Difference between revisions of "Sicily" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Sicily''' is an [[Autonomous regions with special statute (Italy)|autonomous region]] of [[Italy]].  Also known as ''Sicilia'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''Σικελία'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Sqallija'' [[Maltese language|Maltese]], it is the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], with an area of [[1 E10 m²|25,700 km²]] and 5 million inhabitants.  For much of its existence, Sicily has stood as a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty.  In the meantime, the Sicilians often suffered as a result of these international struggles.  The following paragraphs provide the reader a brief glimpse of Sicilian history, art, geography, culture, and language on this small, but pivotal, nation.  
 
'''Sicily''' is an [[Autonomous regions with special statute (Italy)|autonomous region]] of [[Italy]].  Also known as ''Sicilia'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''Σικελία'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Sqallija'' [[Maltese language|Maltese]], it is the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], with an area of [[1 E10 m²|25,700 km²]] and 5 million inhabitants.  For much of its existence, Sicily has stood as a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty.  In the meantime, the Sicilians often suffered as a result of these international struggles.  The following paragraphs provide the reader a brief glimpse of Sicilian history, art, geography, culture, and language on this small, but pivotal, nation.  
  
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The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.  The ancient Siculians, for whom the island was named, are Sicily's first known inhabitants.  In 3000 B.C.E. they introduced animal breeding, agriculture, and artisian activities.  Later settlers included the Phoenicians, who established trading and construction from the forests.  From the eighth to the third century B.C.E. Romans established colonies and further developed agriculture and commerce.  Around the time of Christ, Romans harvested the wheat and established granaries.  The Romans also further developed commerce, and, as in their other colonies, constructed an excellent road system.  In the Middle Ages from the fifth to the fifteen centuries, the economy suffered at first during the Arabic, Goth and Vandal invasions, but once each group settled, the economy advanced, producing such projects as the renovation and fortification of the Port of Palermo.  Additional agricultural growth included irrigation, and the planting new crops such as jasmine, citrus, cotton, and others, which remain popular today.  Development thrived under the Normans, who built magnificant castles in Monreale and Cefalu.  The Swabians introduced large castles and continued the development until the Spanish assumed power.  As a colony under Spain's rule in the sixteenth century, Sicily had large farm like feudal estates, but their production rate became low, a tragedy after so much development had occurred during previous settlements.  In the modern ages, under the Bourbons in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the center of politics moved from Palermo to Naples.  Baroque architecture became prevalent, and many cities and small towns were established.  In the 1860 Sicily and its island neighbors were annexed to Italy; however, in 1946 Sicily was granted its own governance.  In 1871 the first railroad was constructed, and in the 1950's, the large estates were divided into smaller plots of land for homeowners.  The economy developed.  In 1957 hydrocarbon was discovered, and several industrial plants to accommodate its development were built.
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The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.  The ancient Siculians, for whom the island was named, are Sicily's first known inhabitants.  In 3000 B.C.E..E. they introduced animal breeding, agriculture, and artisian activities.  Later settlers included the Phoenicians, who established trading and construction from the forests.  From the eighth to the third century B.C.E..E. Romans established colonies and further developed agriculture and commerce.  Around the time of Christ, Romans harvested the wheat and established granaries.  The Romans also further developed commerce, and, as in their other colonies, constructed an excellent road system.  In the Middle Ages from the fifth to the fifteen centuries, the economy suffered at first during the Arabic, Goth and Vandal invasions, but once each group settled, the economy advanced, producing such projects as the renovation and fortification of the Port of Palermo.  Additional agricultural growth included irrigation, and the planting new crops such as jasmine, citrus, cotton, and others, which remain popular today.  Development thrived under the Normans, who built magnificant castles in Monreale and Cefalu.  The Swabians introduced large castles and continued the development until the Spanish assumed power.  As a colony under Spain's rule in the sixteenth century, Sicily had large farm like feudal estates, but their production rate became low, a tragedy after so much development had occurred during previous settlements.  In the modern ages, under the Bourbons in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the center of politics moved from Palermo to Naples.  Baroque architecture became prevalent, and many cities and small towns were established.  In the 1860 Sicily and its island neighbors were annexed to Italy; however, in 1946 Sicily was granted its own governance.  In 1871 the first railroad was constructed, and in the 1950's, the large estates were divided into smaller plots of land for homeowners.  The economy developed.  In 1957 hydrocarbon was discovered, and several industrial plants to accommodate its development were built.
  
  
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==History==
 
==History==
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[[Image:Sicily Selinunte Temple E (Hera).JPG|thumb|left|225px|Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century BCE.]]
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[[Image:Sicily Selinunte Temple E (Hera).JPG|thumb|left|225px|Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century B.C.E.]]
  
 
According to the Greeks, Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the [[Elymians]] who may have originated near the [[Aegean Sea]].  Later settlers included the [[Sicani]], whose origins may have been from [[Iberia]], and the Siculi or [[Sicels]], who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the ''Italoi'' of [[Calabria]], the [[Oenotrians]], [[Chones]], and [[Leuterni]] (or Leutarni), the [[Osci|Opicans]], and the [[Aurunci|Ausones]].  
 
According to the Greeks, Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the [[Elymians]] who may have originated near the [[Aegean Sea]].  Later settlers included the [[Sicani]], whose origins may have been from [[Iberia]], and the Siculi or [[Sicels]], who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the ''Italoi'' of [[Calabria]], the [[Oenotrians]], [[Chones]], and [[Leuterni]] (or Leutarni), the [[Osci|Opicans]], and the [[Aurunci|Ausones]].  
  
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Sicily was [[colonized]] by [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic]] settlers from [[Carthage]], and by [[Greece|Greek]]s, starting in the [[8th Century BCE]]. The most important [[colony]] was established at [[Syracuse]] in [[733 BCE]]. Other important [[Greek colonies]] included [[Gela]] founded in 688 BCE, [[Agrigento]], in 580 BCE [[Selinunte]], [[Himera]], and [[Zancle]] or Messene (modern-day [[Messina]] founded in 756 BCE, which is distinctive of the [[ancient]] city of [[Messene]] in [[Messenia]], [[Greece]]). These [[city state]]s played an important role in classical Greek civilization, having more Greeks and Greek temples than Greece and therefore came to be known as [[Magna Graecia]]; in fact, both [[Empedocles]] and [[Archimedes]] came from Sicily. Even Sicilian [[politics]] were connected to Greece; for example, [[Athens]], initiated the disastrous [[Sicilian Expedition]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]].
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=== Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Greeks & Romans ===
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Sicily was [[colonized]] by [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic]] settlers from [[Carthage]], and by [[Greece|Greek]]s, starting in the [[8th Century B.C.E.]]. The most important [[colony]] was established at [[Syracuse]] in 733 B.C.E. Other important [[Greek colonies]] included [[Gela]] founded in 688 B.C.E., [[Agrigento]], in 580 B.C.E. [[Selinunte]], [[Himera]], and [[Zancle]] or Messene (modern-day [[Messina]] founded in 756 B.C.E., which is distinctive of the [[ancient]] city of [[Messene]] in [[Messenia]], Greece). These [[city state]]s played an important role in classical Greek civilization, having more Greeks and Greek temples than Greece and therefore came to be known as [[Magna Graecia]]; in fact, both [[Empedocles]] and [[Archimedes]] came from Sicily. Even Sicilian [[politics]] were connected to Greece; for example, [[Athens]], initiated the disastrous [[Sicilian Expedition]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]].
  
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The Greeks experienced conflict with the [[Punic]] trading communities which dealt with [[Carthage]] located on the [[African]] mainland, and which had its own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city.  It was established in the [[8th century BCE]]. Hundreds of [[Phoenicia]]n and Carthaginian gravesites were found in a spacious area of Palermo [[necropolis]], south of the Norman palace where the kings once had a vast park.  Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern part of Sicily.  For example, Lilybaeum, (today known as [[Marsala]]) in the far west, was not thoroughly [[Hellenized]]. In the [[Carthage#First Sicilian War|First]] and [[Carthage#Second Sicilian War|Second Sicilian Wars]], Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In [[415 BCE]], in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the [[Sicilian Expedition]], by attacking Sicily, and breaking its seven year truce with,[[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]].  As a result, the [[Peloponnesian War]] resumed.
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The Greeks experienced conflict with the [[Punic]] trading communities which dealt with [[Carthage]] located on the [[African]] mainland, and which had its own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city.  It was established in the [[8th century B.C.E.]]. Hundreds of [[Phoenicia]]n and Carthaginian gravesites were found in a spacious area of Palermo [[necropolis]], south of the Norman palace where the kings once had a vast park.  Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern part of Sicily.  For example, Lilybaeum, (today known as [[Marsala]]) in the far west, was not thoroughly [[Hellenized]]. In the [[Carthage#First Sicilian War|First]] and [[Carthage#Second Sicilian War|Second Sicilian Wars]], Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In 415 B.C.E., in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the [[Sicilian Expedition]], by attacking Sicily, and breaking its seven year truce with,[[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]].  As a result, the [[Peloponnesian War]] resumed.
  
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In the [[3rd century BCE]] the [[Carthage#The Messanan Crisis|Messanan Crisis]] the [[Roman Republic]] intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the [[First Punic War]] between [[Rome]] and Carthage.  Once the war was completed in ([[242 BCE]]) Rome occupied the entire country of Sicily.  In 210 BCE Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian [[province]].
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In the [[3rd century B.C.E.]] the [[Carthage#The Messanan Crisis|Messanan Crisis]] the [[Roman Republic]] intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the [[First Punic War]] between [[Rome]] and Carthage.  Once the war was completed in (242 B.C.E.) Rome occupied the entire country of Sicily.  In 210 B.C.E. Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian [[province]].
  
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The Carthaginians' initial success during the [[Second Punic War]] encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent [[troops]] to quash the [[rebellions]]; at this point in battle, the siege of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed.  For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily; however, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers— in [[210 BCE]] that the Roman consul [[M. Valerian]] proclaimed to the [[Roman Senate]] that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily".
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The Carthaginians' initial success during the [[Second Punic War]] encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent [[troops]] to quash the [[rebellions]]; at this point in battle, the siege of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed.  For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily; however, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers— in 210 B.C.E. that the Roman consul [[M. Valerian]] proclaimed to the [[Roman Senate]] that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily."
  
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For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the [[Roman Empire]], and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The [[empire]] did not attempt to [[Romanize]] this region, which remained primarily Greek.  At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event in Sicilian was [[Verres]] infamous government, which [[Cicero]] strongly criticized in his oration, [[In Verrem]] in [[70 BCE]] Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.
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For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the [[Roman Empire]], and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The [[empire]] did not attempt to [[Romanize]] this region, which remained primarily Greek.  At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event in Sicilian was [[Verres]] infamous government, which [[Cicero]] strongly criticized in his oration, [[In Verrem]] in 70 B.C.E. Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.
  
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Around 200 CE Christianity started to develop in Sicily, and along with it, martyrdom occurred.  However, by 313 CE Emperor Constantine stopped the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.
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Around 200 C.E. Christianity started to develop in Sicily, and along with it, martyrdom occurred.  However, by 313 C.E. Emperor Constantine stopped the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.
  
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In 440 CE, the [[Vandal]] [[king]] [[Geiseric]] controlled Sicily. A few [[decades]] later, the [[Ostrogoths]] acquired it until 515 CE when the [[Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] conquered it. Sicilian Christianity was Orthodox from this time until the 12th century.  However, a new [[Ostrogoth]] king, [[Totila]], dashed down the Italian peninsula and [[conquered]] Sicily in 550 CE.  However, his rule only endured two years, for the Byzantine [[general]], [[Narses]], killed him in 552. From 662-668 CE, during Byzantine rule, Syracuse was the imperial capital, until [[Constans II]] was [[assassinated]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] ruled Sicily until the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] conquest of 827-902. Sicilians spoke [[Greek]] or Italo-Greek [[dialects]] until at least the 10th century throughout the country, and in some areas these dialects prevailed for several more centuries.
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=== Byzantines ===
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In 440 C.E., the [[Vandal]] [[king]] [[Geiseric]] controlled Sicily. A few [[decades]] later, the [[Ostrogoths]] acquired it until 515 C.E. when the [[Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] conquered it. Sicilian Christianity was Orthodox from this time until the 12th century.  However, a new [[Ostrogoth]] king, [[Totila]], dashed down the Italian peninsula and [[conquered]] Sicily in 550 C.E.  However, his rule only endured two years, for the Byzantine [[general]], [[Narses]], killed him in 552. From 662-668 C.E., during Byzantine rule, Syracuse was the imperial capital, until [[Constans II]] was [[assassinated]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] ruled Sicily until the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] conquest of 827-902. Sicilians spoke [[Greek]] or Italo-Greek [[dialects]] until at least the 10th century throughout the country, and in some areas these dialects prevailed for several more centuries.
  
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In 827 CE the Moors attacked and conquered western Sicily.  By 903 Saracens, an Arabic group, controlled the land and three emirs ruled it, introducing the Islam religion.  However, these rulers tolerated both Judaism and Christianity, and under the [[Kalbid]] [[dynasty]] Palermo became the capital city of the [[Emirate of Sicily]], and this city maintained its leadership under [[Norman]] rule when they conquered Sicily in 1060-1090 CE.  At this time Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and it was established as one of the wealthiest states in Europe.  According to [[historian]] [[John Julius Norwich]], Palermo under the Normans became wealthier than [[England]] during that age.  A century later, however, the Norman [[Hauteville family|Hauteville]] dynasty ended, and the south [[Germanic peoples|German]] or ([[Swabia|Swabian]]) [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance from 1220.  Unfortunately, the [[Crusades]] instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts; therefore, in 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], grandson of [[Roger II]], removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.
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In 827 C.E. the Moors attacked and conquered western Sicily.  By 903 Saracens, an Arabic group, controlled the land and three emirs ruled it, introducing the Islam religion.  However, these rulers tolerated both Judaism and Christianity, and under the [[Kalbid]] [[dynasty]] Palermo became the capital city of the [[Emirate of Sicily]], and this city maintained its leadership under [[Norman]] rule when they conquered Sicily in 1060-1090 C.E.   
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=== Byzantines === 
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In 440 C.E. Sicily fell to the [[Vandal]] [[Monarch|king]] [[Geiseric]]. A few [[decades]] later, it came into [[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] hands, where it remained until it was conquered by the [[Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] in 535. But a new Ostrogothic king, [[Totila]], drove down the Italian peninsula and then [[plunder]]ed and conquered Sicily in 550. Totila, in turn, was defeated and killed by the Byzantine [[general]], [[Narses]], in 552. For a brief period (662-668), during Byzantine rule, Syracuse was the imperial capital, until [[Constans II]] was [[assassinated]]. Sicily was then ruled by the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] conquest of 827-902. It is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] or Italo-Greek [[dialects]] until at least the 10th century, and in some regions for several more centuries.
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===First Arab invasion of Sicily===
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In 535, Emperor [[Justinian I]] made Sicily a Byzantine province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the Greek language became a familiar sound across the island. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652C.E. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after.
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=== Arab control from Tunisia and Egypt === 
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In around 700, the island of [[Pantelleria]] was captured by Arabs, and it was only discord among the Arabs that prevented Sicily being next. Instead, trading arrangements were agreed and Arab merchants established themselves in Sicilian ports. Then, in 827 a failed Sicilian coup against an unpopular Byzantine governor. [[Euphemius (King of Sicily)|Euphemius]], a wealthy landowner, who overcame the imperial garrison in [[Siracusa]], declared himself Emperor and invited the [[Aghlabid]] Emir of Tunisia to help him. The response was a fleet of 100 ships and 10,000 troops under the command of [[Asad ibn al-Furat]], which consisted largely of Arab, Berbers from North Africa and Spain. After resistance at Siracusa, the Muslims gained a foothold in [[Mazara del Vallo]]. [[Palermo]] fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878. From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured [[Messina]], [[Modica]], [[Ragusa]] and [[Enna]]. In 902 [[Taormina]], the last Byzantine stronghold also fell to the Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control and Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.
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=== Emirate of Sicily ===
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{{main|Emirate of Sicily}}
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In succession Sicily was ruled by the Sunni [[Aghlabid]] dynasty in [[Tunisia]] and the Shiite [[Fatimid]]s in [[Egypt]]. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years.  After suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed [[Hassan al-Kalbi]] (948-964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the [[Kalbid]] dynasty. Raids into southern Italy continued under the Kalbids into the 11th century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in [[Calabria]]. With Emir [[Yusuf al-Kalbi]] (990-998) a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017-1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the [[Zirid]]s. By the time of Emir [[Hasan as-Samsam]] (1040-1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms. As a virtually an independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between [[Africa]] and [[Europe]]. Trade flourished and taxes were low. The tolerant regime allowed subjects to abide by their own laws. Despite freedom of worship, Christians freely converted to Islam and there were soon hundreds of mosques in [[Palermo]] alone.
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The Arabs initiated land reforms which in turn, increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. A description of [[Palermo]] was given by Ibn Hawqual, a Baghdad merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb called the Kasr (the palace) is the center of Palermo until today, with the great Friday mosque on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of [[Al-Khalisa]] ([[Kalsa]]) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices and a private prison. Ibn Hawqual reckoned 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops.
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[[Image:Palermo 2005 041.jpg|thumb|left|260px|The [[Cathedral of Palermo]].]]
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In addition to Andalusian Arabs and other Arabs, there were Berbers, black Africans, Persians, Greeks, Jews, Slavs and Lombards. Western Sicily particularly prospered with Berbers settling in the [[Agrigento]] area coupled with Bedouin, Syrians and Egyptian Arabs in [[Palermo]].
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Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under [[Roger I of Sicily|Count Roger de Hauteville]] (Altavilla) attacked Sicily in 1061, beginning a thirty year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, Roger and his men defeated the Arabs at [[Misilmeri]] but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.
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=== Arab-Norman period (1091-1224) ===
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At this time Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and it was established as one of the wealthiest states in Europe.  According to [[historian]] [[John Julius Norwich]], Palermo under the Normans became wealthier than [[England]] during that age.  A century later, however, the Norman [[Hauteville family|Hauteville]] dynasty ended, and the south [[Germanic peoples|German]] or ([[Swabia|Swabian]]) [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance from 1220.  Unfortunately, the [[Crusades]] instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts; therefore, in 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], grandson of [[Roger II]], removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.
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=== Aragonese control ===
  
 
In 1266 as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]], who was also the [[duke]] of [[Anjou]] attained control of the island.  However, his reign was unpopular.  Charles only visited Sicily once, and he replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials.  Although the governing staff were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and distained the inhabitants.  Charles I was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean.  Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and Peter of Aragon whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and they planned to attack him.
 
In 1266 as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]], who was also the [[duke]] of [[Anjou]] attained control of the island.  However, his reign was unpopular.  Charles only visited Sicily once, and he replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials.  Although the governing staff were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and distained the inhabitants.  Charles I was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean.  Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and Peter of Aragon whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and they planned to attack him.
  
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Tired of French [[taxation]] and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the [[Sicilian Vespers]] on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group.  Conflict arose when a French sargeant grabbed a married Sicilian lady, and her husband stabbed him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier.  Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town.  The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred.  Later the people requested assistance from King Peter and King Michael.  The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles tried to reconquer the island.  However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed Peter III of Aragon as their new ruler. The [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] lasted until the [[peace of Caltabellotta]] in [[1302]].  The king's relatives ruled Sicily as independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the [[Crown of Aragon]].
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Tired of French [[taxation]] and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the [[Sicilian Vespers]] on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group.  Conflict arose when a French sargeant grabbed a married Sicilian lady, and her husband stabbed him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier.  Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town.  The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred.  Later the people requested assistance from King Peter and King Michael.  The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles tried to reconquer the island.  However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed Peter III of Aragon as their new ruler. The [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] lasted until the [[peace of Caltabellotta]] in 1302.  The king's relatives ruled Sicily as independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the [[Crown of Aragon]].
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=== Spanish control ===
  
 
From 1479 Sicily was under [[Spanish]] rule.  The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of [[Savoy]] from (1713-1720) and then the [[Austria]]n [[Habsburg]]s gave way to union (1734) with the [[Bourbon house|Bourbon]]-ruled kingdom of [[Naples]] as the kingdom of the [[Two Sicilies]].
 
From 1479 Sicily was under [[Spanish]] rule.  The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of [[Savoy]] from (1713-1720) and then the [[Austria]]n [[Habsburg]]s gave way to union (1734) with the [[Bourbon house|Bourbon]]-ruled kingdom of [[Naples]] as the kingdom of the [[Two Sicilies]].
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In 1693, the island was ravaged by a strong [[earthquake]] in the east and south.  The tremor claimed over 60,000 victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania.  A tsunami immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait.   
 
In 1693, the island was ravaged by a strong [[earthquake]] in the east and south.  The tremor claimed over 60,000 victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania.  A tsunami immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait.   
  
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Major [[revolutionary]] movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against [[Bourbons|Bourbon]] denial of constitutional government. The [[Sicilian 1848 revolution]] resulted in a sixteen month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on [[May 15]] [[1849]].
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Major [[revolutionary]] movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against [[Bourbons|Bourbon]] denial of constitutional government. The [[Sicilian 1848 revolution]] resulted in a sixteen month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on May 15 1849.
  
 
In late 1852, [[Prince Emanuele Realmuto]] had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by an assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.
 
In late 1852, [[Prince Emanuele Realmuto]] had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by an assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.
  
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Under the rally of [[Italian unification|''Risorgimento'']], [[Guiseppe Garibaldi]] led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in [[1860]].
 
  
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In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy.  [[September 22]] under the leadership of [[Raffaele Cadorna]], the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.  
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=== Italian unification ===
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Under the rally of [[Italian unification|''Risorgimento'']], [[Guiseppe Garibaldi]] led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in 1860.
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In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy.  September 22 under the leadership of [[Raffaele Cadorna]], the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.  
 +
 
 +
 
  
 
Between 1860 and 1871 over 100,000 Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King Victor Emanuel II, who proclaimed himself "King of Italy."  The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands.  Villages were destroyed, and many people were deported.  Not surprisingly, the Sicilian economy collapsed; people emigrated in unprecedented numbers.  In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical ''[[Fasci Siciliani]]'' only to be suppresssed again by martial law.
 
Between 1860 and 1871 over 100,000 Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King Victor Emanuel II, who proclaimed himself "King of Italy."  The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands.  Villages were destroyed, and many people were deported.  Not surprisingly, the Sicilian economy collapsed; people emigrated in unprecedented numbers.  In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical ''[[Fasci Siciliani]]'' only to be suppresssed again by martial law.
  
−
[[Image:Map operation husky landing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on [[10 July]] [[1943]]]]
+
[[Image:Map operation husky landing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on 10 July 1943]]
  
−
The [[mafia]] criminal organization gained influence in the late 19th century.  Facing opposition, many members emigrated to other countries, especially the [[United States]].  However, many Sicilians opposed  Fascism, including one notable opponent, writer Vitaliano Brancati.  The [[Fascist]] regime had suppressed them since the 1920s; however, they regained strength following the [[World War II]] [[Allied invasion of Sicily]] on the night of July 10, 1943 when an allied armada of 2,590 vessels liberated Sicily from Nazi control.  It is important to note that, while some Sicilians embraced Fascism, others strongly opposed the ideology, including the writer Vitaliano Brancati. Other important Sicilians, disgrunted with Fascism, moved to the United States.  These included conductor Arturo Toscanini, Enrico Fermi, and Jewish Italian, Emilio Segré, a Nobel laureate who taught physics at the University of Palermo and who discovered the first artificially produced element, technetium (Tc), in 1937.  The latter two worked on the Manhattan Project.  It is unfortunate that Sicily lost such distinguished people who, if granted the freedom, could have greatly bolstered the country's economy and national welfare.
 
  
−
At last Sicily became independent in 1946, and the people could benefit from the partial Italian land reform of 1950-1962 and special funding from the ''[[Cassa per il Mezzogiorno]],'' the Italian government's indemnification Fund for the South which the government offered from (1950-1984).  Sicily attained a great deal of media coverage and experienced an overall political upheaval in 1992 when two anti-mafia magistrates, [[Giovanni Falcone]] and [[Paolo Borsellino]], were assassinated.  
+
At last Sicily became independent in 1946, and the people could benefit from the partial Italian land reform of 1950-1962 and special funding from the ''[[Cassa per il Mezzogiorno]],'' the Italian government's indemnification Fund for the South which the government offered from (1950-1984).  Sicily attained a great deal of media coverage and experienced an overall political upheaval in 1992 when two anti-mafia magistrates, [[Giovanni Falcone]] and [[Paolo Borsellino]], were assassinated.
  
−
=== Mafia ===
+
== Mafia ==
 
'''MARY EDITED MAFIA SECTION'''
 
'''MARY EDITED MAFIA SECTION'''
 
Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known [[Mafia]], an organized crime operation common in [[Italy]] and the [[United States]].   
 
Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known [[Mafia]], an organized crime operation common in [[Italy]] and the [[United States]].   
Line 103: Line 142:
 
The [[United States]] used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. [[Lucky Luciano]] and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the US, provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.
 
The [[United States]] used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. [[Lucky Luciano]] and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the US, provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.
  
−
In the U. S., the name Cosa Nostra (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family", but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.  
+
In the U. S., the name Cosa Nostra (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family," but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.  
  
−
Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather", which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.
+
Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather," which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.
  
 
== Government ==
 
== Government ==
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== Demographics ==
 
== Demographics ==
  
−
=== Language ===
+
=== People ===
−
{{Main|Sicilian language}}
+
'''MARY EDITED PEOPLE SECTION'''
−
Many Sicilians are bilingual in both [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], a separate Romance language and not merely a dialect, nor a derivative, of Italian.  Like [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] influence. In fact, ''Sicilianu'' contains a rich history and a sizeable vocabulary (at least 250,000 words), and its variety reflects the influence of the different conquerors of, and settlers to, this land.  
+
The position of Sicily as a stepping stone in the center of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Basin]] has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Sicilians are therefore a diverse people with a great variety of ethnic and physical influx.
  
−
The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual élite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and his court of notaries, or ''Magna Curia'', which, headed by [[Giacomo da Lentini]] also gave birth to the ''[[Sicilian School|Scuola Siciliana]]'', widely inspired by troubadour literature. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by [[Dante Alighieri]], the father of modern Italian who, in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' (''[[De Vulgari Eloquentia|DVE]]'' claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian" (DVE, I, xii). It is in this language that appeared the first [[sonnet]], whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.
+
It has been suggested that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.  
  
−
Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions [[Calabria]] (Calabrese) and [[Puglia]] (Salentino); and had a significant influence on the [[Maltese language|Maltese Language]]. Malta was a part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] (in its various forms) until the late 18th century. With the predominance of [[Italian language|Italian]] in Italian schools, the media, etc., Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young.
+
Sicily, however diverse it may be genetically, retains many characteristics of more rural regions bred of its isolation and distance from mainland Italy. There is, therefore a distinctive "Sicilian character."
  
−
Sicilian generally uses the word ending {{IPA|[u]}} for singular masculine nouns and adjectives, and {{IPA|[a]}} for feminine. The plural is usually {{IPA|[i]}} for both masculine and feminine. By contrast, in Italian masculine nouns and adjectives that end in {{IPA|[o]}} in the singular pass to {{IPA|[i]}} in the plural, while the feminine counterparts pass from {{IPA|[a]}} to {{IPA|[e]}}.
 
  
−
The "-LL-" sound (in words of Latin origin, for example) manifests itself in Sicilian as a [[voiced retroflex plosive]] with the tip of the tongue curled up and back, a sound which is not part of Standard Italian. In Sicilian, this sound is written simply as "-dd-" although the sound itself is not {{IPA|[d]}} but rather {{IPA|[ɖ]}}. For example, the Italian word '''bello''' is '''beddu''' in Sicilian.
+
=== Language ===
−
 
+
'''MARY EDITED LANGUAGE SECTION'''
−
In numerous villages, the [[Arbëreshë]] dialect of the [[Albanian language]] has been spoken since a wave of refugees settled there in the 15th century. While it is spoken within the household, Italian is the official language and modern Greek is chanted in the local Byzantine liturgy. There are also several areas where dialects of the [[Lombard language]] of the [[Gallo-Italic]] family are spoken. Much of this population is also tri-lingual, being able to also speak one of the Sicilian dialects as well.
+
Many Sicilians are bilingual in both [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], which is a unique [[Romance language]] and not a derivative of Italian, although it is thought by some to be an Italian dialect. It is a blend of [[Greek]], [[Latin]], Aragonese, [[Arabic]], [[Longobardic]] and Norman-French, reflecting its rich history and expressing the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island.  
−
 
 
−
[[Sicilian]], or "Sicilianu" is a unique [[Romance language]] and a blend of [[Greek]], [[Latin]], Aragonese, [[Arabic]], [[Longobardic]] and Norman-French, which reflect its rich history and express the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island. <ref. Best of Italy—Modern History>.  The "Sicilianu" vocabulary contains at least 250,000 words.
 
−
 
 
−
The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual élite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and his court of notaries, or ''Magna Curia'', which, headed by [[Giacomo da Lentini]] also gave birth to the ''[[Sicilian School|Scuola Siciliana]]'', widely inspired by troubadour literature. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by [[Dante Alighieri]], the father of modern Italian who, in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' (''[[De Vulgari Eloquentia|DVE]]'' claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian" (DVE, I, xii). It is in this language that appeared the first [[sonnet]], whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.
 
−
 
 
−
By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the [[popolino]] or working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan. 
 
−
 
 
−
Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions [[Calabria]] (Calabrese) and [[Puglia]] (Salentino); and had a significant influence on the [[Maltese language|Maltese Language]]. Malta was a part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] (in its various forms) until the late 18th century. With the predominance of [[Italian language|Italian]] in Italian schools, the media, etc., Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians.  For example, the Bible has not been published in Sicilian, which has no unified spelling system.  However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and geneology.  <Best of Sicily—the Sicilian Language.>  Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young.
 
−
 
 
−
Sicilian generally uses the word ending {{IPA|[u]}} for singular masculine nouns and adjectives, and {{IPA|[a]}} for feminine. The plural is usually {{IPA|[i]}} for both masculine and feminine. By contrast, in Italian masculine nouns and adjectives that end in {{IPA|[o]}} in the singular are changed to {{IPA|[i]}} in the plural, while the feminine counterparts have singular endings of {{IPA|[a]}} and their plurals are {{IPA|[e]}}.
 
−
 
 
−
The "-LL-" sound (in words of Latin origin, for example) is expressed in Sicilian as a [[voiced retroflex plosive]].  To produce this sound, which is not found in Standard Italian, the tip of the tongue is curled up and back. In Sicilian, this sound is written simply as "-dd-" although the sound itself is not {{IPA|[d]}} but rather {{IPA|[ɖ]}}. For example, the Italian word '''bello''' is expressed as '''beddu''' in Sicilian.
 
−
 
 
−
Other languages and dialects have prevailed in Sicily reflecting the influence of earlier settlement.  For example, in several villages, the [[Arbëreshë]] dialect of the [[Albanian language]] has been spoken since the 15th century when a wave of refugees arrived.  Different languages are used for various aspects of life as well:  Italian is commonly spoken at home and is the official language.  However, modern Greek is chanted in the local Byzantine liturgy. In several areas dialects of the [[Lombard language]] which belongs to the [[Gallo-Italic]] family are spoken.  Furthermore, many of these same people are also tri-lingual since they can also speak one of the Sicilian dialects as well.
 
−
 
 
−
In recent years the Sicilian language has been regaining popularity.  For example, in the United States, some F.B.I. agents, children of working class Sicilian immigrants fluent in Sicilian, helped that organization to translate discussions of mafia personnel in the 1980's and thus protected American national security. <ref. Best of Sicily—the Sicilian Language>  In the past, so many nations and ethnic groups tried to impose their culture and language upon Sicily instead of appreciating the beauty of their native culture.  Unfortunately, this situation has occurred in other parts of the world, too.  It is heartening, therefore, to note that in Sicily, too, as in Italy, a resurgence of pride in these two old and historical languages is occurring even in this new century.  We hope that along with this pride, a new hope and renewed flowering of civilization will accompany life throughout this ancient land in the Mediterranean, which has brought mankind so much history, beauty, and art, and that every country can fully enjoy and appreciate the cultures of their brother nations.
 
  
 +
The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and his court of notaries, or ''Magna Curia''. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by [[Dante Alighieri]], the father of modern Italian who, in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian." It was in Sicilian that the first [[sonnet]] was written, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.
  
 +
By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan.
  
 +
Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions of  Calabria (Calabrese) and Puglia (Salentino); and had a significant influence on the [[Maltese language|Maltese Language]]. Malta was a part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], in its various forms, until the late 18th century. With the predominance of Italian spoken in schools and the media, Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young. However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and geneology.
  
  
  
 
== Society and culture ==
 
== Society and culture ==
−
 
+
Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the [[United States]], [[Argentina]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and other [[European Union]] countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including [[Tunisia]]ns, [[Morocco|Moroccans]], [[Nigeria]]ns, [[India]]ns, [[Romania]]ns, [[Russi]]ans, Chinese and [[Roma|Gypsies]] from the Balkans.
−
=== People ===
 
−
The position of Sicily as a stepping stone of sorts in the center of the [[Mediterranean Basin]] has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Modern methods of genetic testing enable us to see which have had the greatest demographic impact. Several studies show strong ties between Sicily, mainland southern Italy and Greece,<ref>L.L. Cavalli-Sforza (1997) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9223254&dopt=Citation Genes, peoples, and languages]</ref> <ref name="vona_1998">Vona ''et al.'' (1998) [http://dbs.unica.it/antropologia/collaborazioni.htm Genetic structure of western Sicily]</ref> <ref name="rickards_1998">Rickards ''et al.'' (1998) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9686481&dopt=Abstract Genetic history of the population of Sicily]</ref> <ref>Francalacci ''et al.'' (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12772214&dopt=Abstract Peopling of Three Mediterranean Islands (Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily) Inferred by Y-Chromosome Biallelic Variability]</ref> <ref>DiGiacomo ''et al.'' (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15322918&dopt=Citation Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe]</ref> suggesting that the Siculi, Elymi and Greek colonizations were the most important.
 
−
 
 
−
It has been proposed that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.<ref>Ghiani et al. (2002) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12001085&query_hl=26&itool=pubmed_docsum New data on the genetic structure of the population of Sicily: analysis of the Alia population (Palermo, Italy)]</ref> <ref>Romano et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12556234&dopt=Abstract Autosomal microsatellite and mtDNA genetic analysis in Sicily (Italy)]</ref> <ref>Calo et al. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12943156&dopt=Abstract Genetic analysis of a Sicilian population using 15 short tandem repeats]</ref> However, other research has failed to detect any such division.<ref>Walter et al. (1997) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9300119&dopt=Abstract GM and KM allotypes in nine population samples of Sicily]</ref> <ref name="rickards_1998" /> No data exists on the contribution of Normans, but a number of studies hint that North African and Middle Eastern gene flow was limited by the physical barrier of the Mediterranean Sea and resulting cultural differentiation.<ref name="vona_1998" /> <ref>Simoni et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10380375&dopt=Abstract Patterns of gene flow inferred from genetic distances in the Mediterranean region]</ref> <ref>Kandil et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10510571&dopt=Abstract Red cell enzyme polymorphisms in Moroccans and Southern Spaniards: New data for the genetic history of the Western Mediterranean]</ref> <ref>Scozzari et al. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11543889 Human Y-chromosome variation in the western Mediterranean area: Implications for the peopling of the region]</ref> <ref>Cruciani et al. (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15042509&dopt=Abstract Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out of Africa]</ref> <ref>Capelli et al. (2005) [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00224.x Population Structure in the Mediterranean Basin: A Y Chromosome Perspective]</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the United States, Argentina, Canada, Australia and other [[EU]] countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including Tunisians, Moroccans, Nigerians, Indians, Romanians, Russians, Chinese and Gypsies from the Balkans.
 
  
 
==Arts==
 
==Arts==
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[[Category:Nations and places]]
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[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
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[[Category:Europe]]
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[[Category|Global regions Europe]]
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[[Category|Global regions]]
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[[Category:Italy]]
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{{credit2|Sicily|104668410|Mount_Etna|119943373}}
 
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Revision as of 04:45, 26 May 2007

Regione Sicilia
Flag of Sicily
Capital Palermo
President Salvatore Cuffaro
(UDC-CdL)
Provinces Agrigento
Caltanissetta
Catania
Enna
Messina
Palermo
Ragusa
Syracuse
Trapani
Comuni 390
Area 25,708 km²
 - Ranked 1st (8.5 %)
Population (2006 est.)
 - Total

 - Ranked
 - Density


5,017,212
4th (8.5 %)
195/km²
Italy Regions Sicily Map.png
Map highlighting the location of Sicilia in Italy

Sicily is an autonomous region of Italy. Also known as Sicilia in Italian, Latin, Sicilian and Spanish, Σικελία in Greek, Sqallija Maltese, it is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 km² and 5 million inhabitants. For much of its existence, Sicily has stood as a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty. In the meantime, the Sicilians often suffered as a result of these international struggles. The following paragraphs provide the reader a brief glimpse of Sicilian history, art, geography, culture, and language on this small, but pivotal, nation.

The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape. The ancient Siculians, for whom the island was named, are Sicily's first known inhabitants. In 3000 B.C.E. they introduced animal breeding, agriculture, and artisian activities. Later settlers included the Phoenicians, who established trading and construction from the forests. From the eighth to the third century B.C.E. Romans established colonies and further developed agriculture and commerce. Around the time of Christ, Romans harvested the wheat and established granaries. The Romans also further developed commerce, and, as in their other colonies, constructed an excellent road system. In the Middle Ages from the fifth to the fifteen centuries, the economy suffered at first during the Arabic, Goth and Vandal invasions, but once each group settled, the economy advanced, producing such projects as the renovation and fortification of the Port of Palermo. Additional agricultural growth included irrigation, and the planting new crops such as jasmine, citrus, cotton, and others, which remain popular today. Development thrived under the Normans, who built magnificant castles in Monreale and Cefalu. The Swabians introduced large castles and continued the development until the Spanish assumed power. As a colony under Spain's rule in the sixteenth century, Sicily had large farm like feudal estates, but their production rate became low, a tragedy after so much development had occurred during previous settlements. In the modern ages, under the Bourbons in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the center of politics moved from Palermo to Naples. Baroque architecture became prevalent, and many cities and small towns were established. In the 1860 Sicily and its island neighbors were annexed to Italy; however, in 1946 Sicily was granted its own governance. In 1871 the first railroad was constructed, and in the 1950's, the large estates were divided into smaller plots of land for homeowners. The economy developed. In 1957 hydrocarbon was discovered, and several industrial plants to accommodate its development were built.


Geography

NASA orbital photograph of Sicily

MARY EDITED FULL GEO SECTION. Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, is an autonomous region of Italy. It is directly adjacent to the region of Calabria via the Strait of Messina to the east. The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.

The Aeolian Islands to the north are administratively a part of Sicily, as are the Aegadian Islands and Pantelleria Island to the west, Ustica Island to the northwest, and the Pelagian Islands to the southwest.

Sicily has been noted for two millennia as a grain-producing territory. However, natural vegetation has been greatly compromised by human influence. Delicious oranges and other fruit trees grow on the coast, while the interior produces olives, wine, and other agricultural products. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts became a leading sulfur-producing areas in the 19th century, however, sulfur production has declined since the 1950s.

The only wide valley in this otherwise mountainous land is the fertile Plain of Catania on the easern side. Forests occupy 4 percent of the territory. There are ample springs and underground water sources in this area. The climate of Sicily is subtropical and Mediterranean. Annual precipitation on the plains is 16–24 inches (400–600 mm), and in the mountains 47–55 inches (1,200–1,400 mm).

Mount Etna

Mount Etna

Mount Etna is an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily, close to Messina and Catania. It is the largest active volcano in Europe, currently standing about 3,326 m (10,910 ft) high. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, and covers an area of 460 square miles. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being nearly three times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius.

Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of eruption. Although it can occasionally be very destructive, it is not generally regarded as being particularly dangerous, and thousands of people live on its slopes and in the surrounding areas. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south.

Towns and cities

Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, and provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (Siracusa in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, Ragusa. Other Sicilian towns include Acireale, Taormina, Giardini Naxos, Piazza Armerina, Bagheria, Partinico, Carini, Alcamo, Vittoria, Caltagirone, Cefalù, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo, Calatafimi, Gela, Termini Imerese, Francavilla di Sicilia, Ferla, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).

History

Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century B.C.E.

According to the Greeks, Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the Elymians who may have originated near the Aegean Sea. Later settlers included the Sicani, whose origins may have been from Iberia, and the Siculi or Sicels, who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the Italoi of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones.

Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Greeks & Romans

Sicily was colonized by Phoenicians, Punic settlers from Carthage, and by Greeks, starting in the 8th Century B.C.E.. The most important colony was established at Syracuse in 733 B.C.E. Other important Greek colonies included Gela founded in 688 B.C.E., Agrigento, in 580 B.C.E. Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene (modern-day Messina founded in 756 B.C.E., which is distinctive of the ancient city of Messene in Messenia, Greece). These city states played an important role in classical Greek civilization, having more Greeks and Greek temples than Greece and therefore came to be known as Magna Graecia; in fact, both Empedocles and Archimedes came from Sicily. Even Sicilian politics were connected to Greece; for example, Athens, initiated the disastrous Sicilian Expedition during the Peloponnesian War.

The Greeks experienced conflict with the Punic trading communities which dealt with Carthage located on the African mainland, and which had its own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city. It was established in the 8th century B.C.E.. Hundreds of Phoenician and Carthaginian gravesites were found in a spacious area of Palermo necropolis, south of the Norman palace where the kings once had a vast park. Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern part of Sicily. For example, Lilybaeum, (today known as Marsala) in the far west, was not thoroughly Hellenized. In the First and Second Sicilian Wars, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In 415 B.C.E., in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the Sicilian Expedition, by attacking Sicily, and breaking its seven year truce with,Syracuse. As a result, the Peloponnesian War resumed.

In the 3rd century B.C.E. the Messanan Crisis the Roman Republic intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. Once the war was completed in (242 B.C.E.) Rome occupied the entire country of Sicily. In 210 B.C.E. Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian province.

The Carthaginians' initial success during the Second Punic War encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent troops to quash the rebellions; at this point in battle, the siege of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed. For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily; however, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers— in 210 B.C.E. that the Roman consul M. Valerian proclaimed to the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily."

For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the Roman Empire, and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The empire did not attempt to Romanize this region, which remained primarily Greek. At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event in Sicilian was Verres infamous government, which Cicero strongly criticized in his oration, In Verrem in 70 B.C.E. Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.

Around 200 C.E. Christianity started to develop in Sicily, and along with it, martyrdom occurred. However, by 313 C.E. Emperor Constantine stopped the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.

Byzantines

In 440 C.E., the Vandal king Geiseric controlled Sicily. A few decades later, the Ostrogoths acquired it until 515 C.E. when the Byzantine general Belisarius conquered it. Sicilian Christianity was Orthodox from this time until the 12th century. However, a new Ostrogoth king, Totila, dashed down the Italian peninsula and conquered Sicily in 550 C.E. However, his rule only endured two years, for the Byzantine general, Narses, killed him in 552. From 662-668 C.E., during Byzantine rule, Syracuse was the imperial capital, until Constans II was assassinated. The Byzantine Empire ruled Sicily until the Muslim Arab conquest of 827-902. Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the 10th century throughout the country, and in some areas these dialects prevailed for several more centuries.

In 827 C.E. the Moors attacked and conquered western Sicily. By 903 Saracens, an Arabic group, controlled the land and three emirs ruled it, introducing the Islam religion. However, these rulers tolerated both Judaism and Christianity, and under the Kalbid dynasty Palermo became the capital city of the Emirate of Sicily, and this city maintained its leadership under Norman rule when they conquered Sicily in 1060-1090 C.E.

Byzantines

In 440 C.E. Sicily fell to the Vandal king Geiseric. A few decades later, it came into Ostrogothic hands, where it remained until it was conquered by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 535. But a new Ostrogothic king, Totila, drove down the Italian peninsula and then plundered and conquered Sicily in 550. Totila, in turn, was defeated and killed by the Byzantine general, Narses, in 552. For a brief period (662-668), during Byzantine rule, Syracuse was the imperial capital, until Constans II was assassinated. Sicily was then ruled by the Byzantine Empire until the Muslim Arab conquest of 827-902. It is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the 10th century, and in some regions for several more centuries.

First Arab invasion of Sicily

In 535, Emperor Justinian I made Sicily a Byzantine province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the Greek language became a familiar sound across the island. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652C.E. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after.

Arab control from Tunisia and Egypt

In around 700, the island of Pantelleria was captured by Arabs, and it was only discord among the Arabs that prevented Sicily being next. Instead, trading arrangements were agreed and Arab merchants established themselves in Sicilian ports. Then, in 827 a failed Sicilian coup against an unpopular Byzantine governor. Euphemius, a wealthy landowner, who overcame the imperial garrison in Siracusa, declared himself Emperor and invited the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia to help him. The response was a fleet of 100 ships and 10,000 troops under the command of Asad ibn al-Furat, which consisted largely of Arab, Berbers from North Africa and Spain. After resistance at Siracusa, the Muslims gained a foothold in Mazara del Vallo. Palermo fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878. From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured Messina, Modica, Ragusa and Enna. In 902 Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold also fell to the Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control and Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.

Emirate of Sicily

In succession Sicily was ruled by the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty in Tunisia and the Shiite Fatimids in Egypt. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed Hassan al-Kalbi (948-964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the Kalbid dynasty. Raids into southern Italy continued under the Kalbids into the 11th century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in Calabria. With Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi (990-998) a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017-1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the Zirids. By the time of Emir Hasan as-Samsam (1040-1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms. As a virtually an independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between Africa and Europe. Trade flourished and taxes were low. The tolerant regime allowed subjects to abide by their own laws. Despite freedom of worship, Christians freely converted to Islam and there were soon hundreds of mosques in Palermo alone.

The Arabs initiated land reforms which in turn, increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. A description of Palermo was given by Ibn Hawqual, a Baghdad merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb called the Kasr (the palace) is the center of Palermo until today, with the great Friday mosque on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices and a private prison. Ibn Hawqual reckoned 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops.

The Cathedral of Palermo.

In addition to Andalusian Arabs and other Arabs, there were Berbers, black Africans, Persians, Greeks, Jews, Slavs and Lombards. Western Sicily particularly prospered with Berbers settling in the Agrigento area coupled with Bedouin, Syrians and Egyptian Arabs in Palermo.

Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under Count Roger de Hauteville (Altavilla) attacked Sicily in 1061, beginning a thirty year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, Roger and his men defeated the Arabs at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.

Arab-Norman period (1091-1224)

At this time Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and it was established as one of the wealthiest states in Europe. According to historian John Julius Norwich, Palermo under the Normans became wealthier than England during that age. A century later, however, the Norman Hauteville dynasty ended, and the south German or (Swabian) Hohenstaufen dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance from 1220. Unfortunately, the Crusades instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts; therefore, in 1224, Frederick II, grandson of Roger II, removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.


Aragonese control

In 1266 as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, Charles I, who was also the duke of Anjou attained control of the island. However, his reign was unpopular. Charles only visited Sicily once, and he replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials. Although the governing staff were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and distained the inhabitants. Charles I was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean. Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and Peter of Aragon whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and they planned to attack him.

Tired of French taxation and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the Sicilian Vespers on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group. Conflict arose when a French sargeant grabbed a married Sicilian lady, and her husband stabbed him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier. Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town. The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred. Later the people requested assistance from King Peter and King Michael. The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles tried to reconquer the island. However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed Peter III of Aragon as their new ruler. The War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302. The king's relatives ruled Sicily as independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the Crown of Aragon.


Spanish control

From 1479 Sicily was under Spanish rule. The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of Savoy from (1713-1720) and then the Austrian Habsburgs gave way to union (1734) with the Bourbon-ruled kingdom of Naples as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Sicily in the Middle Ages experienced diseases and natural disasters along with political problems. For example, the nation suffered a ferocious outbreak of plague in (1656). Also known as Black Plague, this disease was first introduced in Europe via Sicily when an Italian ship with infected crew members returning from trade in China docked in Messina in 1347.

In 1693, the island was ravaged by a strong earthquake in the east and south. The tremor claimed over 60,000 victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania. A tsunami immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait.

Major revolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The Sicilian 1848 revolution resulted in a sixteen month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on May 15 1849.

In late 1852, Prince Emanuele Realmuto had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by an assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.


Italian unification

Under the rally of Risorgimento, Guiseppe Garibaldi led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in 1860.

In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy. September 22 under the leadership of Raffaele Cadorna, the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.


Between 1860 and 1871 over 100,000 Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King Victor Emanuel II, who proclaimed himself "King of Italy." The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands. Villages were destroyed, and many people were deported. Not surprisingly, the Sicilian economy collapsed; people emigrated in unprecedented numbers. In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical Fasci Siciliani only to be suppresssed again by martial law.

Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on 10 July 1943


At last Sicily became independent in 1946, and the people could benefit from the partial Italian land reform of 1950-1962 and special funding from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's indemnification Fund for the South which the government offered from (1950-1984). Sicily attained a great deal of media coverage and experienced an overall political upheaval in 1992 when two anti-mafia magistrates, Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, were assassinated.

Mafia

MARY EDITED MAFIA SECTION Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known Mafia, an organized crime operation common in Italy and the United States.

The Mafia is an hierarchically structured criminal society which arose in Sicily during the middle ages as a means of providing protection from the various foreign conquerors of the island. It consisted of many small private armies (mafie) that were hired by absentee landlords to protect their properties. Eventually, during the 18th and 19th centuries these armies organized and consolidated their power and turned on the landowners, employing extortion methods in order to continue their protective services.

The Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini nearly succeeded in eliminating the Mafia via imprisonment. However following the Second World War, the American forces released many of the mafiosi, who quickly revived their operations.

The United States used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. Lucky Luciano and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the US, provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.

In the U. S., the name Cosa Nostra (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family," but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.

Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather," which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.

Government

The provinces of Sicily

(Government type) (Political parties) (Foreign Relations) (Military)


Flag

Sicily's regional flag has been recognized since January 2000, and it has been the island's historical banner since 1282. Its design is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the trinacria, or three points, symbol in the center. The Trinacria is most likely a solar symbol although most recently it represents the islands three points. The head shown on the Sicilian Trinacria is Medusa's face. Other areas, such as the Isle of Man also use the "Trinacria" as their flag.


Economy

(per capita GDP) (Currency)


Agricultural Products

(list)

Import and export

(commodities and trading partners)


Transport

Automobile

Most of Sicily's motorways or (autostrade) run through its northern section. The most noteworthy ones include the A19 Palermo-Catania, A20 Palermo-Messina, A29 Palermo-Mazara del Vallo and the toll road A18 Messina-Catania. Because the topography is mountainous, much of the roadway network is elevated by columns. In southern Sicily, the roadway system consists mainly of well-maintained secondary roads.

Railways

The national railway company, Trenitalia, connects Sicily to Italy. Trains, however, must be loaded onto ferries for the crossing from the mainland. The Stretto di Messina, S.p. A. was scheduled to construct the Strait of Messina Bridge, which would have been the world's longest suspension bridge, in the second half of 2006. The span would have formed the first land link to Italy in history. However, in October of 2006, the Italian Parliament halted the plan due to insufficient support. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/italy/story/0,,1920199,00.html).

Air

Sicily is served by national and international flights, mostly to European locations, to and from Palermo International Airport and the substantially busier Catania-Fontanarossa Airport. There are also minor national airports in Trapani and on the small islands of Pantelleria and Lampedusa.

Metro

The Trenitalia company manages Palermo's urban metropolitan rapid transit service. This system has eleven stations, which include an airport stop.

Sea

Virtu Ferries provides daily transportation between Malta and Sicily, and they stop at Pozzallo or Catania

Demographics

People

MARY EDITED PEOPLE SECTION The position of Sicily as a stepping stone in the center of the Mediterranean Basin has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Sicilians are therefore a diverse people with a great variety of ethnic and physical influx.

It has been suggested that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.

Sicily, however diverse it may be genetically, retains many characteristics of more rural regions bred of its isolation and distance from mainland Italy. There is, therefore a distinctive "Sicilian character."


Language

MARY EDITED LANGUAGE SECTION Many Sicilians are bilingual in both Italian and Sicilian, which is a unique Romance language and not a derivative of Italian, although it is thought by some to be an Italian dialect. It is a blend of Greek, Latin, Aragonese, Arabic, Longobardic and Norman-French, reflecting its rich history and expressing the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island.

The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of Frederick II and his court of notaries, or Magna Curia. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by Dante Alighieri, the father of modern Italian who, in his De Vulgari Eloquentia claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian." It was in Sicilian that the first sonnet was written, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.

By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan.

Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions of Calabria (Calabrese) and Puglia (Salentino); and had a significant influence on the Maltese Language. Malta was a part of the Kingdom of Sicily, in its various forms, until the late 18th century. With the predominance of Italian spoken in schools and the media, Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young. However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and geneology.


Society and culture

Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the United States, Argentina, Canada, Australia and other European Union countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including Tunisians, Moroccans, Nigerians, Indians, Romanians, Russians, Chinese and Gypsies from the Balkans.

Arts

Palermo is the regional capital of Sicily
Landscape with temple ruins on Sicily, Jacob Philipp Hackert, 1778

Sicily is famous for its art and is the birthplace of many poets and writers. In the early 13th century, the Sicilian School, for example, inspired later Italian poetry and created the first Italian standard. The most famous artists include Luigi Pirandello, Giovanni Verga, Salvatore Quasimodo, and Gesualdo Bufalino. Other Sicilian artists include the composers Sigismondo d'India, Girolamo Arrigo, Salvatore Sciarrino, Giovanni Sollima (from Palermo), Alessandro Scarlatti (from Trapani or Palermo), Vincenzo Bellini, Giovanni Pacini, Francesco Paolo Frontini, Alfredo Sangiorgi, Aldo Clementi, Roberto Carnevale (from Catania).

Noto, Ragusa and particularly Acireale contain some of Italy's best examples of Baroque architecture, carved in the local red sandstone. Caltagirone is renowned for its decorative ceramics. Palermo is also a major center of Italian opera. Its Teatro Massimo is the largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in the world, seating 1,400.

Sicily's ancient pottery and rare works of art contain some of the greatest sources of archeological masterpieces in the world. They exemplify the beautiful blending of 200 years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture. The mosaic pieces, a contribution of Byzantine art, are particulary attractive. The Crow financed and commissioned Sicilian medieval art in its first decades of 11 ACE and 12 ACE. The Catholic Church also contributed to maintaining art through its "papal legates." Hauteville dynasty members constructed the first Latin cathedrals, which include the churches of Messina, Lipari, Cefalù, Monreale, Catania, Mazara, and Agrigento. The Latin spacious style from central Italy and northern Europe combined with the Maghreb decorations, and narrative Byzantine mosaics, and Apulian Romanesque sculpture.

Many cities in Sicily have beautiful architecture which include ruins of aquaducts, lovely Roman patrician villas, temples in Segesta, Selinunte and Agrigento and decorations on ancient buildings. Their pottery and rare works of art generally consist of 200 years of Graeco-Sicel , Roman and Byzantine culture and are outstanding among ancient archaeological treasures. The fortresses such as the Castle of Euryalus in Syracuse and archaeological sites of Agriengento, Heraclea, Minoa, Himera, Seguesta, Selinunte contributed to Sicily's vast development at a time in the Middle Ages when most other western European countries' arts and sciences were much less developed.

Royalty exerted much influence in architecture. For example, Roger II built the Cefalù Cathedral and in which he wanted to be buried. In 1132 he ordered the construction of his Royal Palace in Palermo, which included his own "Palantine Chapel, a magnificient example of Sicilian medieval art that he dedicated to St. Peter. This building contained many crowns, furnishing, ceremonial clothes, jewels that still attract visitors. One outstanding item among his collection, now located in the Cathedral Treasury, is the Byzantine imperial crown (Kamelaukion).

Roger II's descendents continued the family tradition of enhancing architecture. For example, his son, William I built the Zisa royal residence in the royal park. William II continued this practice when he constructed two other outstanding edifices, the Cuba and the Monreale Cathedral, whose interior contains lovely Byzantine mosaics and elegant medieval sculpture in the cloister.

Under Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen architecture was formal and elegant, designed to focus on royal practical living and defense requirements of the age. Several castles and towers were constructed, such as Castello Ursino in Catania, Castello Maniace, in Syracuse, and the Castles of Augusta and Augusta and Milazzo, and the Towers of Enna, of the Colombaia in Trapani, and of Gela.

Religious leaders, too, contributed to the expansion of Sicilian architecture. For example, Bishop Gualtiero reconstructed much of the old Palermo Cathedral and expanded it to become the greatest cathedral of medieval Sicily.

Architecture took a different development by the first half of the 17th century A.C.E. when Mannerism became popular. Examples of this style include the Quattro Canti (Giulio Lasso); Porta Felice (Pietro Novelli); the churches of Olivella and San Domenico; the old Shipyard (Mariano Smiriglio); the church of the Teatini (Giacomo Besio), the Town Hall in Syracuse (G. Vermexio); the Benedectine Monastery in Catania (V. De Franchis); and the College and Church of the Jesuits in Trapani (N. Masuccio). The Church of the Annunziata dei Teatini in Messina Baroque, (Guaríno Guarini), implemented the Baroque style, which was simplified in Palermo through the works of Paolo Amato (1634-1714): Church of the Salvatore; and Giacomo Amato (1643-1732): Church of the Pietà and Santa Téresa alla Kalsa.

Antonello da Messina, who lived in the 15th century A.C.E., was the most outstanding Sicilian painter and a great European master of his time. His famous paintings include the Portrait of an Unknown Seaman, in the Cefalù Mandralisca Museum, the Three Saints and the splendid Annunzíata in the Palermo Gallery, the San Gregorio polyptych in the Messina Museum, and the Annunciation in the Palazzo Bellomo Museum in Syracuse.

Noteworthy sculptors included Domenico Gagini, who established a workshop which produced great sculptors for several generations, including Antonello Gagini and his sons. Antonello worked with Polidoro da Caravaggio, who sculpted two exquisite lateral doors in the Duomo of Messina.

Sicily is home to two prominent folk art traditions, both of which draw heavily on the island's Norman influence. A Sicilian wood cart, or Carretto Siciliano, is painted with intricate decorations of scenes from the Norman romantic poems, including The Song of Roland. These same stories are shared in traditional puppet theatres which feature handmade wooden marionettes, especially in Acireale, the home town of most of Sicilian puppets.

The 1988 movie Nuovo Cinema Paradiso relayed a story about life in a Sicilian town following World War II.


Notes


Sources and further reading

  • Segre, Cesare, and Carlo Ossola. 1999. Antologia della poesia italiana. Torino: Einaudi. ISBN 8806160389 and ISBN 8806153412
  • Migliorini, Bruno. 1992. Storia della lingua italiana. Biblioteca universale Sansoni, 34. Firenze: Sansoni Editore. ISBN 8838313431 and ISBN 9788838313431
  • Shapiro, Marianne, and Dante Alighieri. 1990. De vulgari eloquentia: Dante's book of exile. Regents studies in medieval culture. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803242115 and ISBN 9780803242111

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