Difference between revisions of "Athena" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Athena type Velletri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Helmeted Athena'', of the [[Velletri]] type. Roman copy (1st century) of a [[Art in Ancient Greece|Greek]] original by [[Kresilas]], ''c.'' [[430s B.C.E.|430 B.C.E.]]]]
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[[Image:NAMA Athéna Varvakeion.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A votive sculpture, copying the '''''Athena''' Parthenos'', Roman period, second century C.E., National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]
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In [[Greek mythology]], '''Athena''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{polytonic|Άθηνά}}''', ''Athēnâ'', or {{polytonic|Ἀθήνη}}, ''Athénē''; [[Latin]]: [[Minerva]]) was a multifaceted Greek goddess whose spheres of influence centered around wisdom and strategy.<ref>Athena's focus on wisdom became especially predominant with the ''rapprochement'' of Greek philosophy and religion in the later fifth century B.C.E. Chap. 7 ("Philosophical Religion") in Walter Burkert's magisterial ''Greek Religion'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985, ISBN 0631112413) treats these transformations in some detail.</ref> She was known as the companion of heroes, protector of [[city|cities]], and general patron of civilized, [[urbanization|urban]] life. Most importantly, the goddess had a strong ethical component, as she was nearly unique among the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympians]] for the fact that virtually no Greek mythic tales depicted her in an amoral or immoral light.<ref>H. J. Rose, ''A Handbook of Greek Mythology'' (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959, ISBN 0525470417), 108.</ref>
  
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In [[Greek mythology]], '''Athena''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{polytonic|Άθηνά}}''', ''Athēnâ'', or {{polytonic|Ἀθήνη}}, ''Athénē''; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{polytonic|Άσάνα}}, ''Asána''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: '''''[[Minerva]]''''') was the goddess of [[civilization]], specifically [[wisdom]], [[weaving]], [[crafts]] and the more disciplined side of [[war]] (violence and bloodlust were [[Ares]]' domain). Athena's wisdom encompasses the technical knowledge employed in weaving, metal-working, but also includes the cunning intelligence (''[[metis]]'') of such figures as [[Odysseus]]. The [[Little Owl|owl]] and the [[olive]] tree are sacred to her. Her name is derived from Greek Ἀθεονόα, ''Atheonóa'' (= from god's (theos) mind (nous)). Her nicknames were {{polytonic|Άτρυτώνη}}, ''Atrytone'' (= the unwearying), {{polytonic|Παρθένος}}, ''Parthénos'' (= virgin), and {{polytonic|Ή Πρόμαχος}}, ''Promachos'' (the pre-fighter/-tress, i. e. ''the person who fights in front'').
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Athena was renowned for her role as a protector of cities and thus was worshiped in [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] culture as ''Athena Polias'' ("Athena of the city"). In particular, she had a special relationship with the city of [[Athens]], as can be shown by the etymological connection of the city with her name.<ref>Burkert, 139: "Whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute."</ref><ref>This ancient relationship is further attested to by an archaic myth where she was described as the mother of Erichthonius (one of the founders of Athens) following a failed rape attempt. Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' 3.14.6.</ref> In classical myth, she never had a consort or lover, and thus was additionally known as ''Athena Parthenos'' ("Athena the virgin"), a name that was enshrined in stone as the [[Parthenon]], on the [[Acropolis]] in [[Athens]].
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She is attended by an owl, and is  often accompanied by the goddess of victory, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. Wearing a goatskin breastplate called the [[Aegis]] given to her by her father, [[Zeus]],<ref>Zeus is also "Aegis-bearing Zeus".</ref>, she is often shown helmeted and with a shield bearing the [[Gorgon]] [[Medusa]]'s head, a [[votive gift]] of [[Perseus]]. Athena is an armed warrior goddess, and appears in Greek mythology as a helper of many heroes, including [[Heracles]], [[Jason]], and [[Odysseus]]. She never had a consort or lover, and thus was often known as ''Athena Parthenos'' ("Athena the virgin"), hence her most famous temple, the [[Parthenon]], on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] in [[Athens]]. However, she was the mother of [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] by an attempted rape{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, which failed. Athena, disgusted, wiped the seed with wool, which was sacred to Gaia, and so Erichthonius was conceived.
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In sculpture, Athena often wore a breastplate (called the [[Aegis]] given to her by her father, [[Zeus]]),<ref>The Sky God's association with this artifact is attested to by the fact that he is also, on occasion, described as "Aegis-bearing Zeus." [http://www.theoi.com/Cult/ZeusTitles.html Theoi.com] has a list of the various mythic texts that use this moniker to describe Zeus. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> a helmet and a shield bearing the [[Gorgon]] [[Medusa]]'s head, a votive gift from [[Perseus]]. She was associated with battlefield strategy in contrast to the god [[Ares]], who was associated with madness, violence and bloodlust.  
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In her role as a protector of the city, Athena was worshiped throughout the Greek world as ''Athena Polias'' ("Athena of the city"). She had a special relationship with [[Athens]], as is shown by the etymological connection of the names of the goddess and the city.<ref>"Whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute" (Burkert, p. 139).</ref> Athena is associated with [[Athens]], a plural name because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the ''Athenai'', in earliest times.<ref>Ruck and Staples, p. 24.</ref> Athena was probably already a goddess in the Aegean in prehistoric times.<ref> Whether her name is attested in [[Eteocretan]] or not will have to wait for decipherment of [[Linear A]].</ref> There is evidence that in early times, Athena was an [[owl]] herself, or a [[bird goddess]] in general. In Book 3 of the [[Odyssey]], she takes the form of a [[sea-eagle]]. Her tasseled [[aegis]] may be the remnants of wings:<ref> [http://www.fjkluth.com/athena.html Frederick John Kluth, "The Role of Athena in Ancient Greek Art"]</ref> she is depicted with wings on Archaic [[red-figure pottery]].
 
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{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
 
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[[Image:Athena Parthenos Altemps Inv8622.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This marble copy signed <small>ANTIOCHOS</small> is a first century B.C.E. copy of [[Phidias]]' 5th-century original that stood on the [[Acropolis]]]]
 
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In the [[Olympian gods|Olympian pantheon]], Athena was remade as the favorite daughter of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead after he swallowed her mother, Metis. The story of her birth comes in several versions.  In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of crafty thought and wisdom, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than the sire,<ref>Compare the prophecy concerning [[Thetis]].</ref> even Zeus himself.  In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her immediately after lying with her.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}  He was too late: Metis had already conceived a child.  Metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter.  The hammering as she made the helmet caused Zeus great pain and [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Hermes]] or [[Palaemon]] (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe (the [[labrys]] of the Great Goddess). Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed, and Zeus was none the worse for the experience.
 
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Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary [[Phoenicia]]n historian [[Sanchuniathon]], said to have written before the [[Trojan war]], make Athena instead the daughter of [[Cronus]], a king of [[Byblos]] who is said to have visited 'the inhabitable world' and bequeathed [[Attica]] to Athena.
 
  
 
==Name, etymology and origin==
 
==Name, etymology and origin==
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[[Image:PallasGiustiniani.jpg|thumb|200px|The ''[[Athena Giustiniani]]'', a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena (Vatican Museums)]]
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[[Image:PallasGiustiniani.jpg|thumb|200px|The ''Athena Giustiniani'', a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena ([[Vatican]] Museums)]]
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Athena's name is possibly of [[Lydian]] origin.<ref>G. Neumann, [article title missing] ''Kadmos'' '''6''' (1967).</ref> It may be a compound word derived in part from [[Tyrrhenian languages|Tyrrhenian]] "ati", meaning "mother" and the name of the [[Hurrian]] Goddess "[[Hannahannah]]" shortened in various places to "Ana".  In [[Mycenaean Greek]], she possibly appears in a single inscription in the [[Linear B]] tablets: ''A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja'' ''/Athana potniya/'' appears on a text from the Late Minoan II-era "Room of the Chariot Tablets" in [[Knossos]], the earliest Linear B archive anywhere.<ref>Kn V 52 (text 208 in Ventris and Chadwick). </ref> Though this phrase is often translated as "Mistress Athena", it literally means "the ''potnia'' of At(h)ana", which perhaps means "the Lady of Athens";<ref>Palaima, p. 444.</ref> it is uncertain whether there is any connection to the city of Athens.<ref>Burkert, p. 44.</ref> We also find ''A-ta-no-dju-wa-ja'' ''/Athana diwya/'', the final part being the Linear B spelling of what we know from ancient Greek as ''Diwia'' (Mycenaean ''di-u-ja'' or ''di-wi-ja'') "divine" Athena was also a weaver and the god of crafts. (see ''[[dyeus]]'').<ref>Ventris and Chadwick [page missing]</ref> The name Athens comes from Athena
 
  
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In his dialogue ''[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]'', [[Plato]] gives the etymology of Athena's name based on the view of the ancient Athenians,<ref>''"That is a graver matter, and there, my friend, the modern interpreters of Homer may, I think, assist in explaining the view of the ancients. For most of these in their explanations of the poet, assert that he meant by Athene "mind" (nous) and "intelligence" (dianoia), and the maker of names appears to have had a singular notion about her; and indeed calls her by a still higher title, "divine intelligence" (Thou noesis), as though he would say: This is she who has the mind of God (Theonoa);- using a as a dialectical variety e, and taking away i and s. Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean "she who knows divine things" (Theia noousa) better than others. Nor shall we be far wrong in supposing that the author of it wished to identify this Goddess with moral intelligence (en ethei noesin), and therefore gave her the name ethonoe; which, however, either he or his successors have altered into what they thought a nicer form, and called her Athene''". (Cratylus 407b). </ref> from ''A-theo-noa'' (A-θεο-νόα) or ''E-theo-noa'' (H-θεο-νόα) meaning "the mind of God" (''Cratylus'' 407b). [[Plato]], and also [[Herodotus]], noted that the Egyptian citizens of [[Sais]] in Egypt worshipped a goddess whose Egyptian name was [[Neith]];<ref>"''The citizens have a deity for their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith, and is asserted by them to be the same whom the Hellenes call Athene; they are great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they are in some way related to them"''. ('' [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' 21e)</ref> they identified her with Athena. (''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' 21e), (''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 2:170-175).
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In the pre-Hellenic world, it seems likely that Athena was a [[Minoan Civilization|Minoan]] (or other non-[[Mycenaean civilization|Mycenaean]]) deity who achieved early prominence and was exported around the early Hellenic world for her role in defending the ''polis'' from hostilities. Numerous hypotheses have been put forward concerning the initial origin of her name, with some possibilities including a Lydian provenance,<ref>G. Neumann, "Der lydische Name der Athena. Neulesung der lydischen Inschrift Nr. 40" (“The Lydian name of Athena. New reading of the Lydian inscription No. 40”). ''Kadmos'' 6 (1967): 80-87.</ref> Crete,<ref>See, for example, Martin P. Nilsson, ''The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and its Survival in Greek Religion'' (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1950); Virginia Hicks, [http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/v053.htm "The Language of the Minoans,"] ''Anistoriton: Viewpoints'' 9 (September 2005). Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> or a pre-Mycenaean syncretism between the Tyrrhenian "ati," meaning "mother" and the Hurrian Goddess "Hannahannah," which was shortened in various places to "Ana." In Mycenaean Greek, she is possibly referenced in a single inscription in the Linear B tablets, where ''A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja'' ''(Athana potniya)'' appears on a text from the Late Minoan II-era "Room of the Chariot Tablets" in [[Knossos]], the earliest Linear B archive anywhere.<ref>Text 208 in Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'', 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0521085586).</ref> Though this phrase is often translated as "Mistress Athena," it literally means "the ''potnia'' of At(h)ana," which could simply mean "the Lady of Athens."<ref>Thomas Palaima, "Appendix One: Linear B Sources" in ''Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation'', ed. Stephen Trzaskoma, et al. (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2004, ISBN 0872207218), 444.</ref> The ambiguity of this relationship is also attested to by Burkert (1985), who notes that "whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute."<ref>Burkert, 139. Also, Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, in ''The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes'' (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 0890895759), offer a compelling argument that the goddess' name was associated with the plural name her sisterhood, the ''Athenai'', from the earliest times: "[Mycenae] was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, and Mycenae is named in the plural for the sisterhood of females who tended her there. At [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae (or Thebes, where the 's' is the plural formation). Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae (or Athens, again a plural) (24).</ref>
  
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==Epithets and cult titles==
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In his dialogue ''Cratylus'', [[Plato]] gives an etymology of Athena's name based on the view of the ancient Athenians:
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In poetry  from Homer onward, Athena's most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] is ''glaukopis'' (γλαυκώπις), which is usually translated "bright-eyed" or "with gleaming eyes".<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, 1940, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', ISBN 0-19-864226-1, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%236935 online version] at the [[Perseus Project]]</ref> It is a combination of ''glaukos'' (γλαύκος, meaning "gleaming," "silvery," and later, "bluish-green" or "gray") and ''ops'' (ώψ, "eye," or sometimes, "face"). It is interesting to note that ''glaux'' (γλαύξ, "owl") is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The bird which sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a [[bird goddess]], similar to the unknown goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the [[Burney relief]], a Mesopotamian terracotta relief of the early second millennium B.C.E..
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<blockquote>That is a graver matter, and there, my friend, the modern interpreters of Homer may, I think, assist in explaining the view of the ancients. For most of these in their explanations of the poet, assert that he meant by Athene "mind" (nous) and "intelligence" (dianoia), and the maker of names appears to have had a singular notion about her; and indeed calls her by a still higher title, "divine intelligence" (Thou noesis), as though he would say: This is she who has the mind better than others. Nor shall we be far wrong in supposing that the author of it wished to identify this Goddess with moral intelligence (en ethei noesin), and therefore gave her the name ethonoe; which, however, either he or his successors have altered into what they thought a nicer form, and called her Athene." (Cratylus 407b).</ref> where he derives her name from ''A-theo-noa'' (A-θεο-νόα) or ''E-theo-noa'' (H-θεο-νόα) meaning "the mind of God."<ref>Plato, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Crat.+407b ''Cratylus'', 407b.] Available online from Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref></blockquote>
  
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In the ''[[Iliad]]'' (4.514), the [[Homeric Hymns]] and in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', she is given the curious epithet ''Tritogeneia.'' The meaning of this term is unclear. It seems to mean "[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]-born," perhaps indicating that the sea-god was her father according to some early myths,<ref>Karl Kerenyi suggests that "Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself;  for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally." (Kerenyi, p. 128).</ref> or, less likely, that she was born near Lake Triton in [[Africa]]. Another possible meaning is "triple-born" or "third-born," which may refer to her status as the third daughter of Zeus or the fact she was born from Metis, Zeus and herself; various legends list her as being the first child after Artemis and Apollo, though other legends identify her as Zeus' first child.
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Some authors believe that in early times, Athena was an [[owl]] herself, or a bird goddess in general.<ref>For a good introduction to this theory, as supported by archaeological evidence, see E. M. Douglas, "The Owl of Athena," ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 32 (1912): 174-178.</ref> In the development of her [[iconography]], starting from archaic vase-paintings, she dropped her prophylactic owl-mask before she lost her wings. On this topic, Jane Ellen Harrison remarked that "Athene, by the time she appears in art has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings."<ref>Harrison 1922, 306: [http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Winged_Athena.jpg Fig. 84: Detail of a cup in the Faina collection.] Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
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In her role as judge at [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes']] trial on the murder of his mother, [[Clytemnestra]] (which he won), Athena won the epithet ''Athena Areia.''
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===Epithets===
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In poetry from Homer onward, Athena's most common epithet is ''glaukopis'' (γλαυκώπις), which is usually translated "bright-eyed" or "with gleaming eyes."<ref>Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, ''An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon'' (1940). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%236935 Available online] from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> It is a combination of ''glaukos'' (γλαύκος, meaning "gleaming," "silvery," and later, "bluish-green" or "gray") and ''ops'' (ώψ, "eye," or sometimes, "face"). It is interesting to note that ''glaux'' (γλαύξ, "owl") is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The [[bird]] that sees in the night is closely associated with the [[goddess]] of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a bird goddess, similar to the unknown goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the Burney relief, a [[Mesopotamia]]n [[terracotta]] relief of the early second millennium B.C.E..
  
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===Pallas and Athena: Pallas Athena===
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Other [[epithet]]s include:  
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She was often referred to as Pallas Athena (Ancient Greek {{polytonic|Παλλάς Άθήνη}}, modern Greek Παλλάς Αθηνά). The epithet derived from an ambiguous figure named [[Pallas (disambiguation)|Pallas]], sometimes male, sometimes female, mentioned apart from Athena only as a family of characters in [[Vergil]]'s [[Aeneid]]. According to some sources, [[Pallas (daughter of Triton)|Pallas]], the playmate of [[Athena]], was a daughter of the god [[Triton (god)|Triton]] (or Tritonis), Athena's foster-father. The goddess killed Pallas, in some versions by mistake. For instance, in a Pelasgian version of her birth myth Pallas was the playmate whom Athena killed by mistake in a game battle, Afterwards she addeed the name of Pallas to her own as a sign of mourning.<ref>Graves, p. 51.</ref> She also carved from a tree trunk a wooden [[cult image]] (''[[xoanon]]'') of Pallas, the [[Palladium (mythology)|Palladium]], which she left with Zeus. Later [[Electra]], whom Zeus seduced, took refuge behind this palladium; Zeus tossed it away and it fell upon the land of Ilium ([[Troy]]), where [[Ilus]] had a temple built for it.
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* ''Atrytone'' ({{polytonic|Άτρυτώνη}}), the unwearying
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* ''Athena Ergane'' ({{polytonic|Παρθένος}}), the patron of craftsmen and artisans
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* ''Athena Hippeia'' or ''Athena Hippia'', the inventor of the chariot
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* ''Parthénos'' (= virgin), the aspect of her character that was memorialized in the Parthenon
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* ''Athena Polias'' ("of the city"), the protectress of the city ''(polis)'' - a name used in conjunction with Athens, Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa
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* ''Promachos'' ({{polytonic|Ή Πρόμαχος}}), the "pre-fighter," (i.e. the one who leads into battle).<ref>See [http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaTitles.html Theoi.com: “Titles of Athena”] for a complete listing of these epithets with references to the various passages in classical texts where they are used. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
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In the [[Homeric Hymn]] to Hermes, [[Pallas (son of Crius)|Pallas]] was the father of the moon goddess [[Selene]]. In other versions [[Pallas (Giant)|Pallas]] was one of the [[Gigantes]] killed by her in the Gigantomachy; forever after she wore the goatskin fringed with [[chthonic]] serpents of Pallas, as the protective [[aegis]]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. She may have absorbed and supplanted Pallas more gently: Walter Burkert says "she is the Pallas of Athens, ''Pallas Athenaie'', just as Hera of Argos is ''Here Argeie''.<ref>Burkert, p. 139.</ref> For the Athenians, Burkert notes, she was simply "the Goddess", ''he theos'', certainly an ancient title.
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==Mythology==
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===Birth of Athena, daughter of Zeus===
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[[Image:Athena Parthenos Altemps Inv8622.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This marble copy signed <small>ANTIOCHOS</small> is a first century B.C.E. copy of [[Phidias]]' fifth-century original that stood on the [[Acropolis]]]]
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In the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] [[pantheon]], Athena was represented as the favorite daughter of [[Zeus]], carried and birthed by her divine father without the necessity of any female intervention.<ref>Harrison's famous characterization of this myth-element as "a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions" has never been refuted (Harrison 1922, 302). This explicitly patriarchal depiction could be seen as a way that the male-dominated Hellenic society could accept the centrality of a female deity in many masculine pursuits (carpentry, law, warfare), a point that is cogently argued in Jeffrey M. Hurwit's "Beautiful Evil: Pandora and the Athena Parthenos," ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 99(2) (April 1995): 171-186, 178-180. See also Powell, 95; Farnell (vol. 1), 284-285.</ref> The story of her miraculous birth comes in several versions. In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of crafty thought and wisdom, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than the sire, even if the father was Zeus himself.<ref>Compare this prophecy concerning [[Thetis]], which had initially motivated [[Cronus]] to begin consuming his own children (one of which was Zeus).</ref> In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus "put her away inside his own belly" and "swallowed her down all of a sudden."<ref>[[Hesiod]], [[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hes.+Th.+1 ''Theogony''], 890 and 924. Available online from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> Unfortunately, he was too late: Metis had already conceived a child. The Sky God, blind to the state of his now-consumed consort, resumed his life as usual. However, the ensuing period of normalcy came to an abrupt halt nine months later, when Zeus began to suffer cripplingly painful headaches. Trying to relieve the pressure in their ruler's cranium, one of the lesser gods (often [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], or [[Hermes]]) proceeded to cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe. At this point, Athena leaped from his newly-opened skull, fully grown and armed, and "cried aloud with a mighty shout. The Sky [Ouranos] and mother Earth <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Gaia]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> shuddered before her."<ref>Pindar, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Pind.+O.+7.1 ''Olympian Odes'' 7:36-38.] Available online from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref>
  
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Other sources claim that Pallas was an older local god conflated with Athena by the Athenians.<ref>The story comes from [[Libyan]] (modern [[Berbers]]) where the Greek [[Athena]] and the Egyptian [[Neith]] blend in to one god. The story is not so often referenced because some facts contradict other more well documented facts. Frazer, vol. 2 p.41</ref>
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Athena's origins cemented the connection between herself and her father, to the extent that many of her epithets (including ''Agoraia'' ("protector of the [[agora]]"), ''Polias'' ("guardian of the city"), ''Xenia'' ("maintainer of hospitality and guardian of strangers") were shared with her divine pater. The strength of this connection is further evidenced by Zeus' tendency to dote upon his special daughter, a phenomenon that receives some attention in both the ''[[Odyssey]]'' and the ''[[Iliad]]''.<ref>Timothy Gantz, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'' (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, ISBN 080184410X), 84.</ref>  
  
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===Other cult titles===
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It should be noted that this entire episode can be seen to rest upon the patriarchal thesis that Athena's femininity had to somehow be ''explained away'' (given her stereotypically masculine areas of influence). This bias is additionally demonstrated by in Hesiod's codicil to this tale, where Hera, irritated by her husband's seemingly asexual reproduction, decided to make herself pregnant. Eventually, she succeeded in giving birth to the lumpen blacksmith god, Hephaestus. Describing this discrepancy, Hurwit notes that "the fact that Zeus gave birth to a perfect daughter, while Hera, by herself, could only engender the crippled Hephaestus, again argues for the superior role of the male."<ref>Hurwit, 180; paraphrasing Hesiod's ''Theogony'' 927-929.</ref>
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Athena was given many other cult titles. She had the epithet ''Athena Ergane'' as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. With the epithet ''[[Athena Parthenos]]'' ("virgin"), Athena was worshiped on the [[Acropolis]], especially in the festival of the [[Panathenaea]]. With the epithet ''Athena Promachos'' she led in battle. With the epithet ''Athena Polias'' ("of the city"), Athena was the protectress of Athens and its Acropolis, but also of many other cities, including [[Argos]], [[Sparta]], [[Gortyn]], [[Lindos]], and [[Larisa]]. She was given the epithet ''[[Hippeia | Athena Hippeia]]'' or ''Athena Hippia'' as the inventor of the chariot, and was worshipped under this title at Athens, [[Tegea]] and [[Olympia]]. As Athena Hippeia she was given an alternative parentage: [[Poseidon]] and [[Polyphe]], daughter of [[Oceanus]]. <ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NymphePolyphe.html]</ref><ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaTitles.html] </ref>. In each of these cities her temple was frequently the major temple on the acropolis.<ref>Burkert, p. 140.</ref>
 
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[[Image:Ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|left|The Parthenon, Temple of Athena Parthenos]]
 
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Athena was often equated with [[Aphaea]], a local goddess of the island of [[Aegina]], located near [[Athens]], once Aegina was under Athenian's power.
 
  
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==In classical art==
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====Other hypothetical origins====
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[[Image: AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Athena depicted on the obverse side of a [[coin]] of [[Attalus I]]]]
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While the above tale is the only extant account of Athena's birth, some modern scholars (led by etymological concerns) have suggested that the goddess may have been a pre-Olympian deity whose place in the pantheon was achieved at a later date (using the syncretic tale described above). The goddess' most puzzling epithet, at least in this context, is Tritogeneia (also Trito, Tritonis, Tritoneia, Tritogenes). While this name could imply a paternal connection between the goddess and Triton (or even Poseidon),<ref>Karl Kerenyi, in ''The Gods of the Greeks'' (London & New York: Thames and Hudson, 1951, ISBN 0500270481), suggests that "Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally" (128).</ref> the evidence for such an interpretation is both confusing and partial.<ref>Farnell (1907) explores this enigma in some detail (vol. 1, 265-270).</ref> Intriguingly, this epithet caused the Greeks themselves some consternation, as they attempted to explain it away using faulty etymologies to represent it as "born from the head" (a linguistically dubious assertion).<ref>Farnell (vol. 1), 265-266.</ref> As summarized by Rose:
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Athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor, with the helmet raised high on the forehead like a hat; she carries a spear and a shield with the head of the [[gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] mounted on it.  It is in this standing posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]'s famous lost gold and ivory statue of her, 36 feet<!--meters?—> tall, the [[Athena Parthenos]] in the [[Parthenon]].  Athena is also often depicted with an [[owl]] (a symbol of wisdom) sitting on one of her shoulders. The [[Mourning Athena]] is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 B.C.E. and portrays a tired, emotional Athena.<!--not a good interpretation—>
 
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In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in [[Black-figure pottery]], the goddess retains some of her Minoan character, such as great bird wings.
 
  
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Apart from her attributes, there seems to be a relative consensus in sculpture from the fifth century onward as to what Athena looked like. Most noticeable in the face is perhaps  a high nose with a high bridge that almost seems like a natural extension of the forehead. The eyes are typically somewhat deeply set. The lips are usually full but the mouth is fairly narrow, usually just slightly wider than the nose. The neck is somewhat longish. The net result is a serene, somewhat aloof beauty.
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<blockquote>An ancient title of the goddess is Tritogeneia; whatever that may mean—and Homer seems already to have forgotten—it certainly does not mean 'daughter of Zeus.' The syllable ''gen'', if it is Greek, would most naturally mean "born," and ''trito-'' suggests the sea-gods Amphitrite and Triton.... If we knew what language the names of Triton and his etymological kin belonged, and what they originally meant, it would doubtless throw some light on the origin of Athen and her mythology in prehellenic times; but unfortunately, we do not.<ref>Rose, 108-109.</ref></blockquote>
  
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==History==
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===''Athena Parthenos'': Virgin Athena===
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=== Birth ===
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[[Image:Athena ciste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Helmeted Athena with the ''cista'' and Erichthonius in his serpent form (Roman, first century C.E., [[Louvre]]]]
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<!--this exactly repeats text above—>[[Hesiod|Hesiod's]] ''[[Theogony]]'' gives the following account of Athena's birth: Metis, the titaness of prudence, was Zeus' first wife. It was fated that if she had a son he would be able to rule the gods. Zeus, fearing that his son would overthrow him as Zeus had done to Cronus, tricked Metis and swallowed her. He ingested her and therefore her wisdom so that she might advise him in matters. However, the immortal child Metis was pregnant with was not harmed, and Athena was born from his head after he had married Hera. Hera was so annoyed at this that she gave birth to Hephaestus by herself. The son was never born and Zeus stayed as supreme ruler of Mount Olympus.
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Unlike the majority of Olympian gods, Athena never had a consort or lover, and thus was also known as ''Athena Parthenos'' ("Virgin Athena"). Her most famous [[temple]], the [[Parthenon]], on the [[Acropolis]] in [[Athens]] takes its name from this title. This moniker was not merely an observation of her virginity, but recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery. This role is expressed in a number of stories about Athena.
  
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A fuller version says: Zeus lay with Metis, the goddess of crafty thought, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than the father, and this includes even Zeus himself. In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus played a game with Metis. She transformed into many creatures, big and small. When Metis transformed into a fly, Zeus swallowed her immediately after lying with her. He was too late: Metis was already pregnant. Metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter. The hammering as she made the helmet caused Zeus great pain and Hephaestus cut open Zeus's skull with the double-headed Minoan axe (labrys). Athena leaped from Zeus's skull, fully grown and armed, and Zeus was none the worse for the experience. This is the most common version of her birth.
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====Erichthonius====
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The tale of the birth of Erichthonius is the most famous (and most sexually-charged) tale surrounding the [[virgin]]al Athena. In it, the goddess is innocently traversing the site of the Athenian Acropolis when she is spotted by the misshapen (and sexually-repressed) [[Hephaestus]]. The smith-god, whose lust became instantly inflamed at the sight of the beautiful goddess, rushed to her side and attempted to [[rape]] her. Though she successfully repelled him, Athena was still struck in the leg by some of his seed. Repulsed, she wiped it off with a cloth and threw it to the ground. From there, it fertilized the earth and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born. Despite the child's illicit origins, Athena generously chose to raise it as a foster mother.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheke'' 3.14.6. See also Powell, 192.</ref>
  
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Aside from Hesiod's account given above, there is another version of her birth of Pelasgian origin, accounting for her epithet ''Tritoneia''; according this version Athena was born near the lagoon Tritonis in Libya and was raised by three nymphs. There are a very few references to her being the child of a giant named Pallas---hence her name "Pallas Athena"---but these are atypical.<ref>Graves, Robert, ''The Greek Myths I'', "The Birth of Athena," 8.a.</ref>
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Erichthonius later became king of Athens and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture. During this time, Athena frequently aided and protected him.
  
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=== Erichthonius ===
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====Medusa and Tiresias====
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[[Image:Athena ciste.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Helmeted Athena with the ''[[cista]]'' and Erichthonius in his serpent form. Roman, 1st century ([[Louvre Museum]])]]
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Two other major episodes concern Athena and sexuality: one concerning the [[Gorgon]], [[Medusa]]; the other, the blind seer, [[Tiresias]].
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According to [[Apollodorus]], [[Hephaestus]] attempted to [[rape]] Athena but was unsuccessful. His [[semen]] fell on the ground, and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born from the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Athena then raised the baby as a foster mother. Alternatively, the semen landed on Athena's leg, and she wiped it off with a piece of wool which she tossed on the ground. Erichthonius arose from the ground and the wool. Another version says that Hephaestus wanted Athena to marry him but she disappeared on his bridal bed; he ejaculated onto the ground instead.  Athena left the baby to three sisters, [[Herse]], [[Pandrosus|Pandrosa]] and [[Aglaulus|Aglaura]] in a small box and warned them  never to open it.  Aglaula opened the ''[[cista]]''  which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius, in the form of a [[serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] The sight caused Herse and Pandrosa to go insane and they threw themselves off the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]'.  
 
  
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An alternative version of the same story is that while Athena was gone to bring a mountain to use in the Acropolis, two of the willful sisters opened the box. A crow witnessed the opening and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain (now [[Mt. Lykabettos]]).<ref>Graves, Robert, ''The Greek Myths I'', "The Nature and Deeds of Athena" 25.d.</ref> The crow was not spared from her wrath, and it is believed Athena was the one who turned their feathers black. Herse and Pandrosa once again went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff. Jane Harrison (''Prolegomena'')  finds these to be versions of a simple cautionary tale to discourage young girls from opening the ''[[cista]]'' that they carried, not knowing its contents, in connection with the [[Thesmophoria]].
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The first tale, which has an etiological component, sets the stage by describing Medusa, stating that, unlike her two sister Gorgons, she was mortal and extremely beautiful. Unfortunately, she happened to have sex with—or be raped by—[[Poseidon]] in a temple of Athena. Upon discovering the desecration of her [[temple]], Athena changed Medusa's form to match that of her sister Gorgons as punishment. Medusa's hair turned into [[snake]]s, her lower body was transformed, and her gaze became capable of literally petrifying any living creature that it rested upon.
  
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Erichthonius later became [[King of Athens]] and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture. During this time, Athena frequently protected him.
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In one version of the [[Tiresias]] myth, Tiresias stumbled upon Athena bathing, and was blinded by her nakedness.<ref>Robert Graves, "The Nature and Deeds of Athena" in ''The Greek Myths I'' (London: Penguin Books, 1993, ISBN 0140171991), 25.</ref> To compensate him for his loss, she sent serpents to lick his ears, which gave him the gift of [[prophecy]].
  
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===Aglaura===
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===Lady of Athens===
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Athena's connection with the [[city]] of [[Athens]] (described above) was descriptively addressed in a classical account of a contest between Athena and [[Poseidon]], where each sought to be the patron deity of the fledgling community.<ref>''The Library of Apollodorus'' 3.14.1; [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 6.70; [http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/AthenaMyths.html#Athens Theoi.com: “Myths of Athena”] for a comprehensive list of sources. Retrieved September 6, 2007.</ref> They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that patron would be selected based on whichever gift the mortals preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a spring sprang up; this gave them a means of trade and water, but it was salty and not very good for drinking. Athena, however, offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]]. The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. This is thought to commemorate a clash between the inhabitants during [[Mycenae]]an times and newer immigrants.<ref>Further evidence of this hypothesis can be found in Thalia Phillies Howe's "Zeus Herkeios: Thematic Unity in the Hekatompedon Sculptures," ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 59(4) (Oct. 1955): 287-301, which considers various artistic works from an intermediary period when the conflict between older, Poseidon-centered beliefs and newer, Athena-centered beliefs was still being played out.</ref> Despite this strong affiliation, Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably [[Sparta]].
  
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There is another version of the myth, told in [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' in which Hermes falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaura and Pandrosa go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaura to seduce Herse. Aglaura in exchange demands money from Hermes who gives her the money of sacrifice and seduces Herse.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'', X. Aglaura, Book II, 708-751.</ref>  Athena in punishment for Aglaura's greed asks the Envy to corrupt her feelings. Envy obeyed  her commands and she infested Herse. Aglaura turns to stone.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'', XI. The Envy. Aglaura as result of this, turns to a statue, Book II, 752-832.</ref>
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===Counselor===
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[[Image:Bust Athena Velletri Glyptothek Munich 213.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bust of Athena in the [[Munich]] [[Glyptothek]]]]
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Given her association with wit and cleverness, it is not surprising that many heroes turned to Athena for guidance when confounded by a particularly daunting obstacle. For some examples, note that Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in his quest to behead [[Medusa]]; she taught [[Jason]] the necessary skills to construct the Argo; she instructed [[Heracles]] in the correct manner of skinning the Nemean Lion (by using its own claws to cut through its seemingly impenetrable hide); she also helped Heracles to defeat the Stymphalian Birds, and to navigate the underworld so as to capture [[Cerberos]].
  
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=== Athens ===
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[[Odysseus]]' cunning and shrewd nature quickly won Athena's favor, though she was largely restricted to aiding him from afar during his journey home from [[Troy]], given that she could not directly contradict the edicts of the wrathful [[Poseidon]]. It is not until he washes up on the shore of an unknown island that Athena begins to intervene directly. She appears in the dreams of a local princess (Nausicaa) to ensure that the young woman would rescue Odysseus, which eventually allows the hero access to a ship and passage back to Ithaca. Once he arrives, Athena herself appears to the crafty hero in disguise, which inspires him to use the garments of an old beggar to penetrate his former castle. Further, the goddess also helps reunite Odysseus with his long-lost son (Telemachus) and provides tactical advice to both during their final dramatic confrontation with the amassed suitors of [[Penelope]] (Odysseus' grieving wife).
  
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Athena competed with [[Poseidon]] to be the patron deity of Athens, which was yet unnamed in this telling. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that the Athenians would choose the gift they preferred.  Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a spring sprung up; this gave them a means of trade and water, but it was salty and not very good for drinking. Athena, however, offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]].  The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food.  This is thought to commemorate a clash between the inhabitants during [[Mycenae]]an times and newer immigrants.  It is interesting to note that Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]] near [[Salamis Island]] in [[480 B.C.E.]]. Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably [[Sparta]].
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===Arachne===
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In an alternate version, Poseidon invents the first horse.  Athena's gift is still chosen.
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The fable of Arachne is a late addition to [[Greek mythology]]<ref>The tale is recorded in [[Ovid]]'s ''Metamorphoses'' (5-54 and 129-145) and mentioned in [[Virgil]]'s ''Georgics'' (iv, 246).</ref> that does not appear in the mythic repertory drawn upon by the Attic vase-painters. Arachne, whose name simply means "[[spider]]" (αράχνη), was the daughter of a famous dyer in Hypaipa of [[Lydia]]. She became so convinced of her skill as a weaver that she began to claiming that her abilities were greater than those of Athena herself. In her typically ethical style, Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning the young woman not to offend the gods. Unsurprisingly, Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill. Unable to stomach the woman's hubris, Athena revealed herself and accepted her challenge.
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<!--Another interesting and arguable reason for why the Athenians chose Athena's olive tree over Poseidon's horses and spring was because Poseidon was known to be a very difficult deity to please and often wrought havoc even upon his cities. Athena was a better choice because of her less violent personality and the Athenians did not wish to have to encounter Poseidon's wrath in future.
 
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{{fact}}—>
 
  
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=== Arachne ===
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To begin, Athena wove the scene of her victory over [[Poseidon]] in determining the patronage of Athens. In retaliation, Arachne created a enormous and detailed [[tapestry]] featuring 21 episodes of the infidelity of the gods, including Zeus being unfaithful with [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], and [[Danae]].
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A woman named [[Arachne]] once boasted that she was a superior weaver to Athena, the goddess of weaving. Athena appeared to her disguised as an old woman and told Arachne to repent for her [[hubris]] but Arachne instead challenged Athena to a contest. Athena threw off her disguise and the contest began.  Athena wove a depiction of the conflict with Poseidon over Athens, while Arachne wove a depiction making fun of Zeus and his many wives. Athena was furious at her skill (the contest was never decided) and her choice of subject (after all, she is Zeus's favorite daughter). Enraged, she destroyed Arachne's work. Arachne was so humilated by the contest that she hung herself. Athena felt sorry for what she had done and transformed Arachne into the first [[spider]], which forever weaves a [[silk]] web to catch its food.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'',I. Pallas and Arachne, Book VI, 1-145; the sentiment inherent in Ovid's narrative and its ascription of human emotions, reveal its late date in this version.</ref>
 
  
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===Perseus and Medusa===
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Even Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne's disrespectful choice of subject matter, in that her work highlighted the failings and transgressions of the gods.<ref>This takes for granted a late, moralizing view of Greek myth.</ref> Finally losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle. Realizing the depth of her folly, Arachne hanged herself.
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[[Image:Bust Athena Velletri Glyptothek Munich 213.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Bust of Athena in the [[Munich]] [[Glyptothek]].]]
 
  
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Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in eliminating [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]], a dangerous unreformed relic of the old pre-Olympian order, and she was awarded the grisly trophy that turned men to stone, for her shield.
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In Ovid's telling, Athena then took pity on Arachne and transformed her into a spider.
  
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She wears the aegis, a goatskin shield which had a fringe of snakes. When Perseus killed the gorgon Medusa, whose face turned men to stone, he gave the gorgon head to Athena, and the goddess placed it on her aegis. This is a protective measure, for the Medusa's head retained its petrifying power even after her death.
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==Cult==
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[[Image:Parthenon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Parthenon, Temple of Athena Parthenos]]
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In many ways, the cult of Athena was second only to the cult of [[Zeus]] in its prominence and influence. In each of her various guises ([[#Epithets|discussed above]]), she was the recipient of religious observance at temples across the ancient Hellenic state, from Athens and Sparta, to Thebes and Ithaca: "As illustrations of the universality of her cult we have the testimony of Homer and many of the heroic legends, and the records of local cults afford ample proof."<ref>Farnell (vol. 1), 258, 259-260.</ref> In all of these contexts, she was a frequent recipient of sacrifice (most typically cows, sheep and goats). She was also honored by a yearly festival called the ''Panathenaia'', which featured a re-dedication of the city through a perambulatory procession, athletic and artistic competitions, and animal sacrifice (whose victims were then redistributed to the public).<ref>Matthew Dillon, ''Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece'' (London and New York: Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415127750), 141-143.</ref>
  
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It was, however, Athena who made Medusa into what she was. Medusa was the only beautiful sister of the three Gorgons, but, Medusa had sex with — or was raped by — Poseidon in Athena's temple. Upon discovery of the desecration of her temple, Athena changed Medusa's form to match that of her sister Gorgons as punishment. Medusa's hair turned into snakes, meeting her gaze would turn all living creatures to stone, and Athena also caused her lower body to morph, as well as granting her the power of petrification as to hinder all chances of her ever having intimacy with a man.
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With the epithet ''Athena Polias'' ("of the city"), Athena was the protectress of Athens and its Acropolis, but also of many other cities, including [[Argos]], [[Sparta]], [[Gortyn]], [[Lindos]], and [[Larisa]]. In each of these cities her temple was frequently the major temple on the acropolis.<ref>Burkert, 140.</ref> This connection between religious observance and civic unity prompted Farnell to conclude:
  
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=== Hercules ===
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<blockquote>...her religion is eminently political, growing and waning with the Greek ''polis'': her πρόνοια [provision] was the 'providence' of the city-community in war and peace. The poets sometimes placed her, indeed, by the side of Zeus as his peer in power and works, and she borrowed many titles of his; but her public worship and the religious utterances of the poets concerning her are less rich in spiritual content, less satisfying to the private conscience or to individual morality. The virtues she inspires and approves are, according to the panegyric of Aristides, the public virtues of political wisdom, courage, concord, discipline, and self-restraint.... Her worship, then, had elements of nobility as the incarnation of public law and of the virtues on which that rests.<ref>Farnell (vol. 1), 319.</ref></blockquote>
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Athena instructed [[Hercules]] how to remove the skin from the [[Nemean Lion]], by using the lion's own claws to cut through its thick hide. The lion's hide became Hercules' signature garment, along with the olive-wood club he used in the battle. Athena also assisted Hercules on a few other labors.
 
  
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She also helped Hercules defeat the [[Stymphalian Birds]], along with [[Hephaestus]].
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==In classical art==
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[[Image:AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Athena depicted on the obverse side of a [[coin]] of Attalus I]]
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=== Tiresias and Chariclo ===
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Athena is classically portrayed wearing full [[armor]], with the helmet raised high on the forehead (which reveals her aristocratic yet feminine visage); she carries a spear and a shield with the head of the [[gorgon]] [[Medusa]] mounted upon it. It is in this standing posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]'s lost [[gold]] and [[ivory]] [[statue]] of her, a towering (12-meter) version of [[Athena Parthenos]] that used to adorn [[Parthenon]]. Athena is also often depicted with an [[owl]] (a symbol of [[wisdom]]) sitting on one of her shoulders. In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in black-figure [[pottery]], the goddess retains some of her pre-Hellenic (possibly [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]) characteristics, such as enormous bird wings.
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In one version of the [[Tiresias]] myth, Athena blinded Tiresias after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} but Athena could not do so; she gave him the ability of prophecy instead.<ref>Graves, Robert, ''The Greek Myths I'',"The Nature and Deeds of Athena" 25.g.</ref>
 
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===Odysseus===
 
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[[Odysseus]]' cunning and shrewd nature quickly won Athena's favour, though she is largely confined to aiding him only from afar (implanting thoughts in his head) during his journey home from Troy. It is not until he washes up on the shore of an island where Nausicaa is washing her clothes that Athena can actually arrive herself to provide more tangible assistance. She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure the princess rescues Odysseus and eventually sends him to Ithaca.  Athena, herself, appears in disguise to Odysseus upon his arrival.  She initially lies and tells him Penelope, his wife, has remarried and Odysseus is believed to be dead, though Odysseus lies to her, seeing through her disguise.  Pleased with his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself to him and tells him everything he needed to know in order to win back his kingdom. She disguises him as an elderly man so that he will not be noticed by the Suitors or Penelope and she helps Odysseus defeat his suitors and end the feud against their relatives.
 
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==In post-classical culture ==
 
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[[Image:Vienna Pallas closeup.jpg|thumb|250px|A neoclassical statue of Athena stands in front of the [[Austrian Parliament Building]] in Vienna.]]
 
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Athena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific [[commemorative coin]]. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by [[weight]]) coin ever produced by the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in [[1997]]. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the [[1915]] is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint.
 
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For over a century [[Parthenon (Nashville)|full-scale replica of the Parthenon]] has stood in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], which is known as the Athens of the South.  In [[1990]], a gilded 41 foot (12.5 m) tall [[Athena Parthenos|replica of Phidias' statue]] of the goddess was added.
 
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The state [[seal of California]] features an image of Athena (or [[Minerva]]) kneeling next to a brown grizzly bear.[http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=97]
 
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She is the symbol of the [[Darmstadt University of Technology]], Germany.
 
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The name Athena is used by two characters in both the [[Battlestar Galactica (1978 TV series)|original Battlestar Galactica]] and the [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)|reimagined]] science fiction series.
 
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Athena is a main character in the Masami Kurumada's manga [[Saint Seiya]].
 
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In the video game series ''[[God of War]]'' Athena was the god's messenger to the warrior [[Kratos]] and guided him through his quest to destroy Ares. In ''[[God of War II]]'' She tries to warn him that Gaia is only using him and shouldn't side with the Titans.Kratos accidently slayed Athena when she threw herself in front his blade of Olympus to protect Zeus and tells Kratos he is Zeus' abandoned offspring and her half brother.
 
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In the Matrix Remake Play Athena is the mother of Neo but later disowns him for his unnatural birth. She is shown teaching Neo bulletstop and lightning vision during his childhood. Although she acts like she still hates Neo, she still shows maternal affection at times. Athena finds it amusing that Neo tries to regain his mother's favor.
 
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Athena is portrayed as a prominent character in DC Comics' [[Wonder Woman]] series.  She is shown to later surpass Zeus as leader of the Greek Gods.
 
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Athena's Helmet is the central feature on the [[United States Military Academy]] [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:U.S._Military_Academy_COA.png crest].
 
  
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Athena is source of influence for feminist theologians such as [[Carol P. Christ]].
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Apart from her attributes, there seems to be a relative consensus in sculpture from the fifth century onward as to what Athena looked like. Most noticeable in the face is a high nose with a relatively high bridge that emerges naturally from the forehead. The eyes are typically somewhat deeply set. The lips are usually full but the mouth is fairly narrow, usually just slightly wider than the nose. The neck is slender, graceful and somewhat long. The net result is a serene, somewhat aloof beauty.
 +
<br clear="all">
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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<div class="references-small">
+
{{reflist|2}}
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<references/>
 
−
</div>
 
  
 
==Bibliography==
 
==Bibliography==
−
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard).
+
* Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical''. Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0631112413
−
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], (1955) 1960. ''The Greek Myths'' revised edition.
+
* Dillon, Matthew. ''Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece''. London; New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415127750
−
*[[Jane Ellen Harrison|Harrison, Jane Ellen]], 1903. ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion''.
+
* Douglas, E. M. "The Owl of Athena." ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 32 (1912): 174-178.
−
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], 1951. ''The Gods of the Greeks'' (Thames and Hudson).
+
* Farnell, Lewis Richard. ''The Cults of the Greek States'' (5 vols.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
−
*Palaima, Thomas, 2004. "Appendix One: Linear B Sources." In Trzaskoma, Stephen, et al., eds., ''Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation'' (Hackett).
+
* Gantz, Timothy. ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources''. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 080184410X
−
*Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, 1994. ''The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes'' (Durham, NC).
+
*Graves, Robert. ''The Greek Myths'' (Complete Edition). London: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0140171991
−
*[[Seppo Telenius|Telenius, Seppo Sakari]], 2005 and 2006. ''Athena-Artemis''.
+
*Harrison, Jane Ellen. ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908.
−
*[[Michael Ventris|Ventris, Michael]] and [[John Chadwick]], 1973. ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' (Cambridge).
+
*Hurwit, Jeffrey M. "Beautiful Evil: Pandora and the Athena Parthenos." ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 99(2) (April 1995): 171-186.  
 +
*Kerenyi, Karl. ''The Gods of the Greeks''. London & New York: Thames and Hudson, 1951. ISBN 0500270481
 +
* Mikalson, Jon D. ''Ancient Greek Religion''. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. ISBN 0631232222
 +
* Palaima, Thomas. "Appendix One: Linear B Sources." ''Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation''. Edited by Stephen Trzaskoma, et al. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2004. ISBN 0872207218
 +
* Parke, H. W. ''Festivals of the Athenians''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977. ISBN 0801410541
 +
* Powell, Barry B. ''Classical Myth'', 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0137167148
 +
* Rose, H. J. ''A Handbook of Greek Mythology''. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959. ISBN 0525470417
 +
* Ruck, Carl A. P. and Danny Staples. ''The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes''. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1994. ISBN 0890895759
 +
* Telenius, Seppo Sakari. ''Athena-Artemis''. Helsinki: Kirja Kerrallaan, 2005. ISBN 9529205600
 +
* Ventris, Michael and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'', 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973. ISBN 0521085586
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{wikiquote}}
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All links retrieved August 19, 2023.  
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{{commons|Athena}}
 
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*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/000Free/000Athena/AthenaAlbum.html (Carlos Parada) Athena Album] Repertory of main Athena types and post-Renaissance depictions
 
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*[http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Sculptures/index.htm Roy George, "Athena: The sculptures of the goddess"]: Another, more extensive repertory of Greek and Roman types
 
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*[http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaCult.html Theoi.com Cult of Athena] Extracts of classical texts
 
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*[http://fury.com/galleries/road_trip_2003/index-Pages/Image6.html Nashville's Athena statue]
 
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*[http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm The Nashville Parthenon]
 
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*[http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/e023 Minoan Origins of Athena] by Virginia Hicks
 
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*[http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/freedom.cfm Athena - "The Statue of Freedom" atop the US Capitol building]
 
  
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*[http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Sculptures/index.htm The Sculptures of the Goddess Athena] &ndash; The Museum of the Goddess Athena by Roy George
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*[http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaCult.html Theoi.com: Cult of Athena]
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
  
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Latest revision as of 18:52, 19 August 2023


A votive sculpture, copying the Athena Parthenos, Roman period, second century C.E., National Archaeological Museum, Athens

In Greek mythology, Athena (Greek: Άθηνά, Athēnâ, or Ἀθήνη, Athénē; Latin: Minerva) was a multifaceted Greek goddess whose spheres of influence centered around wisdom and strategy.[1] She was known as the companion of heroes, protector of cities, and general patron of civilized, urban life. Most importantly, the goddess had a strong ethical component, as she was nearly unique among the Olympians for the fact that virtually no Greek mythic tales depicted her in an amoral or immoral light.[2]

Athena was renowned for her role as a protector of cities and thus was worshiped in Hellenistic culture as Athena Polias ("Athena of the city"). In particular, she had a special relationship with the city of Athens, as can be shown by the etymological connection of the city with her name.[3][4] In classical myth, she never had a consort or lover, and thus was additionally known as Athena Parthenos ("Athena the virgin"), a name that was enshrined in stone as the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens.

In sculpture, Athena often wore a breastplate (called the Aegis given to her by her father, Zeus),[5] a helmet and a shield bearing the Gorgon Medusa's head, a votive gift from Perseus. She was associated with battlefield strategy in contrast to the god Ares, who was associated with madness, violence and bloodlust.

Name, etymology and origin

The Athena Giustiniani, a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena (Vatican Museums)

In the pre-Hellenic world, it seems likely that Athena was a Minoan (or other non-Mycenaean) deity who achieved early prominence and was exported around the early Hellenic world for her role in defending the polis from hostilities. Numerous hypotheses have been put forward concerning the initial origin of her name, with some possibilities including a Lydian provenance,[6] Crete,[7] or a pre-Mycenaean syncretism between the Tyrrhenian "ati," meaning "mother" and the Hurrian Goddess "Hannahannah," which was shortened in various places to "Ana." In Mycenaean Greek, she is possibly referenced in a single inscription in the Linear B tablets, where A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja (Athana potniya) appears on a text from the Late Minoan II-era "Room of the Chariot Tablets" in Knossos, the earliest Linear B archive anywhere.[8] Though this phrase is often translated as "Mistress Athena," it literally means "the potnia of At(h)ana," which could simply mean "the Lady of Athens."[9] The ambiguity of this relationship is also attested to by Burkert (1985), who notes that "whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute."[10]

In his dialogue Cratylus, Plato gives an etymology of Athena's name based on the view of the ancient Athenians:

That is a graver matter, and there, my friend, the modern interpreters of Homer may, I think, assist in explaining the view of the ancients. For most of these in their explanations of the poet, assert that he meant by Athene "mind" (nous) and "intelligence" (dianoia), and the maker of names appears to have had a singular notion about her; and indeed calls her by a still higher title, "divine intelligence" (Thou noesis), as though he would say: This is she who has the mind better than others. Nor shall we be far wrong in supposing that the author of it wished to identify this Goddess with moral intelligence (en ethei noesin), and therefore gave her the name ethonoe; which, however, either he or his successors have altered into what they thought a nicer form, and called her Athene." (Cratylus 407b).</ref> where he derives her name from A-theo-noa (A-θεο-νόα) or E-theo-noa (H-θεο-νόα) meaning "the mind of God."[11]

Some authors believe that in early times, Athena was an owl herself, or a bird goddess in general.[12] In the development of her iconography, starting from archaic vase-paintings, she dropped her prophylactic owl-mask before she lost her wings. On this topic, Jane Ellen Harrison remarked that "Athene, by the time she appears in art has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings."[13]

Epithets

In poetry from Homer onward, Athena's most common epithet is glaukopis (γλαυκώπις), which is usually translated "bright-eyed" or "with gleaming eyes."[14] It is a combination of glaukos (γλαύκος, meaning "gleaming," "silvery," and later, "bluish-green" or "gray") and ops (ώψ, "eye," or sometimes, "face"). It is interesting to note that glaux (γλαύξ, "owl") is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The bird that sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a bird goddess, similar to the unknown goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the Burney relief, a Mesopotamian terracotta relief of the early second millennium B.C.E.

Other epithets include:

  • Atrytone (Άτρυτώνη), the unwearying
  • Athena Ergane (Παρθένος), the patron of craftsmen and artisans
  • Athena Hippeia or Athena Hippia, the inventor of the chariot
  • Parthénos (= virgin), the aspect of her character that was memorialized in the Parthenon
  • Athena Polias ("of the city"), the protectress of the city (polis) - a name used in conjunction with Athens, Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa
  • Promachos (Ή Πρόμαχος), the "pre-fighter," (i.e. the one who leads into battle).[15]

Mythology

Birth of Athena, daughter of Zeus

This marble copy signed ANTIOCHOS is a first century B.C.E. copy of Phidias' fifth-century original that stood on the Acropolis

In the Olympian pantheon, Athena was represented as the favorite daughter of Zeus, carried and birthed by her divine father without the necessity of any female intervention.[16] The story of her miraculous birth comes in several versions. In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with Metis, the goddess of crafty thought and wisdom, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than the sire, even if the father was Zeus himself.[17] In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus "put her away inside his own belly" and "swallowed her down all of a sudden."[18] Unfortunately, he was too late: Metis had already conceived a child. The Sky God, blind to the state of his now-consumed consort, resumed his life as usual. However, the ensuing period of normalcy came to an abrupt halt nine months later, when Zeus began to suffer cripplingly painful headaches. Trying to relieve the pressure in their ruler's cranium, one of the lesser gods (often Prometheus, Hephaestus, or Hermes) proceeded to cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe. At this point, Athena leaped from his newly-opened skull, fully grown and armed, and "cried aloud with a mighty shout. The Sky [Ouranos] and mother Earth [Gaia] shuddered before her."[19]

Athena's origins cemented the connection between herself and her father, to the extent that many of her epithets (including Agoraia ("protector of the agora"), Polias ("guardian of the city"), Xenia ("maintainer of hospitality and guardian of strangers") were shared with her divine pater. The strength of this connection is further evidenced by Zeus' tendency to dote upon his special daughter, a phenomenon that receives some attention in both the Odyssey and the Iliad.[20]

It should be noted that this entire episode can be seen to rest upon the patriarchal thesis that Athena's femininity had to somehow be explained away (given her stereotypically masculine areas of influence). This bias is additionally demonstrated by in Hesiod's codicil to this tale, where Hera, irritated by her husband's seemingly asexual reproduction, decided to make herself pregnant. Eventually, she succeeded in giving birth to the lumpen blacksmith god, Hephaestus. Describing this discrepancy, Hurwit notes that "the fact that Zeus gave birth to a perfect daughter, while Hera, by herself, could only engender the crippled Hephaestus, again argues for the superior role of the male."[21]

Other hypothetical origins

While the above tale is the only extant account of Athena's birth, some modern scholars (led by etymological concerns) have suggested that the goddess may have been a pre-Olympian deity whose place in the pantheon was achieved at a later date (using the syncretic tale described above). The goddess' most puzzling epithet, at least in this context, is Tritogeneia (also Trito, Tritonis, Tritoneia, Tritogenes). While this name could imply a paternal connection between the goddess and Triton (or even Poseidon),[22] the evidence for such an interpretation is both confusing and partial.[23] Intriguingly, this epithet caused the Greeks themselves some consternation, as they attempted to explain it away using faulty etymologies to represent it as "born from the head" (a linguistically dubious assertion).[24] As summarized by Rose:

An ancient title of the goddess is Tritogeneia; whatever that may mean—and Homer seems already to have forgotten—it certainly does not mean 'daughter of Zeus.' The syllable gen, if it is Greek, would most naturally mean "born," and trito- suggests the sea-gods Amphitrite and Triton.... If we knew what language the names of Triton and his etymological kin belonged, and what they originally meant, it would doubtless throw some light on the origin of Athen and her mythology in prehellenic times; but unfortunately, we do not.[25]

Athena Parthenos: Virgin Athena

Helmeted Athena with the cista and Erichthonius in his serpent form (Roman, first century C.E., Louvre

Unlike the majority of Olympian gods, Athena never had a consort or lover, and thus was also known as Athena Parthenos ("Virgin Athena"). Her most famous temple, the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens takes its name from this title. This moniker was not merely an observation of her virginity, but recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery. This role is expressed in a number of stories about Athena.

Erichthonius

The tale of the birth of Erichthonius is the most famous (and most sexually-charged) tale surrounding the virginal Athena. In it, the goddess is innocently traversing the site of the Athenian Acropolis when she is spotted by the misshapen (and sexually-repressed) Hephaestus. The smith-god, whose lust became instantly inflamed at the sight of the beautiful goddess, rushed to her side and attempted to rape her. Though she successfully repelled him, Athena was still struck in the leg by some of his seed. Repulsed, she wiped it off with a cloth and threw it to the ground. From there, it fertilized the earth and Erichthonius was born. Despite the child's illicit origins, Athena generously chose to raise it as a foster mother.[26]

Erichthonius later became king of Athens and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture. During this time, Athena frequently aided and protected him.

Medusa and Tiresias

Two other major episodes concern Athena and sexuality: one concerning the Gorgon, Medusa; the other, the blind seer, Tiresias.

The first tale, which has an etiological component, sets the stage by describing Medusa, stating that, unlike her two sister Gorgons, she was mortal and extremely beautiful. Unfortunately, she happened to have sex with—or be raped by—Poseidon in a temple of Athena. Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena changed Medusa's form to match that of her sister Gorgons as punishment. Medusa's hair turned into snakes, her lower body was transformed, and her gaze became capable of literally petrifying any living creature that it rested upon.

In one version of the Tiresias myth, Tiresias stumbled upon Athena bathing, and was blinded by her nakedness.[27] To compensate him for his loss, she sent serpents to lick his ears, which gave him the gift of prophecy.

Lady of Athens

Athena's connection with the city of Athens (described above) was descriptively addressed in a classical account of a contest between Athena and Poseidon, where each sought to be the patron deity of the fledgling community.[28] They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that patron would be selected based on whichever gift the mortals preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprang up; this gave them a means of trade and water, but it was salty and not very good for drinking. Athena, however, offered them the first domesticated olive tree. The Athenians (or their king, Cecrops) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. This is thought to commemorate a clash between the inhabitants during Mycenaean times and newer immigrants.[29] Despite this strong affiliation, Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably Sparta.

Counselor

Bust of Athena in the Munich Glyptothek

Given her association with wit and cleverness, it is not surprising that many heroes turned to Athena for guidance when confounded by a particularly daunting obstacle. For some examples, note that Athena guided Perseus in his quest to behead Medusa; she taught Jason the necessary skills to construct the Argo; she instructed Heracles in the correct manner of skinning the Nemean Lion (by using its own claws to cut through its seemingly impenetrable hide); she also helped Heracles to defeat the Stymphalian Birds, and to navigate the underworld so as to capture Cerberos.

Odysseus' cunning and shrewd nature quickly won Athena's favor, though she was largely restricted to aiding him from afar during his journey home from Troy, given that she could not directly contradict the edicts of the wrathful Poseidon. It is not until he washes up on the shore of an unknown island that Athena begins to intervene directly. She appears in the dreams of a local princess (Nausicaa) to ensure that the young woman would rescue Odysseus, which eventually allows the hero access to a ship and passage back to Ithaca. Once he arrives, Athena herself appears to the crafty hero in disguise, which inspires him to use the garments of an old beggar to penetrate his former castle. Further, the goddess also helps reunite Odysseus with his long-lost son (Telemachus) and provides tactical advice to both during their final dramatic confrontation with the amassed suitors of Penelope (Odysseus' grieving wife).

Arachne

The fable of Arachne is a late addition to Greek mythology[30] that does not appear in the mythic repertory drawn upon by the Attic vase-painters. Arachne, whose name simply means "spider" (αράχνη), was the daughter of a famous dyer in Hypaipa of Lydia. She became so convinced of her skill as a weaver that she began to claiming that her abilities were greater than those of Athena herself. In her typically ethical style, Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning the young woman not to offend the gods. Unsurprisingly, Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill. Unable to stomach the woman's hubris, Athena revealed herself and accepted her challenge.

To begin, Athena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon in determining the patronage of Athens. In retaliation, Arachne created a enormous and detailed tapestry featuring 21 episodes of the infidelity of the gods, including Zeus being unfaithful with Leda, Europa, and Danae.

Even Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne's disrespectful choice of subject matter, in that her work highlighted the failings and transgressions of the gods.[31] Finally losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle. Realizing the depth of her folly, Arachne hanged herself.

In Ovid's telling, Athena then took pity on Arachne and transformed her into a spider.

Cult

The Parthenon, Temple of Athena Parthenos

In many ways, the cult of Athena was second only to the cult of Zeus in its prominence and influence. In each of her various guises (discussed above), she was the recipient of religious observance at temples across the ancient Hellenic state, from Athens and Sparta, to Thebes and Ithaca: "As illustrations of the universality of her cult we have the testimony of Homer and many of the heroic legends, and the records of local cults afford ample proof."[32] In all of these contexts, she was a frequent recipient of sacrifice (most typically cows, sheep and goats). She was also honored by a yearly festival called the Panathenaia, which featured a re-dedication of the city through a perambulatory procession, athletic and artistic competitions, and animal sacrifice (whose victims were then redistributed to the public).[33]

With the epithet Athena Polias ("of the city"), Athena was the protectress of Athens and its Acropolis, but also of many other cities, including Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa. In each of these cities her temple was frequently the major temple on the acropolis.[34] This connection between religious observance and civic unity prompted Farnell to conclude:

...her religion is eminently political, growing and waning with the Greek polis: her πρόνοια [provision] was the 'providence' of the city-community in war and peace. The poets sometimes placed her, indeed, by the side of Zeus as his peer in power and works, and she borrowed many titles of his; but her public worship and the religious utterances of the poets concerning her are less rich in spiritual content, less satisfying to the private conscience or to individual morality. The virtues she inspires and approves are, according to the panegyric of Aristides, the public virtues of political wisdom, courage, concord, discipline, and self-restraint.... Her worship, then, had elements of nobility as the incarnation of public law and of the virtues on which that rests.[35]

In classical art

Athena depicted on the obverse side of a coin of Attalus I

Athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor, with the helmet raised high on the forehead (which reveals her aristocratic yet feminine visage); she carries a spear and a shield with the head of the gorgon Medusa mounted upon it. It is in this standing posture that she was depicted in Phidias's lost gold and ivory statue of her, a towering (12-meter) version of Athena Parthenos that used to adorn Parthenon. Athena is also often depicted with an owl (a symbol of wisdom) sitting on one of her shoulders. In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in black-figure pottery, the goddess retains some of her pre-Hellenic (possibly Minoan) characteristics, such as enormous bird wings.

Apart from her attributes, there seems to be a relative consensus in sculpture from the fifth century onward as to what Athena looked like. Most noticeable in the face is a high nose with a relatively high bridge that emerges naturally from the forehead. The eyes are typically somewhat deeply set. The lips are usually full but the mouth is fairly narrow, usually just slightly wider than the nose. The neck is slender, graceful and somewhat long. The net result is a serene, somewhat aloof beauty.

Notes

  1. ↑ Athena's focus on wisdom became especially predominant with the rapprochement of Greek philosophy and religion in the later fifth century B.C.E. Chap. 7 ("Philosophical Religion") in Walter Burkert's magisterial Greek Religion (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985, ISBN 0631112413) treats these transformations in some detail.
  2. ↑ H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959, ISBN 0525470417), 108.
  3. ↑ Burkert, 139: "Whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute."
  4. ↑ This ancient relationship is further attested to by an archaic myth where she was described as the mother of Erichthonius (one of the founders of Athens) following a failed rape attempt. Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3.14.6.
  5. ↑ The Sky God's association with this artifact is attested to by the fact that he is also, on occasion, described as "Aegis-bearing Zeus." Theoi.com has a list of the various mythic texts that use this moniker to describe Zeus. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  6. ↑ G. Neumann, "Der lydische Name der Athena. Neulesung der lydischen Inschrift Nr. 40" (“The Lydian name of Athena. New reading of the Lydian inscription No. 40”). Kadmos 6 (1967): 80-87.
  7. ↑ See, for example, Martin P. Nilsson, The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and its Survival in Greek Religion (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1950); Virginia Hicks, "The Language of the Minoans," Anistoriton: Viewpoints 9 (September 2005). Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  8. ↑ Text 208 in Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0521085586).
  9. ↑ Thomas Palaima, "Appendix One: Linear B Sources" in Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation, ed. Stephen Trzaskoma, et al. (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2004, ISBN 0872207218), 444.
  10. ↑ Burkert, 139. Also, Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, in The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 0890895759), offer a compelling argument that the goddess' name was associated with the plural name her sisterhood, the Athenai, from the earliest times: "[Mycenae] was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, and Mycenae is named in the plural for the sisterhood of females who tended her there. At Thebes she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae (or Thebes, where the 's' is the plural formation). Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae (or Athens, again a plural) (24).
  11. ↑ Plato, Cratylus, 407b. Available online from Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  12. ↑ For a good introduction to this theory, as supported by archaeological evidence, see E. M. Douglas, "The Owl of Athena," The Journal of Hellenic Studies 32 (1912): 174-178.
  13. ↑ Harrison 1922, 306: Fig. 84: Detail of a cup in the Faina collection. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  14. ↑ Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (1940). Available online from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  15. ↑ See Theoi.com: “Titles of Athena” for a complete listing of these epithets with references to the various passages in classical texts where they are used. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  16. ↑ Harrison's famous characterization of this myth-element as "a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions" has never been refuted (Harrison 1922, 302). This explicitly patriarchal depiction could be seen as a way that the male-dominated Hellenic society could accept the centrality of a female deity in many masculine pursuits (carpentry, law, warfare), a point that is cogently argued in Jeffrey M. Hurwit's "Beautiful Evil: Pandora and the Athena Parthenos," American Journal of Archaeology 99(2) (April 1995): 171-186, 178-180. See also Powell, 95; Farnell (vol. 1), 284-285.
  17. ↑ Compare this prophecy concerning Thetis, which had initially motivated Cronus to begin consuming his own children (one of which was Zeus).
  18. ↑ Hesiod, [Theogony, 890 and 924. Available online from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  19. ↑ Pindar, Olympian Odes 7:36-38. Available online from the Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  20. ↑ Timothy Gantz, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, ISBN 080184410X), 84.
  21. ↑ Hurwit, 180; paraphrasing Hesiod's Theogony 927-929.
  22. ↑ Karl Kerenyi, in The Gods of the Greeks (London & New York: Thames and Hudson, 1951, ISBN 0500270481), suggests that "Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally" (128).
  23. ↑ Farnell (1907) explores this enigma in some detail (vol. 1, 265-270).
  24. ↑ Farnell (vol. 1), 265-266.
  25. ↑ Rose, 108-109.
  26. ↑ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3.14.6. See also Powell, 192.
  27. ↑ Robert Graves, "The Nature and Deeds of Athena" in The Greek Myths I (London: Penguin Books, 1993, ISBN 0140171991), 25.
  28. ↑ The Library of Apollodorus 3.14.1; Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.70; Theoi.com: “Myths of Athena” for a comprehensive list of sources. Retrieved September 6, 2007.
  29. ↑ Further evidence of this hypothesis can be found in Thalia Phillies Howe's "Zeus Herkeios: Thematic Unity in the Hekatompedon Sculptures," American Journal of Archaeology 59(4) (Oct. 1955): 287-301, which considers various artistic works from an intermediary period when the conflict between older, Poseidon-centered beliefs and newer, Athena-centered beliefs was still being played out.
  30. ↑ The tale is recorded in Ovid's Metamorphoses (5-54 and 129-145) and mentioned in Virgil's Georgics (iv, 246).
  31. ↑ This takes for granted a late, moralizing view of Greek myth.
  32. ↑ Farnell (vol. 1), 258, 259-260.
  33. ↑ Matthew Dillon, Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece (London and New York: Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415127750), 141-143.
  34. ↑ Burkert, 140.
  35. ↑ Farnell (vol. 1), 319.

Bibliography

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External links

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