Peru

República del Perú Republic of Peru
Coat of arms of Peru
Anthem: Somos libres, seámoslo siempre (Spanish) "We are free, may we always be so"
Capital (and largest city)		Lima 12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W
Official languages		Spanish1
Demonym		Peruvian
Government		Constitutional republic
-	President	Alan García Pérez
-	Prime Minister	Jorge Del Castillo
Independence		from Spain
-	Declared	July 28 1821
Area
-	Total	1,285,220 km² (20th) 496,222 sq mi
-	Water (%)	8.80
Population
-	July 2007 estimate	28,674,757 (41st)
-	2005 census	27,219,266
GDP (PPP)		2005 estimate
-	Total	$170.089 billion (51st)
-	Per capita	$6,715 (94th)
GDP (nominal)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$93.268 billion (55th)
-	Per capita	$3,374 (87th)
Gini (2002)		54.6 (high)
Currency		Nuevo Sol (PEN)
Time zone		PET (UTC-5)
Internet TLD		.pe
Calling code		+51
1	Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.

Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean. The third-largest country in South America, it is approximately three times the size of California. In addition to being known as the cradle of the Inca empire, Peru harbors many indigenous ethnic groups, making it a major historical and cultural site.

When the Spanish landed in 1531, the Inca empire extended over a vast region from northern Ecuador to central Chile. In search of Inca wealth, the Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro, who arrived in the territory after the Incas had fought a debilitating civil war, conquered the weakened people. The Spanish had captured the Incan capital at Cuzco by 1533, and consolidated their control by 1542. Gold and silver from the Andes enriched the conquerors, and Peru became the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.

The vice-royalty established at Lima in 1542 initially had jurisdiction over all of the Spanish colonies in South America. By the time of the wars of independence (1820-1824), Lima had become one of the most distinguished and aristocratic colonial capitals and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.

Geography

Map of Peru

Peru's territory has an area of 1,285,216 square kilometers. It is bordered by Ecuador and Colombia on the north, Brazil and Bolivia to the east, and Chile and Bolivia to the south. To the west lies the Pacific Ocean.

Eastern Peru consists mostly of the moist tropical jungles of the Amazon rainforest, the largest on Earth. In the southeast along the border with Bolivia lies Lake Titicaca — the highest navigable lake in the world. The Altiplano plateau is a dry basin located along the slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru. Along the border with Chile, the Atacama Desert is the driest place on the planet.

The climate is arid and mild in the coastal area, temperate to frigid in the Andes, and warm and humid in the jungle lowlands.

The Peruvian Sea is home to a large amount and variety of fish. The Sechura Desert is located in northwestern Peru along the Pacific coastline.

The main rivers of Peru include the Ucayali, Marañón, Amazon (which is formed by the confluence of the Marañón and the Ucayali), Putumayo, Pastaza, Napo, Jurua, and the Purus.

Regions

Peruvian Amazon Basin.

Valle del Colca, Arequipa

View of the beach in Punta Sal

When the Spanish arrived, they divided Peru (for political reasons) into three main regions: the coastal region, bounded by the Pacific Ocean; the highlands, located in the Andes, and the jungle.

History

Ancient cultures

Archaeological evidence indicates that hunter-gatherers have inhabited Peru for about twenty thousand years, based on evidence present in the caves of Piquimachay (Ayacucho), Chivateros, Lauricocha, Paijan, and Toquepala. Some of the oldest identifiable cultures appeared c. 6,000 B.C.E. in the coastal provinces of Chilca and Paracas and in the highlands province of Callejon de Huaylas.

Over the following three thousand years humans became agrarian, judging from sites such as Kotosh and Huaca Prieta. Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton began, as well as the domestication of animals. Inhabitants practiced domestic crafts such as spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry and pottery. Some of the more advanced Andean civilizations that appeared in 900 B.C.E. were:

• Caral
• Chavin
• Paracas
• Mochica
• Nazca
• Tiahuanaco
• Wari
• Chimu

These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of cultivation, gold and silver work, pottery, metallurgy, and knitting. Around 700 B.C.E. they also developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of the Inca civilization.

Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as they expanded their empire, and many were openly hostile.

The Incas

The Incas created the most vast and powerful empire of pre-Columbian America. It dominated a territory that included from north to south Ecuador, part of Colombia, the northern half of Chile and the northeast part of Argentina; and from west to east, from Bolivia to the Amazon rainforest.

The empire originated from a tribe based in Cuzco, which became the capital. Pachacuti was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the Cuzco state. His offspring later ruled an empire by violent and peaceful conquest. The empire's administrative, political, and military center was located in Cuzco.

Colonial Peru (Spanish rule)

Francisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In 1531, they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. At that moment, the Inca empire was sunk in a five-year civil war between two princes, Huáscar and Atahualpa. Taking advantage of this, Pizarro carried out a coup d’état. On November 16, 1532, while the natives were in a celebration in Cajamarca, the Spanish took Atahualpa prisoner by surprise, causing great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huascar was murdered, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the crime, executing him by strangulation.

For a period, Pizarro maintained the authority of the Inca, recognizing Tupac Huallpa as the Inca after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror’s abuses made this fiction all too apparent. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. The situation was complicated by a power struggle between the Pizarro family and Diego de Almagro. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarro emerged victorious.

Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Their most significant act was the foundation of Lima in January, 1535, from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories, led to the creation of a Real Audiencia (Royal Audience). In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castilla, that shortly after would be called Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the arrival of the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572.

Toledo ended the indigenous state of Vilcabamba, executing the Inca Tupac Amaru. He also promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from argentiferous mines of Potosí. He took advantage of the Inca institution called “mita” to put the native communities under a cruel economic enslavement.

The Viceroyalty of Peru became the richest and most powerful Spanish Viceroyalty of America in the eighteenth century. The creation of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata (at the expense of its territory), the commerce exemptions that moved the commercial center from Lima to Caracas and Buenos Aires, and the decline of mining and textile production determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. These events created a favorable climate so that emancipating ideas had an effect on the Creoles.

Wars of independence

Don Jose de San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821.

The economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion that erupted from 1780 to 1781. This rebellion was headed by Tupac Amaru II. At this time, Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and the degradation of royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between 1814 and 1816. These rebellions defended the liberal principles sanctioned by the Constitution of Cadiz of 1812.

Supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of Spanish dominion in South America. This Viceroyalty succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of Simón Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. San Martin, who had displaced the realists of Chile after the magnificent battle of the Andes, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1819, proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on July 28, 1821. Three years later, Spanish dominion was eliminated definitively after the battles of Junín and Ayacucho. The first elected president, however, was not in power until 1827.

Early republican period

The conflict of interests that faced different sectors of the Creole society and the particular ambitions of the caudillos, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilians could accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life.

After the splitting of Alto Peru in 1815, Bolivia was created. In 1828 Peru fought a war against Gran Colombia over control of Jaén and Maynas territory called the Gran Colombia-Peru War. After the war, Peru retained control over the territory. This was its first international conflict as a new nation. In 1837, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was also created but, it was dissolved two years later due to Chilean military intervention.

Between these years, political unrest continued, and the army was an important political force. Peru initiated a period of political and economic stability in the middle of the nineteenth century, under General Ramon Castilla's caudillista hegemony. The complete depletion of guano, the main foreign currency source, and the war of the Pacific with Chile because of the dispute over the saltpeter deposits of Tarapacá, caused economic bankruptcy and stirred up social and political agitation.

In 1864, Spain organized a so-called naval science expedition, whose main objective was to recover control of its former colonies. Spain started occupying the Chinchas Islands and arresting Peruvian citizens in 1864, claiming that Spaniards were mistreated on Peruvian soil. After that, the Spanish fleet destroyed the Chilean harbor of Valparaiso. Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru signed an alliance to defeat Spain.

War and reconstruction

In 1879 Peru entered the War of the Pacific, which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on April 5, 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica in the Atacama region.

After the war, an extraordinary effort of reconstruction began. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. The civilist movement headed by Nicolas de Piérola opposed the military caudillismo that arose from the military defeat and economic collapse. He came to power with the 1895 revolution. The reformist character of Pierola’s dictatorship had continuity in Augusto B. Leguía’s.

During Leguia’s government periods (1908-1912 and 1919-1930), the entrance of American capitals became general and the bourgeoisie was favored. This politics along with the increase of the foreign capital dependency, contributed to generate opposition focuses between the landowner oligarchy as much as the most progressive sectors of the Peruvian society.

In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty, Treaty of Ancon by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do on those territories.

After the worldwide economic crisis of 1929, numerous brief governments followed one another. The APRA party had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. By this time, it begins a sudden population growth and an urbanization increase. During World War II, Peru was the first South American nation to align with the United States and its allies against Germany and Japan.

Between these two periods of time, it should be underlined the constitution of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). This is a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist headed by Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in 1924. The communist party was created four years later, led by Jose C. Mariategui.

Modern politics

Casa de Pizarro, Peru's Government Palace in Lima

General Manuel A. Odría led a dictatorial military government that lasted for eight years (1948–1956). Inequitable land tenure and widespread social marginalization provided the impetus in the early 1960s for the emergence of Peru's armed left.

Meanwhile, the reformist attempt of Fernando Belaunde Terry’s first government failed to address the structural nature of social pathology, which continues to plague Peru. Belaunde's government embraced numerous projects, including a highway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with previously isolated northern regions of Amazonas, San Martín, and Loreto. However, Belaunde was saddled with the popular perception that he was too close to foreign capital; moreover, his economic decisions led to the devaluation of the sol and generalized unrest, both in the countryside and Lima.

In 1968, General Juan Velasco Alvarado’s led a coup d'etat replacing the Belaunde government. Under the title of "President of the Revolutionary Government," the nationalist and left-leaning tone of Velasco was manifested by his government's promulgation of Peru's first substantial agrarian reform, which was aimed at stemming the tide of civil unrest, particularly in the Andes where land ownership patterns were profoundly inequitable. Velasco's government is credited with promoting peasants' rights, including the recognition of Quechua as a national language, communal land ownership, and populist social mobilization (SINAMOS).

Invariably, this gave rise to conflict with Peru's small elite, those with foreign capital interests and local oligarchs. Velasco's failing health, changed global conditions, and poor planning resulted in a counter-reaction to his program. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez’s led a coup d’etat, replacing Velasco as president. Morales Bermúdez's regime was characterized by a return to elite-oriented politics, which did little to stem civil unrest from a populace largely excluded from the social benefits of citizenship.

Frustrated by their inability to "rule" Peru, the Peruvian armed forces were forced to call for elections. Fernando Belaúnde Terry was re-elected in 1980 to the presidency. However, by the end of his term in 1985, Peru yet again faced a crisis that has gripped Peru for the past two decades: mounting external debt has stymied the actions of successive Peruvian governments. Moreover, Belaúnde was impotent in halting the progressive impoverishment of the vast majority of population, and incapable of halting the massive increase in drug trafficking operations, or the insurgent revolts of the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA).

With much optimism, the leader of Peru's APRA Party, Alan Garcia was elected president in 1985. Like his predecessors, García relinquished power, leaving the country in a worse state than when he entered office. The Peruvian economy was crippled by hyperinflation, isolated from the international financial community, and was in the throes of a bloody civil war pitting the Shining Path and the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement against the state and its allies. In a climate of generalized chaos, terror and political violence, the electoral victory of Alberto Fujimori took place in 1990, when the virtually unknown University Rector narrowly defeated the famous Peruvian novelist and cultural icon Mario Vargas Llosa. After a promising start, García left power in 1990.

Two years after he was elected, President Alberto Fujimori summarily closed Congress and convened a referendum for elaborating a new Constitution (1992). Credited by sectors of Peruvian society and the international financial community with restoring macroeconomic "stability" to Peru after the turbulent Garcia years, Fujimori was widely criticized for what his opponents describe as an authoritarian regime, aided by the now imprisoned Vladimiro Montesinos, the former head of SIN.

Following a controversial third "re-election," mounting corruption, widespread political violence, and gross human rights violations, Fujimori was forced to resign. He requested political asylum in Japan on the grounds of his Japanese citizenship.

In the turmoil following Fujimori's precipitous fall from power, Valentín Paniagua was selected as the transitional president. Following a hotly contested election,Alejandro Toledo became president (2001-2006), narrowly defeating Alan García. In 2006, Alan García was once again elected president, defeating nationalist candidate Ollanta Humala.

Politics

The formal politics of Peru takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system.

Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Congress. The judiciary is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislature.

Administrative divisions

Peru is divided into 25 regions and subdivided into 180 provinces and 1,747 districts. The Lima Province, located in the central coastal area, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the regions. The city of Lima is located in this province, which is also known as Lima Metropolitan Area.

Economy

Peru's economy has shown strong growth over the past five years, helped by market-oriented economic reforms and privatizations in the 1990s, and measures taken since 2001 to promote trade and attract investment. GDP grew 8.0% in 2006, 6.7% in 2005, 4.8% in 2004, 4.0 in 2003, and 4.9% in 2002. President Alan Garcia and his economic team have continued these policies. GDP is projected to grow by more than 7% in 2007. Recent economic expansion has been driven by construction, mining, export growth, investment, and domestic demand. Inflation is projected to remain under 2% in 2007, and the fiscal deficit is only 0.6% of GDP. In 2006 external debt decreased to $28.3 billion, and foreign reserves were a record $17.3 billion at the end of 2006.

Peru's economy is well managed, and better tax collection and growth are increasing revenues, with expenditures keeping pace. Private investment is rising and becoming more broad-based. The government has had success with recent international bond issuances, resulting in ratings upgrades. The Garcia administration is studying decentralization initiatives, and is focused on bringing more small businesses into the formal economy.

Foreign Trade Peru and the U.S. signed the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA) on April 12, 2006 in Washington, DC. The PTPA was ratified by the Peruvian Congress on June 28, 2006, but has not yet been ratified by the U.S. Congress. On December 9, 2006, the U.S. Congress extended the Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) as amended by the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act (ATPDEA)—jointly referred to as ATPA/ATPDEA—through June 2007. On June 30, 2007 the President signed legislation extending ATPA/ATPDEA for an additional 8 months.

Peru registered a trade surplus of $8.8 billion in 2006. Exports reached $23.7 billion, partially as a result of high mineral prices. Peru's major trading partners are the U.S., China, EU, Chile and Japan. In 2006, 23.0% of exports went to the U.S. ($5.9 billion) and 16.0% of imports came from the U.S. ($2.9 billion). Exports include gold, copper, fishmeal, petroleum, zinc, textiles, apparel, asparagus and coffee. Imports include machinery, vehicles, processed food, petroleum and steel. Peru belongs to the Andean Community, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Foreign Investment The Peruvian Government actively seeks to attract both foreign and domestic investment in all sectors of the economy. The registered stock of foreign direct investment (FDI) is over $15.4 billion, with the U.S., Spain, and the United Kingdom the leading investors. FDI is concentrated in telecommunications, mining, manufacturing, finance and electricity.

Mining and Energy Peru is a source of both natural gas and petroleum. In August 2004, Peru inaugurated operations of the Camisea natural gas project. Camisea gas is fueling an electricity generator and six industrial plans in Lima, with other facilities in the process of switching to gas. In a second phase, liquefied natural gas (LNG) will be exported to the west coast of the United States and Mexico. The gas and condensates from Camisea are equivalent to some 2.4 billion barrels of oil, approximately seven times the size of Peru's proven oil reserves. The Camisea project, when completed, is expected to gradually transform Peru's economy, catalyze national development and turn Peru into a net energy exporter.

Peru is the world's second-largest producer of silver, sixth-largest producer of gold and copper, and a significant source of the world's zinc and lead. Mineral exports have consistently accounted for the most significant portion of Peru's export revenue, averaging around 50% of total earnings from 1998 to 2005 and 62% in 2006.

Since 1990, the Peruvian economy has undergone considerable free market reforms, from legalizing parts of the informal sector to significant privatizations in the mining, electric/power, and telecommunications industries. Aided by foreign investment and cooperation between the former Fujimori administration, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank, economic growth was rapid in 1994–1997 and inflation was kept low.

Still, some say that Peru's reforms have not led to sustained economic progress. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, a U.S.-based think tank, "Income per person in Peru – the most basic economic measure of living standards – is currently about the same as it was 25 years ago. This is a remarkable long-term economic failure."[1]

In 1998, El Niño's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in Asia, and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. 1999 was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of El Niño and the Asian financial crisis having an adversely effect on the market economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the IMF in June 1999, although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the 2000 elections.

Growth up to the year 2005 has been realized by construction, investment, domestic demand and exports. Peru's economy has become one of the most liberal market economies in Latin America. The country's petroleum, natural gas and power industries are expected to increase due to relatively high domestic and foreign influx of capital in the tourism, agriculture, mining and construction sectors since 1995.

In April 2006, Peru signed a trade agreement with the United States (known as the Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, becoming the first country in the Andean Community of Nations (Comunidad Andina de Naciones, CAN) to sign it. As of 2007, Peru's Congress had already approved the agreement and the pact awaited approval by the U.S. Congress. Peru is currently negotiating trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, Singapore, and India.

Peru has free trade agreements with the Andean Community, which is composed of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Venezuela. It also has free trade agreements with many of the countries in Mercosur as well as Thailand, and during the recent APEC summit, Peru declared intentions to sign free trade agreements with China, Japan, and South Korea.

Peru is also seeking a free trade agreement with the European Union. These negotiations will greatly expand the markets in which the Peruvian products are traded. Peru has potential to export agricultural products, textiles, clothing, shoes, petroleum derivatives, natural gas, minerals, as well as fish and seafood products, tourism, and manufactured goods.

In 2005 Peruvian exports were worth US$ 17.1 billion (an increase of 34.6% compared to 2004) and it is expected to grow 35% for this year reaching US$ 23.5 billion at the end of 2006. The markets of Peru have grown in all sectors (energy, construction, commerce, fishing, manufacturing, tourism, etc) in 2005 growing over 6.67% (one the fastest growth rates of market economies in South America) and it is projected to grow 7% for 2006.

For the next five years (until 2010) the Peruvian government has registered more than US$ 10 billion in private investment (both domestic and foreign) in the mining and energy sectors, as well as investments of US$ 15 billion in other sectors such as industry, commerce, tourism, seafood and agriculture, which will keep the economy growing annually at levels of 5% or more.

Poverty in Peru is high, with a poverty threshold level of 51.2% of the total population. However, the level is reducing slowly and it is expected to diminish to 20% of the population within 10 years. Per capita GDP (2006): $3,368. Natural resources: Iron ore, copper, gold, silver, zinc, lead, fish, petroleum, natural gas, and forestry. Manufacturing (16.7% of GDP, 2006): Types—Food and beverages, textiles and apparel, nonferrous and precious metals, nonmetallic minerals, petroleum refining, paper, chemicals, iron and steel, fishmeal. Agriculture (9.2% of GDP, 2006): Products—Coffee, asparagus, paprika, artichoke, sugarcane, potato, rice, banana, maize, poultry, milk, others. Other sectors (by percentage of GDP in 2006): Services (44.9%), mining (6.8%), construction (5.8%), fisheries (0.6%). Trade: Exports (2006)—$23.7 billion: gold, copper, fishmeal, petroleum, zinc, textiles, apparel, asparagus and coffee. Major markets (2005)—U.S. (30%), China (11%), Chile (6.6%), Canada (6.0%), Switzerland (4.6%), Japan (3.6%), Spain (3.3%), Netherlands (3.1%). Imports (2005)—$14.9 billion: machinery, vehicles, processed food, petroleum and steel. Major suppliers (2005)—U.S. (17.7%), China (8.5%), Brazil (8.2%), Ecuador (7.3%), Colombia (6.2%).

Military

The military branches of the Peruvian Armed Forces include the army, navy, and air force. It has the second most powerful army of South America. In the last few years social stability has brought the army back to its original objectives - control of the national sovereignty on the sea, land and air, as well as to protect the people, economy, and infrastructure from threats from both inside and outside of the country.

Headquartered in Lima, the army has a strength of 75,000 troops divided in four military regions with headquarters in Piura, Lima, Arequipa, and Iquitos. Every military region assigned several brigades of which there are different types, including infantry, cavalry and armored. There are also several groups and batallions which operate independently.

The equipment of the Peruvian Army includes several types of tanks (T-55 and AMX-13),armored personnel carriers (M-113, UR-416), artillery (D30 howitzer, M101 howitzer, M109 howitzer, M114 howitzer), antiaircraft systems (ZSU-23-4 Shilka) and helicopters (Mil Mi-2, Mil Mi-17).

The Peruvian navy is organized in five naval zones headquartered in Piura, Lima, Arequipa, Iquitos and Pucallpa. It has a strength of around 25,000 troops divided between the Pacific Operations and the Amazon Operations General Commands and the Coast Guard.

The Pacific fleet flagship is the cruiser BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81), named for the nineteenth-century Peruvian admiral who fought in the War of the Pacific (1879-1883). The fleet also includes 8 Lupo class frigates (two of which were built in Peru during the 80's), 1 Daring class destroyer, 6 PR-72 class corvettes, 4 Terrebonne Parish class landing ships, 6 Type 209/1200 class German-built diesel submarines (the biggest submarine force in South America), as well as patrol vessels, tankers and cargo ships.

Peruvian Navy has also a naval aviation force, several naval infantry batallions and special forces units.

On May 20, 1929, the aviation divisions of the Peruvian army and navy were merged into the Peruvian Aviation Corps (CAP. In 1950, the corps was reorganized again and became the Peruvian Air Force .

The Peruvian Air Force is divided into 6 wing areas, headquartered in Piura, Chiclayo, Lima, Arequipa, Rioja and Iquitos. With a strong of 35 thousand troops, the FAP counts in its arsenal with MiG-29, MiG-25, Mirage 2000, Mirage M5 and SU-22 supersonic aircraft.

Also, it counts with SU-25 antitank aircraft, as well as MI-24 antitank helicopters, MI-8, MI-17 transport helicopters, and Aermacchi, A-37 Cessna and SuperTucano Embraer subsonic aircraft.

In 1995, the FAP took part in the Cenepa War against Ecuador covering operations by the army and navy. After the war, the FAP began acquiring new material, especially MiG-29 fighters and Su-25 attack fighters which are, along with the Mirage 2000 fighters, the main combat elements of the FAP.

Demographics

With a population of 28,674,757 (July 2007 estimate), Peru is the fifth most populous country in Latin America (after Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, and Argentina). Twenty-one cities have a population of 100,000 or more. Rural migration has increased the urban population from 35.4 percent of the total population in 1940 to an estimated 74.6 percent as of 2005.

The overall literacy rate for adults is 87.7 percent (males 93.5 percent and females 82.1 percent by a 2004 estimate).

The median age of the total population is 25.5 years (males 25.2 years and females 25.8 years. Life expectancy at birth for the total population is 70.14 years (males 68.33 years and females 72.04 years by 2007 est.)

Cultural diversity

Uros people on Lake Titicaca

Peru is one of the four Latin American nations with a large population of unmixed indigenous peoples. Around 35 percent of all Peruvians are classified as indigenous peoples, most of whom are found in the southern Andes, though a large portion are also found in the southern and central coast due to displacement during the civil war (1985-2000) and the massive internal labor migration from remote Andean and Amazonian regions to coastal cities, especially Lima. While the Andes are the "heart" of indigenous Peru, Amazonia's rich biodiversity is matched by the wide variety of indigenous peoples residing in the region.

The two major indigenous groups are the various Quechua-speaking populations, followed closely by the Aymará (mostly found in the extreme southern Andes), as well as dozens of indigenous cultures dispersed throughout the country beyond the Andes and in the Amazon basin.

A large proportion of Peru's indigenous peoples who live in the Andean highlands still speak Quechua or Aymara and have vibrant cultural traditions, some which were part of the Inca empire, arguably the most advanced agricultural civilization in the world. In the tropical Andes and lowlands of the Amazon, which represents nearly 60 percent of Peruvian national territory, one notes some of the planet's greatest cultural and biological diversity.

Peruvian Amazonia is rapidly becoming urbanized yet is home to numerous indigenous peoples, though they are a minority compared to the total population. These tribes include the Ashianikas, Urarina, Cocama, and Aguaruna, to name just a few.

On the north coast there are still indigenous peoples who are descendants of cultures like the Chimu, Chan Chan, Mochica, Tallan, and Tumpis. All of these tribes were ethnically closely related to high jungle, Amazonian, and Caribbean peoples that migrated here before the Incas-Quechuas conquered the northern regions of Peru and Ecuador. Most of the area had a strong Spanish presence, since most of the Spanish settled in the central and north coast and the Andes, so there are few pure indigenous inhabitants on the north coast.

At the national level, mestizos constitute the largest segment of the population: 45 percent. The term denotes people of mixed ancestry, be it European with indigenous, African, or Asian. Around three-fourths of the mestizos come from a mixed ancestry of European (basically Spanish descent) and indigenous descent. The remaining quarter of the mestizo group are of African (black) ancestry, with around 3 percent of Asian (Chinese) ancestry.

Around 17 percent of the population is classified as white and are mostly the descendants of Spanish colonizers (called criollos), though there are also descendants of immigrant families like Italians on the central coast, Germans in the central jungle, Chinese in the central-northern coast, and Japanese on the central coast. The majority of the Creole communities live in Peru's largest cities and on the northern coast; in the south, only Arequipa shows important Spanish influence.

Between 5 and 6 percent of Peruvians are classified as purely black (Afro-Peruvian); most of them live in coastal cities south of Lima.

The other large segment of Afro-Peruvians is found west and just below the Andean chain of northern Peru, where sugarcane, lemon, and mango production is still of importance.

In Amazonia, some Afro-Peruvian families trace their origins to workers brought from the British islands of the Caribbean to participate in the rubber boom (1880-1920), as noted by their presence in cities like Iquitos. But the only Amazon region where there is a visible black presence is the Huanuco region and Cerro de Pasco´s jungle valleys, since African slaves fled to these tropical valleys from the Andes, where they worked as miners.

Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in Latin America, after Brazil. Many of them traveled to Japan in the 1980s and early 1990s as the economic situation in Peru worsened. Some, however, returned after the election of Peruvian-Japanese Alberto Fujimori as president in 1990. Peru also has a large community of Chinese descent, mainly living in Lima, where Peruvian-Chinese restaurants (called chifas) are commonplace. Historic communities of Chinese people are found throughout the Peruvian upper Amazon, including cities such as Yurimaguas, Nauta, and Iquitos. In contrast to the Japanese community, the Chinese appear to have intermarried much more. "Unmixed" Asians make up roughly 3 percent of the population of Peru, the largest percentage of any Latin American nation-state.

Language

Spanish is the official language, as well as—-in the areas where they are predominant-—Quechua, Aymara, and other native languages. Spanish is understood by virtually all Peruvians and is used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in areas where it is spoken. The major obstacle to more widespread use of Quechua is that multiple dialects exist. Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, was originally and remains essentially an oral language. Therefore, there is a lack of modern media that use it, such as books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental organizations as well as state-sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language.

Religion

Roman Catholicism is practiced by 81 percent of the population.

Culture

Like its rich national history, the popular culture of contemporary Peru is the result of a fusion of cultures, constituted primarily from the cultural legacy of the indigenous groups, and Spanish and African colonists. This cultural mixture has been further enriched by the contributions of other immigrant groups, particularly Asians and non-Iberian Europeans.

Peruvian artistic creation

Peruvian cultural patrimony has its origin in the magnificent Andean civilizations, which flourished before the Spaniards’ arrival. Peru's archaeological treasures are evidence of many significant achievements comparable to those of other great civilizations.

Some of the first artistic manifestations reflecting more advanced intellectual and technological evolution are artifacts found in the deposits of Chavín de Huántar and Cupisnique. These are examples of symbolic and religious art including gold and silver work, ceramics, architecture and stone sculpture. These sites date as far back as the fourteenth century B.C.E. and eleventh century B.C.E., respectively.

Between the eighth century B.C.E. and first century C.E., the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necrópolis cultures developed. The Paracas Cavernas culture produced beautiful polychrome ceramics with religious representations as well as monochrome ceramics. The Paracas Necrópolis culture is characterized by its delicate fabrics in complex styles.

The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002.

In the period between the third century B.C.E. and seventh century C.E., the urban culture known as Mochica developed in Lambayeque. Nazca culture also developed in this period in the valley of río Grande, in Ica. In Mochica culture, the magnificent Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna and the Huaca Rajada of Sipan are worth mentioning. They are notable for their cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering, as well as some of the most original ceramics, textiles, and pictorial and sculptural art in the Andean world.

The Wari civilization, which flourished between the eighth century and twelfth century C.E., was based in Ayacucho. This civilization may have been the first Andean culture to define a planned urban layout. Such a concept was later expanded to zones like Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla, Wari Willca, and others. Tiahuanaco culture developed by the borders of lake Titicaca between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. This culture introduced monumental lithic architecture and sculpture as well as military urbanism. These advances in architecture were possible thanks to the discovery of bronze for making tools.

The Chimú town improved on the principle of urban architecture. This civilization built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche river, in La Libertad, between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Chimú were also skillful goldsmiths and made remarkable works of hydraulic engineering.

File:Panoramic Cusco from Sacsayhuaman.jpg

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The Inca Civilization incorporated, and in many cases perfected, many of the cultural techniques of the civilizations that preceded it. There are many examples of original Inca architecture and engineering that have outlasted later Spanish colonial structures. In this regard, the rich Inca heritage can still be observed in cities like Cuzco, the fortress of Sacsahuaman, Ollantaytambo, Machu Picchu, and extensive stone roads that united Cuzco with the four cardinal points of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquest displaced, not without violence, native artistic practices and concepts, although in many cases, it made for enriching hybrids of traditional Spanish and native art.

Architecture

Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known examples of the Renaissance period are the Cathedral and the church of Santa Clara of Cuzco. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in the Baroque. Some examples of this Baroque period are the convent of San Francisco de Lima, the Church of the Compañía and the facade of the University of Cuzco and, overall, the churches of San Agustín and Santa Rosa of Arequipa, its more beautiful exponents.

The independence war left a creative emptiness that Neoclassicism of French inspiration could fill. The twentieth century is characterized by eclecticism. The best example is San Martin Plaza in Lima.

Art

Iglesia de la Compañía, Cuzco

The Inca stonghold of Sacsayhuaman near Cuzco

The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between Spanish and Amerindian cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in the Americas, where pre-Inca cultures developed high-quality pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture.

Drawing upon the earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of Machu Picchu and the buildings at Cuzco are excellent examples of Inca architectural design.

During the colonial period, the Spanish baroque style fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce mestizo art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition, with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools.

The early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.

During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.

Music

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The quena is a Peruvian wind instrument, mostly used by Andean musicians

Like its geography, its cuisine, and its various ethnicities, Peruvian music is very diverse. Much of Peru's music is derived from Andean, Andalusian Spanish, and African roots. Modern Peruvian music and Amazon-influenced music is also common in Peru.

The Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians mostly used wind instruments and diverse membranophone instruments such as the tinya (hand drum), the wankar, instrument of big dimensions, the pomatinyas (made of puma skin, and the runatinyas (made of human skin). The runatinya was also used in battles.

With the Spanish conquest, new instruments arrived like harps, guitars, vihuelas, bandurrias, lutes, etc. Due to these instruments, new crossbred Andean instruments appeared. These crossbred instruments are still in used nowadays: the Andean harp and the charango. The sounding box of the charango is made of the armadillo's shell.

The cultural crossbreeding did not limit itself to the contact of Indigenous and European cultures. The African slaves' contribution was demonstrated in rhythms and percussion instruments. This influence is visible in musical forms like festejo, zamacueca, etc.

Coastal music is rooted in the haciendas and the callejones of cities such as Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Tumbes and Ica. It involves a creole version of the Spanish guitar and the famous Peruvian instrument the Cajon drum.

Andean Peruvian music

Andean music is rooted in the traditional native music, the Spanish orquestal and European Church musicals. The southern Andean region is famous for the Huayno, a mestizo happy chant that involves Charango guitar, beautifully toned lamenting vocals and sometimes the Andean Harp. The Huayno Ayacuchano is probably the most famous of its styles since it is played on creole and even Spanish guitar, adding to its feel an even a more soulful and romantic expression.

Cusco, Puno and Apurimac have a more pure native feel to their music whom even incorporate violins. Famous tuens are the Muliza and Valicha Cusqueña, whom are also very romantic and melancolic. Other Andean rhythms involve a fusion of European Church music and Huaynos such as the known song "El Cóndor Pasa," a traditional Peruvian song popularized in the United States by the folk duo Simon & Garfunkel and featured in the movie "The Graduate." The original composition consists of a Yaraví, followed by an Inca "Pasacalle" and a Huayno fugue, three traditional Inca rhythms.

Jorge Bravo de Rueda's famous "Vírgenes del Sol" was popularized in 1951 by Yma Súmac.

Arequipa is the region that probably that resembles best the mixing of the Spanish and the Andean cultures. Arequipa city is the proud creator of the famous Yaraví, a melancholy style that involves Spanish or creole guitar that is sung a capella. It has been popularized to the rest of the Andean comunities after the Pacific War in honor of Mariano Melgar (local hero). The music evokes to the solitude of the mountains, the miners and the Andean farmer. It is a mix of gypsy Zards and Huayno.

The Huaylas of the central Andes, by contrast, is a cheery, rhythmic style mostly popular around Cerro de Pasco, Huanuco Huaraz.

Coastal Peruvian music

The coast has a different feel to its music than its Andean counterpart. It is called musica criolla and its rooted in a fusion that evokes traditional Spanish, Gypsy (Roma People) and African influence.

It combines traditional European rhythms, strong gypsy emotional flair deriving from Flamenco and eastern European Zards, and also African-based chorus and percussion.

This mixture is rooted especially in the central and northern coast, and has provided the wide range of dance and musical styles we hear today. Lima, for example, is best known for its musical style of Peruvian Waltz, known elsewhere as valse peruano and valsesito peruano. The rhythm involves a singer, a chorus, creole Guitarr, Peruvian Cajón and spoon players. It was widely popularized by the great Chabuca Granda, who is considered the most important composer of coastal creole music; some of these songs are twisted to Bolero or Salsa versions by Caribbean artists.

Afro Peruvian music is commonly performed by duos of creole guitars, the Cajon, Cajita and the peculiar Quijada de Burro.

Examples of these dances are the Festejo and Landó, which are common to Afro-Peruvian communities of the southern coast. Susana Baca is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album Lamento Negro.

The Marinera or Zamacueca of the central coast Lima is the current National Dance of Peru, named in honour of the marines who fought against the Chilean military in the War of the Pacific. Among Peruvians of the coast, it is considered as traditional and representative as the Tango is to Argentina. The dance evokes from a mixture of Eastern European gypsy, flamenco and the elegance of the Peruvian Paso Horse. Many people take classes and look forward to the annual Marinera Festival held in the city of Trujillo every July, with thousands in attendance.

In the northern coast especially Lambayeque and Piura, the people are most famous for the Cumananas and the Tondero dance. These are the oldest and most mestizo expressions of Peruvian music and derive from the encounterd mixture of the Gypsies, Africans slaves and migrant Andean cultures.

Peruvian coastal music has in its rich structure the participation of a local instrument called the cajón. This instrument has been mistaken very frequently with an Spanish origin (the cajon was introduced in Spain around the 1980's by Paco de Lucia, but the truth is that the cajon has been utilized in Peruvian music since the colonial times. Although it might also have gypsy influence it has been prooved that the instrument is stricktly of Peruvian origin since it is rooted in the Tondero, the Zamacueca, the Resabalosa and Peruvian coastal creole rythms before any other expressions.

Dances

Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance on the coast of Peru.

Between dances of native origin, some are related to agricultural work, hunting, and war, while others show Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean dances are the kashua and the wayno or huayno. The kashua has a communal character and it is usually danced in groups in the country or open spaces. The huayno is a "salon ball" danced by couples indoors. The yaravi and the triste have an Andean origin. They are usually songs with very emotional lyrics.

Dances of ritual character are the achocallo, the pinkillada, the llamerada (a dance that imitates the llama's walk), the kullawada (the spinners' dance), etc. Among hunting dances, the llipi-puli and choq'elas are dances from the altiplano related to hunting vicuñas.

Some dances of war like the chiriguano have an Aymara origin; the chatripuli satirizes the Spanish Realist soldiers, and the kenakenas is about the Chilean soldiers who occupied Peru during the War of the Pacific (1879). There are also Carnival dances. At harvest, many rural communities celebrate youths' initiation with ancestral rites and crossbred dances. New couples might be established.

The most attractive and internationally known Love Dance in Peru is the Marinera Norteña. This dance represents a man's courting a young woman. There are local variants of this dance in Lima and the other regions of the country.

Popular celebrations

Popular celebrations are the product of every town's traditions and legends. These celebrations gather music, dances, meals, and typical drinks. In addition to religious celebrations like Christmas, Corpus Christi, or Holy Week, others express the syncretism of indigenous beliefs with Christians'. Another example is the peregrination of the Q'oyllor-riti (Cuzco), that gathers the ancient cult to the apus (tutelary divinities of the mountains) with a peregrination to a Christian sanctuary in a long trek to the top of a mountain, of more than 5000 m. at sea level, that is covered with snow.

Cuisine

File:Ceviche.jpg

Ceviche

There is a big variety of food, like maize, tomato, potatoes, uchu or ají (Capsicum pubescens), oca, ulluco, avocado, fruits like cherimoya, lúcuma and pineapple (anana), and animals like taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis) (similar to the little red brocket), llama and Guinea pig (cuy). After the combination of the American, European and Moorish culinary traditions, new meals and ways of preparing them appeared. The successive arrivals of the Africans and the Chinese also influenced the development of the Creole cuisine, that is so diverse and succulent nowadays.

Peruvian cuisine, for years unnoticed abroad, has recently exploded onto the world gastronomic scene. Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish roots but has also been influenced by other groups, including Africans, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all of whom have added their own ingredients and traditions to the mix.

Peru's many climate zones also make it possible to grow a wide range of crops. There are the dozens of native potato, maize, and chile pepper varieties from the Andes, to the plentiful fish and seafood from the Pacific coast, mangoes and limes from the coastal valleys, bananas and manioc from the jungle.

Between the most typical dishes of the Peruvian cuisine, we have the cebiche, which is also spelled "ceviche" (fish and shellfish marinated in lime juice, the chupe de camarones (a soup made of shrimps, the anticuchos (a beef's heart roasted in brochettes), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of ulluco and charqui), the Andean pachamanca (meats, tubers and broad beans cooked in a stone oven), the lomo saltado (cuisine) (meat fried lightly with tomato and onion, served with French fries and rice) that has a Chinese influence, and the picante de cuy (a casserole dish made of fried guinea pig with some spices). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the chicha de jora (it's a chicha made of tender corn dried by the sun). This drink has a very low alcoholic content. There are also chichas made of purple corn or peanut. They are very refreshing and do not have any alcoholic content.

The most popular ceviche is a type of seafood cocktail where the fish has been marinated in lime with onions and hot peppers, but not cooked. The lime's acid precipitates the protein and hence turns the fish white, "cooking" it. There are several types of ceviche that include fish only, mixed seafood, mussels, etc. Other typical foods include staples from the Andes; humitas (tamales), roasted cuy guinea pig, papa a la Huancaina, Jalea de Mar, Chilcano, Sudado, Aguadito, Tallarin Saltado, Aji de Gallina, Arroz con Pollo, Seco de Res, Chicharrones, Tacu Tacu, Carapulcra (Dry potato), choncholi, Salchipapas, Mondonguito a la Italiana, Chanfainita, Ocopa, different Chifa dishes (Chinese food made with Peruvian ingredients), Estofado, Bistec a la Pobre, Arroz con Pato, Rocoto Relleno, Empanadas, Pollo a la Brasa, Lechon, Picante de Mariscos, Arroz con Leche, Turron de Doña Pepa.

Caramel, also known as Manjar Blanco in Peru, is a very popular dessert. Also Crema Chantilly in very popular in cakes. Other desserts include Mazamorra Morada, Arroz con Leche, Flan, Crema Volteada, Leche Asada, Torta Helada.

The most popular soft drink is called Inca Kola, which is a yellowish cream soda, but other sodas are popular too, such as Kola Inglesa, Guarana Backus, and other very common fruit sodas like orange, pineapple, and lemon. Peru's most well known beverage is the Pisco which originated in the Peruvian department of Ica.

Sports

Chess: Julio Granda is the most famous Peruvian chess player. His epic battle in 1998 with Jorge Useche was one of Peru's most riveting chess matches.

Football: The most popular Peruvian sport is football (soccer) (World Cup appearances: 1930, 1970 (quarterfinalists), 1978 (quarterfinalists), 1982 and two Copa America trophies). Most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup tournament on television.

Volleyball: Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games, Runners-up in World Championship in 1982 and 12 times South American champion).

Surfing: Felipe Pomar, 2nd World Surfing Championship, Peru 1965, Sofia Mulanovich, Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005.

Sailing: Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the Sunfish Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in Team-Racing in 1997, 1998, and 1999.

Tennis: Luis Horna and Jaime Yzaga are the most famous Peruvian tennis players. Tennis Hall of Famer and Davis Cup and Wimbledon winner Alejandro Olmedo was born in Peru but he played for the United States.

Paleta Fronton: The only sport truly born in Peru has its roots in "Pelota Vasca" and "Hand Ball." Played with a wooden raquet and a hollow rubber ball filled with air, and in a court consisting of a concret wall and floor. Paleta Fronton is growing in popularity and now is played in Costa Rica and Mexico.

International rankings

• Reporters without borders world-wide press freedom index: Rank 116 out of 167 countries (2005)
• UN Human Development Index 2005: Ranked 79 out of 177 countries. Up 6 places from 85 in 2004.

External links

• Open Directory Project - Peru directory category
• Peruvian in the world
• Encyclopaedia Britannica - Peru's Country Page
• Peruvians in Germany
• Volunteer in Peru
• Peru country-data.com page

Archaeology

• Archaeological information from the North of Peru

Nature

Politics

• Public Opinion in Peru
• Center for Reproductive Rights Report (PDF format)
• All you need to know about Peru's election
• Local government in Peru
• Council on Foreign Relations: Peru's Elections
• Peru's 2006 Elections

Peru maps

• Peru maps

Music

• Peruvian Modern Rock Webzine
• Peru Rock Music
• Peru Net Radio
• Planeta FM Radio - Contemporary Music
• Studio 92 FM Radio - Contemporary Music
• Radio A FM - Ballads
• Z Rock & Pop Radio
• Radio Doble 9 FM - Rock Music
• Radio Telestereo 88.3 FM Adult Contemporary
• Viva FM Radio - Latin Pop

Peruvian TV channels

• Frecuencia Latina (Latin Frequency) In Lima Channel #2 -Online Transmission-
• Cable Magico Deportes (Magic Cable Sports) In Lima Channel #3
• America Television (America Television) In Lima Channel #4
• Panamericana Television (Panamericana Television) In Lima Channel #5
• Panamericana Television (News Website) In Lima Channel #5
• Plus TV In Lima Channel #6
• Television Nacional del Peru (National Channel) In Lima Channel #7
• Canal N (News Channel) In Lima Channel #8
• ATV In Lima Channel #9
• OKTV National Music Channel in Lima Channel #11
• Red Global In Lima Channel #13
• Uranio TV National Music Channel (in Lima Channel #45)
• Congress Channel In Lima Channel #95

Peruvian news

• Diario El Comercio
• Diario La República
• Diario El Bocón
• Portal Peru.com
• Portal Deportivo Estudiantil Todo Futbol Peru
• Internet
• Internet Ideasperu

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Permanent Members
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Countries of South America

Argentina · Bolivia · Brazil · Chile · Colombia · Ecuador · Guyana · Panama* · Paraguay · Peru · Suriname · Trinidad and Tobago* · Uruguay · Venezuela

Dependencies
Aruba* (Netherlands) · Falkland Islands (UK) · French Guiana (France) · Netherlands Antilles* (Netherlands) · South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (UK)

* Territories also in or commonly reckoned elsewhere in the Americas (North America).

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