Difference between revisions of "Almoravid dynasty" - New World Encyclopedia
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|s9=Mértola, Silves | |s9=Mértola, Silves | ||
|s10=Niebla, Spain|Niebla | |s10=Niebla, Spain|Niebla | ||
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− | + | mage_map_caption = Map showing the extent of the Almoravid empire | |
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|common_languages = [[Classical Arabic]] (predominant), [[Berber languages]], [[Mozarab]], [[Hebrew language]], [[African Romance]] & [[Andalusian Arabic]] | |common_languages = [[Classical Arabic]] (predominant), [[Berber languages]], [[Mozarab]], [[Hebrew language]], [[African Romance]] & [[Andalusian Arabic]] | ||
|religion = [[Sunni Islam]] (predominant), [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Ibadi]], [[Judaism]] & [[Sufism]] | |religion = [[Sunni Islam]] (predominant), [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Ibadi]], [[Judaism]] & [[Sufism]] | ||
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− | The '''Almoravids''', was a [[Berber people|Berber]] <ref>Glick, Thomas F. | + | The '''Almoravids''', was a [[Berber people|Berber]] <ref>Glick, Thomas F. page 37</ref> dynasty from the [[Sahara]] that spread over a wide area of [[North Africa|North-Western Africa]] and the [[Iberian peninsula]] during the 11th century. They were invited by the Muslim rulers in Iberia to aid them against the Christians. As well as holding back the Christian advance, they overthrew the Muslim princes whom they denounced as religiously lax, thus extending the Moorish empire over present-day [[Morocco]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Tlemcen]] (in [[Algeria]]) and a great part of what is now [[Senegal]] and [[Mali]] in the south, and [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] to the north in [[Europe]]. At its extent, the empire stretched 3,000 kilometres north to south (an all-time latitude spanner until [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish America]]). |
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− | The exact meaning of "Murabit" is a matter of controversy. The name may be derived from the Arabic ''ribat'' (meaning tie or fortress (a term with which it shares the root r-b-t). This was the common opinion some time ago, however most historians now believe that it refers to ''ribat'', meaning "tied to Horses" ( | + | The exact meaning of "Murabit" (from which Almoravid is derived). is a matter of controversy. The name may be derived from the Arabic ''ribat'' (meaning tie or fortress (a term with which it shares the root r-b-t). This was the common opinion some time ago, however most historians now believe that it refers to ''ribat'', meaning "tied to Horses" (ready for battle). Having ousted the earlier Muslim rulers in the name of a purer form of Islam, they were themselves ousted by the [[Almohad Dynasty]], who claimed that their interpretation of Islam was even purer. |
==Beginnings== | ==Beginnings== | ||
Line 50: | Line 42: | ||
==Influence of orthodox Islam== | ==Influence of orthodox Islam== | ||
− | About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, [[Yahya ibn Ibrahim]], made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Makkah]]. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at [[Kairouan]], in [[Tunisia]], who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess | + | About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, [[Yahya ibn Ibrahim]], made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Makkah]]. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at [[Kairouan]], in [[Tunisia]], who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess. The theologians of Kairawan, one of whom was from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], provided Yahya with a missionary, [[Ibn Yasin|Abdallah ibn Yasin]], a devout follower of the [[Maliki]]s, one of the four legal schools of [[Sunni]] Islam. |
− | + | On returning to his own area, Yahya started to preach that Muslims should follow the teachings of the [[Quran]], and the orthodox tradition or [[Sunnah]]. He soon found himself opposed by the Lamtunas and, on the advice of ibn Yasin, he retired to [[Sahara]]n regions where he found a more sympathetic audience. His influence spread. His followers, gathered from a variety of Berber clans, became known as the Almoravids, | |
==Military training== | ==Military training== | ||
− | Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under | + | Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under this regime, the Almoravids were transformed into a formidable fighting force. While ibn Yasin acted as spiritual mentor, Yahya was the military and political leader. Their main force was infantry, armed with [[Spear|javelin]]s in the front ranks and [[Pike (weapon)|pike]]s behind, which formed into a [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]]; and was supported by [[camel]]men and [[horse]]men on the [[Flanking maneuver|flank]]s. |
==Military successes== | ==Military successes== | ||
[[Image:Almoravid_Dynasty_1073_-_1147_(AD).PNG |thumb|300px|Almoravid Dynasty in its Greatest Extent]] | [[Image:Almoravid_Dynasty_1073_-_1147_(AD).PNG |thumb|300px|Almoravid Dynasty in its Greatest Extent]] | ||
− | From the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their | + | From the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their reformist teaching to the Berber areas of the Sahara, and to the regions south of the desert. They converted [[Takrur]] (a small state in modern [[Senegal]]) to Islam, and after winning over the [[Sanhaja]] Berber tribe, they quickly took control of the entire desert trade route, seizing [[Sijilmasa]] at the northern end in 1054, and [[Aoudaghost]] at the southern end in 1055. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in 1056. Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named Yahya's brother [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] as chief. Under him, the Almoravids soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the [[Atlas Mountains]]. They then came in contact with the [[Berghouata]], a branch of the [[Zenata]] of central Morocco, who followed a "heresy" founded by [[Salih ibn Tarif]], three centuries earlier. The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and Abdullah ibn Yasinin was killed while fighting them. They were, however, completely conquered by [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]], who took the defeated chief's widow, [[Zaynab_an-Nafzawiyyat|Zainab]], as a wife. |
In 1056 conquest Taroudant | In 1056 conquest Taroudant | ||
− | In 1061, [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], as [[viceroy]] | + | In 1061, [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], as [[viceroy]]. He also gave him his favorite wife, Zainab (after divorcing her). For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert. When he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded and instead went back to the Sahara, where, in 1087, following a wound from a poisoned arrow, he died (in 1087). He is reputed to have spread Islam in the southern Sahara. He may have attacked Ghana in 1076. |
− | Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as Morocco, [[Western Sahara]] and [[Mauretania]] into complete subjection | + | Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as Morocco, [[Western Sahara]] and [[Mauretania]] into complete subjection and in 1062, had founded the city of [[Marrakech]]. In 1080, he conquered the kingdom of [[Tlemcen]] (in modern-day [[Algeria]]) and founded the present city of that name, extending his rule as far east as [[Oran]]. |
===Ghana Empire=== | ===Ghana Empire=== | ||
− | In 1075, the Almoravids conquered [[Ghana Empire]]. According to Arab tradition, the ensuing war | + | In 1075, the Almoravids conquered [[Ghana Empire]]. According to Arab tradition, the ensuing war ended the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by 1100, as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids while others founded the [[Mali Empire]]. The Almoravid religious influence was gradual and not heavily involved in military strife, as Almoravids increased in power by marrying among the nation's nobility. |
==Iberian Peninsula== | ==Iberian Peninsula== | ||
[[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival]] | [[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival]] | ||
− | In 1086 [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] was invited by the Muslim princes in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]) to defend them against [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]], King of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]]. In | + | In 1086 [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] was invited by the Muslim princes in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]) to defend them against [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]], King of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]]. After the collapse of the [[Umayyads]] of Cordoba, Muslim Spain had split into small states, or ''taifa'', each under an Emir or Prince. After the Fall of Toledo in 1085, the princes turned to the Maghrib for help. In 1086, [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] crossed the straits to [[Algeciras]], inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the [[Battle of az-Zallaqah|az-Zallaqah]]. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in [[Africa]], which he had to settle in person. |
− | When he returned to Iberia in 1090, it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, [[al-Ghazali]] in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[al-Tartushi]] in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth, from [[Tortosa]]), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a ''[[fatwa]]'' | + | [[Image:Taifas.gif|Muslim taifa following the collapse of the Umayyads in 1031.]] |
+ | When he returned to Iberia in 1090, it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, [[al-Ghazali]] in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[al-Tartushi]] in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth, from [[Tortosa]]), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a ''[[fatwa]]'' - or legal opinion - to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the rulers, whom he saw as heterodox and who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits he claimed they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all, except for the one at [[Zaragoza]]. Athough he regained little from the Christians except [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]], he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians. | ||
===The Commander of the Muslims=== | ===The Commander of the Muslims=== | ||
Line 82: | Line 75: | ||
==Decline== | ==Decline== | ||
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Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], [[Sintra]] and [[Santarém]] were added, and Iberia was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover [[Zaragoza]]. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], and in the [[Battle of Ourique]] (1139), by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], who thereby won his crown; and [[Lisbon]] was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147. | Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], [[Sintra]] and [[Santarém]] were added, and Iberia was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover [[Zaragoza]]. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], and in the [[Battle of Ourique]] (1139), by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], who thereby won his crown; and [[Lisbon]] was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147. | ||
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Interestingly, family names such as ''[[Morabito]]'', ''[[Murabito]]'' and ''[[Mirabito]]'' are common in western [[Sicily]], the [[Aeolian Islands]] and southern [[Calabria]] in [[Italy]]. These names may have appeared in this region as early as the 11th century, when [[Robert Guiscard]] and the [[Normans]] defeated the [[Saracens]] (Muslims) in Sicily. In addition to southern Italy, there are also sizable populations of ''[[Mourabit]]'' (also spelled ''[[Morabit]]'' or ''[[Murabit]]'') in modern-day [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Mauritania]]. | Interestingly, family names such as ''[[Morabito]]'', ''[[Murabito]]'' and ''[[Mirabito]]'' are common in western [[Sicily]], the [[Aeolian Islands]] and southern [[Calabria]] in [[Italy]]. These names may have appeared in this region as early as the 11th century, when [[Robert Guiscard]] and the [[Normans]] defeated the [[Saracens]] (Muslims) in Sicily. In addition to southern Italy, there are also sizable populations of ''[[Mourabit]]'' (also spelled ''[[Morabit]]'' or ''[[Murabit]]'') in modern-day [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Mauritania]]. | ||
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==Rulers== | ==Rulers== | ||
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*[[Isaac Alfasi]] (m. 1103) - rabbis and writer | *[[Isaac Alfasi]] (m. 1103) - rabbis and writer | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
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* Chejne, Anwar G. 1974. ''Muslim Spain, its history and culture''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press ISBN 9780816606887 | * Chejne, Anwar G. 1974. ''Muslim Spain, its history and culture''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press ISBN 9780816606887 | ||
* Clancy-Smith, Julia Ann. 2001. ''North Africa, Islam, and the Mediterranean world: from the Almoravids to the Algerian War''. Cass series—history and society in the Islamic world. London: Frank Cass ISBN 9780714651705 | * Clancy-Smith, Julia Ann. 2001. ''North Africa, Islam, and the Mediterranean world: from the Almoravids to the Algerian War''. Cass series—history and society in the Islamic world. London: Frank Cass ISBN 9780714651705 | ||
+ | * Glick, Thomas F. 2005. ''Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages''. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill ISBN 9789004147713 | ||
*Hrbek, Ivan and Devisse,Jean. 1988. "The Almoravids" 336-366) in Fāsī, Muḥammad, and Ivan Hrbek. ''General history of Africa''. 3, ''Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century''. London: Heinemann Educational Books; Paris: UNESCO. ISBN 9780520039148 | *Hrbek, Ivan and Devisse,Jean. 1988. "The Almoravids" 336-366) in Fāsī, Muḥammad, and Ivan Hrbek. ''General history of Africa''. 3, ''Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century''. London: Heinemann Educational Books; Paris: UNESCO. ISBN 9780520039148 | ||
* Kennedy, Hugh. 1996. ''Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus''. London: Longman ISBN 9780582495159 | * Kennedy, Hugh. 1996. ''Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus''. London: Longman ISBN 9780582495159 |
Revision as of 04:06, 9 May 2008
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The Almoravids, was a Berber [1] dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. They were invited by the Muslim rulers in Iberia to aid them against the Christians. As well as holding back the Christian advance, they overthrew the Muslim princes whom they denounced as religiously lax, thus extending the Moorish empire over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a great part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal to the north in Europe. At its extent, the empire stretched 3,000 kilometres north to south (an all-time latitude spanner until Spanish America).
The exact meaning of "Murabit" (from which Almoravid is derived). is a matter of controversy. The name may be derived from the Arabic ribat (meaning tie or fortress (a term with which it shares the root r-b-t). This was the common opinion some time ago, however most historians now believe that it refers to ribat, meaning "tied to Horses" (ready for battle). Having ousted the earlier Muslim rulers in the name of a purer form of Islam, they were themselves ousted by the Almohad Dynasty, who claimed that their interpretation of Islam was even purer.
Beginnings
The most powerful of the tribes of the Sahara, south of the Draa River to the Sénégal River was the Lamtuna, whose region of origin was 'Wadi Noun' (Nul Lemta). They later spread as far as the upper Niger River region, where they founded the city of Aoudaghost. They had been converted to Islam in the 7th century.
Influence of orthodox Islam
About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, made the pilgrimage to Makkah. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at Kairouan, in Tunisia, who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess. The theologians of Kairawan, one of whom was from Fez, provided Yahya with a missionary, Abdallah ibn Yasin, a devout follower of the Malikis, one of the four legal schools of Sunni Islam.
On returning to his own area, Yahya started to preach that Muslims should follow the teachings of the Quran, and the orthodox tradition or Sunnah. He soon found himself opposed by the Lamtunas and, on the advice of ibn Yasin, he retired to Saharan regions where he found a more sympathetic audience. His influence spread. His followers, gathered from a variety of Berber clans, became known as the Almoravids,
Military training
Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under this regime, the Almoravids were transformed into a formidable fighting force. While ibn Yasin acted as spiritual mentor, Yahya was the military and political leader. Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks.
Military successes
From the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their reformist teaching to the Berber areas of the Sahara, and to the regions south of the desert. They converted Takrur (a small state in modern Senegal) to Islam, and after winning over the Sanhaja Berber tribe, they quickly took control of the entire desert trade route, seizing Sijilmasa at the northern end in 1054, and Aoudaghost at the southern end in 1055. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in 1056. Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named Yahya's brother Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar as chief. Under him, the Almoravids soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the Atlas Mountains. They then came in contact with the Berghouata, a branch of the Zenata of central Morocco, who followed a "heresy" founded by Salih ibn Tarif, three centuries earlier. The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and Abdullah ibn Yasinin was killed while fighting them. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar, who took the defeated chief's widow, Zainab, as a wife.
In 1056 conquest Taroudant
In 1061, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin, as viceroy. He also gave him his favorite wife, Zainab (after divorcing her). For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert. When he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded and instead went back to the Sahara, where, in 1087, following a wound from a poisoned arrow, he died (in 1087). He is reputed to have spread Islam in the southern Sahara. He may have attacked Ghana in 1076.
Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauretania into complete subjection and in 1062, had founded the city of Marrakech. In 1080, he conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen (in modern-day Algeria) and founded the present city of that name, extending his rule as far east as Oran.
Ghana Empire
In 1075, the Almoravids conquered Ghana Empire. According to Arab tradition, the ensuing war ended the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by 1100, as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids while others founded the Mali Empire. The Almoravid religious influence was gradual and not heavily involved in military strife, as Almoravids increased in power by marrying among the nation's nobility.
Iberian Peninsula
In 1086 Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) to defend them against Alfonso VI, King of Castile and León. After the collapse of the Umayyads of Cordoba, Muslim Spain had split into small states, or taifa, each under an Emir or Prince. After the Fall of Toledo in 1085, the princes turned to the Maghrib for help. In 1086, Yusuf ibn Tashfin crossed the straits to Algeciras, inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the az-Zallaqah. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in Africa, which he had to settle in person.
When he returned to Iberia in 1090, it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, al-Ghazali in Persia and al-Tartushi in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth, from Tortosa), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a fatwa - or legal opinion - to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the rulers, whom he saw as heterodox and who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits he claimed they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all, except for the one at Zaragoza. Athough he regained little from the Christians except Valencia, he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians.
The Commander of the Muslims
After friendly correspondence with the caliph at Baghdad, whom he acknowledged as Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1097 assumed the title of Amir al Muslimin (Commander of the Muslims). He died in 1106, when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100.
The Almoravid power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as Algiers, and all of Iberia south of the Tagus, with the east coast as far as the mouth of the Ebro, and included the Balearic Islands.
Decline
Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, Sintra and Santarém were added, and Iberia was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover Zaragoza. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by Alfonso VII of Castile and León, and in the Battle of Ourique (1139), by Afonso I of Portugal, who thereby won his crown; and Lisbon was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147.
Ali ibn Yusuf was a pious non-entity, who fasted and prayed while his empire fell to pieces [citation needed] under the combined action of his Christian foes in Iberia and the agitation of Almohads (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in 1142, his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohads, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice, while endeavouring to escape after a defeat near Oran.
His two successors were Ibrahim ibn Tashfin and Is'haq ibn Ali, but their reign was only short. The conquest of the city of Marrakech by the Almohads in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the Almoravids (the Banu Ghaniya), continued to struggle in the Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia.
Interestingly, family names such as Morabito, Murabito and Mirabito are common in western Sicily, the Aeolian Islands and southern Calabria in Italy. These names may have appeared in this region as early as the 11th century, when Robert Guiscard and the Normans defeated the Saracens (Muslims) in Sicily. In addition to southern Italy, there are also sizable populations of Mourabit (also spelled Morabit or Murabit) in modern-day Morocco, Tunisia and Mauritania.
Rulers
- Abdallah Ibn Yasin (1040-1059)
- Yusuf ibn Tashfin (1061–1106)
- Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–42)
- Tashfin ibn Ali (1142–46)
- Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1146)
- Ishaq ibn Ali (1146–47)
Culture
- Isaac Alfasi (m. 1103) - rabbis and writer
External links
- Almoravids Dynasty Berber dynasty
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- ↑ Glick, Thomas F. page 37
- Chejne, Anwar G. 1974. Muslim Spain, its history and culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press ISBN 9780816606887
- Clancy-Smith, Julia Ann. 2001. North Africa, Islam, and the Mediterranean world: from the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Cass series—history and society in the Islamic world. London: Frank Cass ISBN 9780714651705
- Glick, Thomas F. 2005. Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill ISBN 9789004147713
- Hrbek, Ivan and Devisse,Jean. 1988. "The Almoravids" 336-366) in Fāsī, Muḥammad, and Ivan Hrbek. General history of Africa. 3, Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century. London: Heinemann Educational Books; Paris: UNESCO. ISBN 9780520039148
- Kennedy, Hugh. 1996. Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus. London: Longman ISBN 9780582495159
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
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