Patriarchy

Patriarchy (from Greek: patria meaning father and arché meaning rule) is the anthropological term used to define the sociological condition where male members of a society tend to predominate in positions of power; the more powerful the position, the more likely it is that a male will hold that position. The term "patriarchy" is also used in systems of ranking male leadership in certain hierarchical churches or religious bodies (see patriarch and Patriarchate). Examples include the Greek Orthodox and Russian Orthodox churches. "Patriarchy" is also used pejoratively to describe a seemingly immobile and sclerotic political order.

Definition

The term "patriarchy" is distinct from patrilineality and patrilocality. "Patrilineal" defines societies where the derivation of inheritance (financial or otherwise) originates from the father's line; for example, a society with matrilineal traits such as Judaism provides that in order to be considered a Jew, a person must be born of a Jewish mother. "Patrilocal" defines a locus of control coming from the father's geographic/cultural community. In a matrilineal/matrilocal society, a woman lives with her mother and siblings, even after marriage; she does not leave her maternal home. Her brothers act as 'social fathers' and hold a higher influence on the woman's offspring to the detriment of the children's biological father. Most societies are predominantly patrilineal and patrilocal (see: matriarchy).

Patrilineality

Patrilineality (a.k.a agnatic kinship) is a system in which one belongs to one's father's lineage; it generally involves the inheritance of property, names, or titles through the male line.

A patriline is a line of descent from a male ancestor to a descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals in all intervening generations are male. In a patrilineal descent system (also called agnatic descent), an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group as his or her father. This directly contrasts the less common pattern of matrilineal descent.

The agnatic ancestry of an individual is his or her male ancestry. An agnate is one's (male) relative in an unbroken male line: a kinsman with whom one has a common ancestor by descent in an unbroken male line.

The Salic Law in medieval and later Europe purportedly served as the grounds for only males being eligible for hereditary succession to monarchies and fiefs, i.e in patrilineal or agnatic succession.

The fact that the Y chromosome is paternally inherited enables geneticists to trace patrilines and agnatic kinships of men.

The line of descent for monarchs and main personalities is almost exclusively through the main male personalities. (see Davidic line.)

Patrilocality

Patrilocality is a term used by social anthropologists to describe a socially instituted practice whereupon a married couple lives with or near the family of the husband.

A patrilocal residence is based on a rule that a man remains in his father's home after maturity. When he becomes married, his wife joins him in his father's home where the couple will raise their children. These children will follow the same pattern: Sons will stay, and daughters will move in with their husbands' families. Household sizes grow quickly as this process continues.

Families living in a patrilocal residence generally assume joint ownership of domestic sources. A senior member leads the household and directs the labor of all other members.

Roughly 69% of the world's societies practice patrilocality.

Image of traditional cultural paternalism: Father Junipero Serra in a modern portrayal at Mission San Juan Capistrano, California

Paternalism

Paternalism usually refers to an attitude or a policy stemming from the hierarchic pattern of a family based on patriarchy; a figurehead (the father, pater in Latin) makes decisions on behalf of others (the "children") for their own good, even if this is contrary to their opinions.

It is implied that the fatherly figure is wiser than and acts in the best interest of those he protects. The term is used derogatorily to characterize attitudes or political systems that are thought to deprive individuals of freedom, only nominally serving their interests, while in fact pursuing another agenda.

In anthropology

Human societies, whether ancient, indigenous or modern industrial, have been described in anthropology as either patriarchal or matriarchal systems. Between these polarities lie a number of social structures which include elements of both systems (see above under Patriarchy a discussion of the terms patrilinial and patrilocal ).

Anthropologist Donald Brown has listed patriarchy as one of the "human universals" (Brown 1991, p. 137), which includes characteristics such as age gradation, personal hygiene, aesthetics, food sharing, and other sociological aspects, implying that patriarchy is innate to the human condition. Margaret Mead has observed that "... all the claims so glibly made about societies ruled by women are nonsense. We have no reason to believe that they ever existed....Men have always been the leaders in public affairs and the final authorities at home."

Societies have developed out of patriarchal cultures. Institutions of religion, education, and commerce retain patriarchal practices. Patriarchy in the form of divided roles between women and men into domestic and social spheres is distinctly visible in modern Muslim countries. In Europe and America, whose cultures are based on a Christian model, political and religious power continues to exert a strong influence.

The ideas of Age of Enlightenment philosophy, and Revolutionary movements including Feminism have brought about changes creating wider possibilities for both women and men. Marxist ideals support the advocacy of egalitarianism between the sexes, but these aspirations have been overtaken by authoritarian forms of political organization in communist states. In China, for example, the law requires that an equal number of women and men compose the National People's Congress. There are, however, no women within the Politburo of the Communist Party of China, the agency that actually rules China. Prior to its dissolution, the Soviet Union's Congress of People's Deputies likewise consisted of equal numbers of men and women. Its successor, the Duma, which has governing authority, at present has only 35 female deputies among the 450 members.

The longstanding thesis that societies are innately patriarchal has raised political opposition. The Modern Matriarchal Studies organization has held two conferences in Luxembourg (2004) and San Marcos, Texas (2005) in efforts to redefine the term "matriarchy." www.hagia.de/ (hagia being derived from the Greek hagios or "holy"}. Various chairs, called "priestesses" in the group's literature, conducted workshops and at the end of the conference declared that “International Matriarchal Politics stands against white supremacist patriarchal capitalist homogenization and the globalization of misery. It stands for egalitarianism, diversity and the economics of the heart. Many matriarchal societies still exist around the world and they propose an alternative, life affirming model to patriarchal raptor capitalism."Societies of Peace Declaration (2005), 2-3

Chinese Patriarchy

Chinese philosopher Mencius outlined the Three Subordinations: A woman was to be subordinate to her father in youth, her husband in maturity, and her son in old age.

Repeated throughout ancient Chinese tradition, the familiar notion that men govern the outer world, while women govern the home serves as a cliche of classical texts.

In the Han dynasty, the female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women to advise women how to behave. She outlined the Four Virtues women must abide by: proper virtue, proper speech, proper countenance, and proper merit. The "three subordinations and the four virtues" became a common four-character phrase throughout the imperial period.

As for the historical development of Chinese patriarchy, women's status was highest in the Tang dynasty, when women played sports (polo) and were generally freer in fashion and conduct. Between the Tang and Song dynasties, a fad for little feet arose, and from the Song dynasty forward footbinding became more and more common for the elite. In the Ming dynasty, a tradition of virtuous widowhood developed. Widows, even if widowed at a young age, were expected to not remarry. If they remained widows, their virtuous names might be displayed on the arch at the entrance of the village.

Examples of patriarchy in 20th and 21st century China include the immense pressure on women to get married before the age of 30 and the incidence of female infanticide associated with China's one child policy. However, footbinding has been eradicated and trafficking in women in China has greatly reduced.

In religion

Eastern Orthodoxy

The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the "first among equals" - primus inter pares in Latin - in the Eastern Orthodox communion, which is seen by followers as the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. He has also been historically known as the "Greek Patriarch."

In this capacity he is first in honor among all the Orthodox bishops, presides in person or through a delegate over any council of Orthodox primates and/or bishops in which he takes part and serves as primary spokesman for the communion, especially in ecumenical contacts with other Christian denominations, but has no direct jurisdiction over the other patriarchs or the other autocephalous Orthodox churches. However he alone among his fellow-primates enjoys the right of convening extraordinary synods consisting of them and/or their delegates to deal with ad hoc situations and has also convened well-attended Pan-Orthodox Synods in the last forty years.

In addition to being the spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide, he is the direct administrative superior of diocese and archdioceses serving millions of Greek, Ukrainian, Carpatho-Russian, and Albanian Orthodox in North and South America, and Western Europe (where his flock consists mainly of the Greek, Slavic and other Balkanic diaspora), Australia and New Zealand, Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, and Korea, as well as portions of modern Greece.

His actual position is Patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, one of the fourteen autocephalous and two autonomous churches and the most senior (though not oldest) of the four orthodox ancient primatial sees among the five patriarchal Christian centers comprising the ancient Pentarchy of the undivided Church. In his role as head of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, he also holds the title Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome.

He should not be confused with the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, an office that is now extinct(see Latin Patriarch of Constantinople)and created after the Latin capture of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade and which became effectively redundant after the city was recaptured by the Byzantine Greeks, half a century later. His official title is "His Most Sublime All-Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Oecumenical Patriarch."

Unique role in Orthodox episcopacy

The Ecumenical Patriarch has a unique role among Orthodox bishops, though it is not without its controversy. He bears the title primus inter pares ("first among equals"), which indicates his seniority among all Orthodox bishops. This primacy, expressed in canonical literature as presveia ("prerogatives"), grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to preside at pan-Orthodox synods.

Additionally, the canonical literature of the Orthodox Church grants to the Ecumenical Patriarch the right to hear appeals in cases of dispute between bishops, though whether these canonical rights are limited only to his own patriarchate or are universal throughout the Orthodox Church is currently the subject of debate, especially between the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Moscow Patriarchate.

Historically, the Ecumenical Patriarch has heard such appeals and sometimes was invited to intervene in other churches' disputes and difficulties. Even as early as the time of St. John Chrysostom (5th century), Constantinople was instrumental in the deposition of multiple bishops outside its traditional jurisdiction. This still occurs today, as when in 2006 the patriarchate was invited to assist in declaring the archbishop of the Cypriot Orthodox Church incompetent due to suffering from Alzheimer's disease.[3] Additionally, in 2005, the Ecumenical Patriarchate convoked a pan-Orthodox synod to express the Orthodox world's confirmation of the deposition of the Patriarch of Jerusalem.[4] In 2006, the patriarchate was invited to hear the appeal of a Russian Orthodox bishop in the United Kingdom in a dispute with his superior in Moscow, though the result of that appeal and the right to make it were both rejected by the latter[5].

The Ecumenical Patriarch has no direct jurisdiction outside the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted to him in Orthodox canonical literature, but his primary function in terms of the whole Orthodox Church is one dealing with relations between autocephalous and autonomous churches. That is, his primary function is one of Church unity.

This unique role often sees the Ecumenical Patriarch referred to as the "spiritual leader" of the Orthodox Church in some sources, though this is not an official title of the patriarch nor is it usually used in scholarly sources on the patriarchate. Such a title is not incorrect if it refers to this unique role, but it sometimes leads to a belief that the office is thus the equivalent of an Orthodox papacy, an impression sometimes given from unqualified references in the press.

Catholicism

The Sacrament of Order is that which integrates men (and in some jurisdictions, also women) into the Holy Orders of bishops, priests (presbyters), and deacons, the threefold order of "administrators of the mysteries of God" (1 Corinthians 4:1), giving the person the mission to teach, sanctify, and govern, the three functions referred to in Latin as the "tria munera". Only a bishop may administer this sacrament, as only a bishop holds the fullness of the Apostolic Ministry. Ordination as a bishop makes one a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles. Ordination as a priest configures a person to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering that person, as the bishops' assistant and vicar, to preside at the celebration of divine worship, and in particular to confect the sacrament of the Eucharist, acting "in persona Christi" (in the person of Christ). Ordination as a deacon configures the person to Christ the Servant of All, placing the deacon at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the Word, service in divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity.

Judaism

The role of women in Judaism is determined by the Hebrew Bible, Talmud (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. The Bible and Talmud mention various female role models, but religious law treats women differently in various circumstances. Each generation and era has brought its own challenges and responses.

Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism generally considers men and women to have complementary, yet fundamentally different roles in religious life, resulting in different religious obligations. This idea stems from the belief that men and women are inherently different in nature, with different respective strengths and weaknesses.

Most Orthodox synagogues do not allow a woman to become the president of a congregation, or to give the customary d'var Torah (brief discourse on the weekly Torah portion) during services. Supporters of these positions believe that they are essential to preserving modesty, are based in halakha, and that opponents are motivated by political as distinct from religious motives. Opponents of these positions reject the idea that these positions are based on modesty and halakha. Rather, they claim that such positions represent a view of women whose source lies in sociology, and not in Torah.

Orthodoxy is divided on whether or not it is appropriate for women to be involved in public roles. Many Orthodox rabbis believe that it inappropriate for women to be involved in any form of politics or leadership. For instance, former Chief Rabbi of Israel Mordechai Eliyahu stated that "A woman's place is not in politics." Much of Haredi Judaism views the idea of women in such public roles as unacceptable, or forbidden by Jewish law. On the other hand, many within Modern Orthodoxy believe that such roles are acceptable.

Haredi Judaism

One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the Chofetz Chaim Rabbi Yisroel Meir HaKohen (1838-1933).In order to combat the rampant assimilation of the 1800's-early 1900's, he overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced Jewish education of women and supported what had previously been a minority view in the Talmud and earlier responsa, on the basis that "at a time of danger (to Judaism), extreme measures are taken", and that in a modern world of assimilation it is important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov ("House [of] Jacob") network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in Krakow. After WWII the Bais Yaakov movement was transferred to the US where it has grown at a rapid rate.

Modern Orthodox Judaism

This became a controversial issue in the advent of feminism, when Jewish women began to demand religious empowerment similar to that of men. More liberal elements in Orthodoxy acceded to the requests of these women, especially in areas of Torah study, while more conservative elements remained solidly against this innovation in religious practice, often fearing that the motivation of these women was one solely of feminism and not of pure religious desire. The position of a rabbi within the spectrum of Orthodoxy would often be defined by his stance on the role of women in religious life.

Conservative Judaism

The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how Conservative Judaism views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, it has in recent years minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) of the Rabbinical Assembly has approved a number of decisions and responsa on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as:

• Publicly reading the Torah (ba'al kriah)
• Being part of the minyan
• Being called for an aliyah to read the Torah
• Serving as a Cantor (shalich tzibbur)
• Serving as rabbi and halakhic decisor (posek - an arbiter in matters of religious law)
• Wearing a tallit and tefillin

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:

• Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.

• Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a Simchat Bat (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

Reform Judaism

The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how Reform Judaism views women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are bound by halakha (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may perform any ritual done by a man.

American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish as long as the child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the de facto standard is that anyone with a single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a Jew.

In gender studies

In gender studies, the word patriarchy often refers to a social organization marked by the supremacy of a male figure, group of male figures, or men in general. It is depicted as subordinating women, children, and those whose genders or bodies defy traditional man/woman categorization.

In such a context, qualifying something as "paternalistic" implies a pejorative meaning, having similar associations as "chauvinistic." However, a man or woman can behave in a paternalistic manner. For instance, many activists during the Women's Health Movement criticized doctors for being patriarchical. While most doctors were male, many female doctors encountered the same accusations because they also engaged in behavior that subordinated women.

Feminist view

Many feminist writers have considered patriarchy to be the basis on which most modern societies have been formed. They argue that it is necessary and desirable to get away from this model in order to achieve gender equality.

Feminist writer Marilyn French, in her polemic Beyond Power, defines patriarchy as a system that values power over life, control over pleasure, and dominance over happiness. She argues that:

It is therefore extremely ironic that patriarchy has upheld power as a good that is permanent and dependable, opposing it to the fluid, transitory goods of matricentry. Power has been exalted as the bulwark against pain, against the ephemerality of pleasure, but it is no bulwark, and is as ephemeral as any other part of life...Yet so strong is the mythology of power that we continue to believe, in the face of all evidence to the contrary, that it is substantial, that if we possessed enough of it we could be happy, that if some "great man" possessed enough of it, he could make the world come right.

According to French:

It is not enough either to devise a morality that will allow the human race simply to survive. Survival is an evil when it entails existing in a state of wretchedness. Intrinsic to survival and continuation is felicity, pleasure [...] But pleasure does not exclude serious pursuits or intentions, indeed, it is found in them, and it is the only real reason for staying alive

The latter philosophy is what French offers as a replacement to the current structure where, she says, power has the highest value.

Gender-issues writer Cathy Young, by contrast, dismisses reference to "patriarchy" as a semantic device intended to shield the speaker from accountability when making misandrist slurs, since "patriarchy" means all of Western society. She cites Andrea Dworkin's criticism, "Under patriarchy, every woman's son is her potential betrayer and also the inevitable rapist or exploiter of another woman."

Bibliography

• Pierre Bourdieu, Masculine Domination, Polity Press 2001
• Robert Brown, Human Universals. Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1991
• Margaret Mead, . (1950). Male and Female, Penguin, London.
• Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour, Palgrave MacMillan 1999
• Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources, Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
• Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
• Women Who Would Be Rabbis Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press
• On the Ordination of Women: An Advocate's Halakhic Response Mayer E. Rabbinowitz. In Simon Greenberg, ed., The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988.
• Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies, Judith Hauptman, Judaism 42 (1993): 94-103.
• The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa, Simon Greenberg, ed. Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1988. ISBN 0873340418

External links

• Cattle ownership makes it a man's world New Scientist (1. October 2003): Early matrilineal societies became patrilineal when they started herding cattle, a new study demonstrates
• Debate Between Mark Ridley and Stephen Goldberg on the Inevitability of Patriarchy
• The Return of Patriarchy by By Phillip Longman
• Chart and explanation of patrilocal residence

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