism into China was via its dialectic with later Daoism which transformed them both. Over the centuries of Chinese interactions, Buddhism gradually found itself transformed from a competitor of Daoism, to a fellow inhabitant of the Chinese cultural ecosystem.[64] Originally seen as a kind of foreign Daoism, its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Daoist vocabulary. Chan Buddhism in particular is inspired by crucial elements of philosophical Daoism, ranging from distrust of scripture, text and language to its more positive view of "this life", practice, skill and the absorption in "every-moment". In the Tang period Daoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the celibacy of the clergy, the doctrine of emptiness, and the amassing of a vast collection of scripture into tripartite organisation.[65]

Ideological and political rivals in ancient times, Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism have inevitably deeply influenced one another, and eventually achieved a kind of modus vivendi in which each has its own particular ecological niche within Chinese society. With time, most Chinese people likewise came to identify to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously. This became institutionalised by the time of the Song Dynasty, when aspects of the three schools were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes.

The Vinegar Tasters (sometimes called Three Vinegar Tasters) is a popular painting (usually in scroll format) that explained Daoist ideals in relation to the Neo-Confucian school which began in the 10th century and gained prominence in the 12th century. The image depicts Laozi together with The Buddha, and Confucius. In these paintings the three are gathered around a vat of vinegar and the motto associated with the grouping is "the three teachings are one." (However, see The Vinegar Tasters for an alternate interpretation.)

In spreading Catholic Christianity to China, Jesuit Matteo Ricci sought to ally the Church with Confucianism. In so doing the Jesuits encouraged the view that China lacked a high religion of its own (since Confucianism was not regarded as such). Until well into the twentieth century, Christians have tended to view religious Daoism as a hodgepodge of primitive superstitions, or even as a form of demonolatry due to insufficient understanding.

In the last century or so, Daoism (along with Confucianism and Buddhism) has become incorporated into the theology of the Way of Former Heaven sects, notably Yiguandao. The same could be said with respect to Vietnam's religion of Caodaism.

Western New Agers have embraced some aspects of Daoism: the name and concept of Dao, the names and concepts of yin and yang; an appreciation for Laozi and Zhuangzi, and a respect for other aspects of Chinese tradition such as qigong. At the same time, Western appropriations differ in subtle (or not so subtle) ways from their Asian sources. For example, the word Dao is used in numerous book titles which are connected to Chinese culture only tangentially. Examples would include Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics, or Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh.

Daoism has also been a resource for those in environmental philosophy, who see the non-anthropocentric nature of Daoism as a guide for new ways of thinking about nature and environmental ethics. Some consider Daoism to fit naturally with the radical environmental philosophy of deep ecology. Daoism and Ecology: Ways Within A Cosmic Landscape edited by N. J. Girardot, James Miller, and Liu Xiaogan is currently the most thorough introduction to studies done on concepts of nature and ecology within Daoism.

See also

  • Taoic religion
  • Western interpretations of Taoism
  • Eastern philosophy
  • Anarchism
  • Mitigated Anarchism
  • List of Taoists
  • T'ai Chi Ch'uan
  • Tao Yin
  • Taoist diet
  • Yingtan
  • Korean Taoism
  • Taoism in Vietnam
  • Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue
  • Taoist Doctrine
  • Taoist places of worship

Notes

  1. ↑ Miller (2003), p. ix.
  2. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. XI.
  3. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. XXIX.
  4. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 3.
  5. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 2.
  6. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 54-55.
  7. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 50.
  8. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 7.
  9. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 6.
  10. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 6
  11. ↑ http://www.iep.utm.edu/w/wangbi.htm
  12. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 78.
  13. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 116-117.
  14. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 153.
  15. ↑ DeBary & Bloom (1999), p. 406.
  16. ↑ DeBary & Bloom (1999), p. 407.
  17. ↑ DeBary & Bloom, (1999), p. 409.
  18. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 184.
  19. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 186.
  20. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 185.
  21. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 213.
  22. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 567.
  23. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 415.
  24. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. 416-418, 423
  25. ↑ Kohn (2000), p. XVII.
  26. ↑ Schipper and Verellen (2004), p. 30.
  27. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 223-224.
  28. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 15.
  29. ↑ Schipper and Verellen (2004), p. 1-2.
  30. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 19.
  31. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 220.
  32. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 18.
  33. ↑ Dean (1993), p. 41.
  34. ↑ Dean (1993), p. 41.
  35. ↑ Noia 64 mimetypes pdf.pngPDF An address given to the Delegation EU-China of the European Parliament.
  36. ↑ Report from The Oslo Coalition "Visit to China"
  37. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 1.
  38. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 92.
  39. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 88.
  40. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 63.
  41. ↑ Silvers (2005), p. 74
  42. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 28-29.
  43. ↑ Silvers (2005), p. 129-132.
  44. ↑ Silvers (2005), p. 132. Discussing planchette
  45. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 192.
  46. ↑ Silvers (2005), pp. 135-137
  47. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 1.
  48. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 30.
  49. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36.
  50. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15.
  51. ↑ Litte (2000), p. 46
  52. ↑ Miller (2003), p. ix
  53. ↑ Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44.
  54. ↑ Robinet (1997), p. 132.
  55. ↑ Little (2000), pp. 131-139
  56. ↑ Little (2000), p. 131
  57. ↑ Little (2000), p. 131
  58. ↑ Little (2000), p. 129
  59. ↑ Kohn (2004), p. 116. (Translating a monastic rule.)
  60. ↑ Kohn (2004), p. 119
  61. ↑ Little (2000), p. 128
  62. ↑ Schipper (1993), p. 21.
  63. ↑ Little (2000), p. 74
  64. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 46.
  65. ↑ Maspero (1981), p. 50-51.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao (Tao Longevity LLC, 1985). ISBN 0-942196-01-5.
  • Dean, Kenneth. Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China (Princeton: Princeton University, 1993).
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  • Knauer, Elfried R. "The Queen Mother of the West: A Study of the Influence of Western Prototypes on the Iconography of the Taoist Deity." In Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. 2006 Pp. 62-115. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4; ISBN 0-8248-2884-4
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  • Kohn, Livia, ed. Daoism Handbook (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
  • Kohn, Livia. The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao Kejie (New York: Oxford University Press 2004)
  • Lau, D. C. Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching (London: Penguin Classics, 1963). ISBN 0-14-044131-X
  • Little, Stephen and Shawn Eichman, et al. Taoism and the Arts of China (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2000). ISBN 0-520-22784-0
  • Maspero, Henri.Taoism and Chinese Religion (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981). ISBN 0-87023-308-4
  • Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1
  • Ni, Hua-Ching. Tao: The Subtle Universal Law and the Integral Way of Life (SevenStar Communications, 1998). ISBN 0-937064-65-3
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  • Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 [original French 1992]).
  • Schipper, Kristopher. The Taoist Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993 [original French version 1982]).
  • Schipper, Kristopher and Franciscus Verellen. The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Daozang (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2004).
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  • Sivin, Nathan. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1968).
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Further reading

  • Saso, Michael R. Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal (Second Edition) Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-87422-054-4

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