Difference between revisions of "Hebrew Bible" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 17:35, 12 December 2017

An eleventh-century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible.

This article is about the term "Hebrew Bible." See also Tanakh (Jewish term) or Old Testament (Christian term).

Hebrew Bible is a term describing the common portions of the Jewish and Christian biblical canons. The term is considered neutral and is preferred in academic writing and interfaith settings over "Old Testament," which hints at the Christian doctrine of supersessionism, in which the "old" covenant of God with the Jews has been made obsolete by the "new" covenant with the Christians. The Jewish term for the Hebrew Bible is "Tanakh," a Hebrew acronym its component parts: the Torah, Prophets, and Writings. Few practicing Jews refer to their scriptures as the "Hebrew Bible," except in academic of interfaith contexts.

The word Hebrew in the name refers to either or both the Hebrew language or the Jewish people who have continuously used the Hebrew language in prayer and study. The Hebrew Bible" does not encompass the deuterocanonical books, also known as the Apocrypha, which are included in the canon of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches. Although the content of the Hebrew Bible corresponds to the versions of the Old Testament used by Protestant denominations, it differs from Christian Bibles in terms of the organization and division of books included.

Hebrew and Christian bibles

Christian Bibles include the Jewish scriptures but designate them as the "Old" Testament.

Objections by Jews and others to the term "Old Testament" is based on a long-standing Christian tradition that the covenant between God and the Jews was fundamentally inadequate to deal with the problem of sin. Technically referred to as supersessionism, this attitude dates back to the Epistle to the Hebrews, whose author claimed that God had established His "new covenant" with mankind through Jesus: "By calling this covenant 'new,' He has made the first one obsolete; and what is obsolete and aging will soon disappear" (Hebrews 8:13).

The term "New Testament," was later adopted by the Christian church to refer to their own scriptures and distinguish them from the sacred texts of Judaism, which the church also adopted as its own. Although most Christian denominations today formally reject the idea that God's covenant with the Jews was invalidated by Jesus' priestly ministry, most biblical scholars are sensitive to the historical implications of the term Old Testament and tend to avoid it in academic writing, as do those involved in interfaith dialog. The Hebrew term Tanakh is also sometimes used, but is less common than "Hebrew Bible" because of its unfamiliarity to non-experts.

The Jewish version of the Hebrew Bible differs from the Christian version in its original language, organization, division, and numbering of its books.

Language

Although the content of Christian and Jewish versions of the Hebrew Bible is virtually the same, different translations are usually involved. Most Hebrew versions of the Tanakh, as well as English translations, are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text, while Christian versions or more influenced by the Latin Vulgate Bible and the Greek Septuagint (LXX) version. The Septuagint was created by Greek-speaking Jews about the second century B.C.E. in Alexandria, Egypt. It was widely used by diasporan Jews in the Greek and Roman world, but is influenced by the Greek language and philosophical concepts and was thus not preferred by rabbinical tradition. The Vulgate was created mostly by St. Jerome in the fifth century C.E., based on both Hebrew and Greek texts. The Masoretic is a purely Hebrew text.

Comparative study of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew versions in recent centuries has produced useful insights, and the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the twentieth century—including nearly the entire corpus of the Tanakh—have provided scholars with yet another ancient scriptural tradition. Comparisons of various texts and manuscripts are often included in footnotes in contemporary translations of the texts.

Organization

In terms of organization, Christian versions of the Hebrew Bible use a different order and division of the books than the Tanakh does. The word TaNaKh, in fact is an acronym based on the initial Hebrew letters of each of the text's three parts:

Torah, meaning "Instruction." Also called the "Pentateuch" and the "Books of Moses," this part of the Tanakh follows the same order and division of books adopted in the Christian version.
Nevi'im, meaning "Prophets." The Jewish tradition includes the "historical" books of Joshua, Kings and Samuel in this category.
Ketuvim, meaning "Writings." These include this historical writings (Ezra-Nehemiah and the Book of Chronicles); wisdom books (Job, Ecclesiastes and Proverbs); poetry (Psalms, Lamentations and the Song of Solomon); and biographies (Ruth, Esther and Daniel).

The organization of this material in Christian Bibles places the Prophets after the writings and includes the Book of Daniel with the Prophets, placing it after Ezekiel. In addition, it groups Chronicles with Kings rather than considering it one of the Writings. The result is, among other things, that the last book of the Christian version is Malachi, while the last book of the Jewish version is Chronicles.

Numbering

A Christian Bible, opened to the Book of Isaiah in the "Old Testament."

The number of books also differs: 24 in the Jewish version and 39 in the Christian, due to the fact that some books which are united in Jewish tradition are divided in the Christian tradition.

Also, older Jewish versions of the Bible do not contain chapter and verse designations. Nevertheless, these are noted in modern editions so that verses may be easily located and cited. Although Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles remain as one book each, chapters of these books often stipulate "I or II" to prevent confusion, since the chapter numbering for these books follows their partition in the Christian textual tradition.

The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in Spain, partially in the context of forced debates with priests in Europe. Nevertheless, because it proved useful this convention continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books.

Apocrypha

Finally, the Catholic and Orthodox "Old Testament" contains six books not included in the Tanakh, as well as material included in the books of Daniel, Esther, and other books which does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. Known usually as the Apocrypha, their technical term is the deuterocanonical books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).

Early editions of the King James Version of the Bible in English also included them. These books as also known as "intratestimental literature," due to their being written after the time of the prophets but before the time of Jesus.

A page from the Aleppo Codex of the Masoretic text, tenth century C.E.

Canonization

Although the Sadducees and Pharisees of the first century C.E. disagreed on much, they seem to have agreed that certain scriptures were to be considered sacred. Some Pharisees developed a tradition requiring that one's hands be washed after handling sacred scriptures. The introduction of this custom would naturally tend to fix the limits of the canon, for only contact with books that were actually used or regarded as fit for use in the synagogue would demand such a washing of the hands. What was read in public worship constituted the canon.

Among the works eliminated by this process were many of the writings that maintained their place in the Alexandrian Jewish tradition, having been brought to Egypt and translated from the original Hebrew or Aramaic, such as Baruch, Sirach, I Maccabees, Tobit and Judith; as well works such as the Book of Jubilees, Psalms of Solomon, Assumption of Moses, and the Apocalypses of Enoch, Noah, Baruch, Ezra, and others. Some of these works, meanwhile had gained acceptance in Christian circles and were thus adopted as the Apocrypha, while losing their place of spiritual significance among all but a few Jewish readers until recently.^[1]

Order of the books of the Tanakh

A page from the Codex Vaticanus, a near-complete version of the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible, fourth century C.E., including several of the Apocryha.

Torah

Prophets

Writings

Psalms
Proverbs
Job
Song of Songs
Ruth
Lamentations
Ecclesiastes
Esther
Daniel
Ezra-Nehemiah
Chronicles (I & II)

Notes

↑ These canonical Christian Apocrypha of the Old Testament, however, should not be confused with the New Testament Apocrypha. The latter include works of both orthodox and heretical writers, while the former are all deemed worthy of Christian readers by Catholic and Orthodox tradition.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Boadt, Lawrence, Helga B. Croner, and Leon Klenicki. Biblical Studies, Meeting Ground of Jews and Christians. Studies in Judaism and Christianity. New York: Paulist Press, 1980. ISBN 9780809123445
Collins, John Joseph. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004. ISBN 9780800629915
Rabin, Elliott. Understanding the Hebrew Bible: A Reader's Guide. Jersey City, N.J.: KTAV, 2006. ISBN 9780881258714
Toorn, K. van der. Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2007.

External links

All links retrieved December 12, 2017.

Unicode/XML Westminster Leningrad Codex www.tanach.us
Aleppo Codex www.mechon-mamre.org
Judaica Press Translation (online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary) www.chabad.org

Credits

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Hebrew Bible ^history

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[1] These canonical Christian Apocrypha of the Old Testament, however, should not be confused with the New Testament Apocrypha. The latter include works of both orthodox and heretical writers, while the former are all deemed worthy of Christian readers by Catholic and Orthodox tradition.

[1]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{started}}{{Contracted}}
+{{Copyedited}}{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}
+[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|265px|An eleventh-century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible.]]
+{{dablink|This article is about the term "Hebrew Bible." See also [[Tanakh]] (Jewish term) or [[Old Testament]] (Christian term).}}
+'''Hebrew Bible''' is a term describing the common portions of the [[Jew]]ish and [[Christian]] [[biblical canon]]s. The term is considered neutral and is preferred in academic writing and interfaith settings over "[[Old Testament]]," which hints at the Christian doctrine of [[supersessionism]], in which the "old" covenant of God with the Jews has been made obsolete by the "new" covenant with the Christians. The Jewish term for the Hebrew Bible is "[[Tanakh]]," a Hebrew [[acronym]] its component parts: the [[Torah]], Prophets, and Writings. Few practicing Jews refer to their scriptures as the "Hebrew Bible," except in academic of interfaith contexts.
+{{toc}}
+The word ''Hebrew'' in the name refers to either or both the [[Hebrew language]] or the [[Jewish]] people who have continuously used the Hebrew language in [[prayer]] and study. The Hebrew Bible" does not encompass the [[deuterocanonical books]], also known as the [[Apocrypha]], which are included in the canon of the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] churches. Although the content of the Hebrew Bible corresponds to the versions of the Old Testament used by [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, it differs from Christian Bibles in terms of the organization and division of books included.
-[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|265px|11th century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with [[Targum]]]]
+==Hebrew and Christian bibles==
-{{dablink|This article is about the term "Hebrew Bible". For the Hebrew Bible itself, see [[Tanakh]] (Jewish term) or [[Old Testament]] (Christian term).}}
+[[Image:Bibel-1.jpg|thumb|Christian Bibles include the Jewish scriptures but designate them as the "Old" Testament.]]
-'''Hebrew Bible''' : ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{hebrew|תנ"ך}}) is a term that refers to the common portions of the [[Jew]]ish and [[Christian]] [[biblical canon]]s.
+Objections by Jews and others to the term "Old Testament" is based on a long-standing [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition that the [[covenant]] between God and the Jews was fundamentally inadequate to deal with the problem of [[sin]]. Technically referred to as [[supersessionism]], this attitude dates back to the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], whose author claimed that God had established His "new covenant" with mankind through Jesus: "By calling this covenant 'new,' He has made the first one obsolete; and what is obsolete and aging will soon disappear" (Hebrews 8:13).
-The use of the term 'Hebrew Bible' is considered as a neutral term that is preferred in academic writing over the "[[Old Testament]]", which alludes to the Christian doctrine of [[supersessionism]], and to the "[[Tanakh]]," the common Hebrew acronym which is unfamiliar to many English speakers and others.<ref>{{cite book | title=The SBL Handbook of Style | publisher=Hendrickson Publishers | location=Peabody, Mass. | year=1999 | month=November | editor=Patrick H. Alexander | id=ISBN 1-56563-487-X | pages=pp.17 }}</ref>
-''Hebrew'' in the name may refer to either the [[Hebrew language]] or to the [[Jewish]] or [[Hebrew people]] who historically used Hebrew as a spoken language, and have continuously used the language in prayer and study, or both. Indeed, few practising Jews would ever refer to the "Hebrew Bible," and this term is commonly used by non-Jews, especially Christians.
+The term "[[New Testament]]," was later adopted by the Christian church to refer to their own scriptures and distinguish them from the sacred texts of [[Judaism]], which the church also adopted as its own. Although most Christian denominations today formally reject the idea that God's covenant with the Jews was invalidated by Jesus' priestly ministry, most biblical scholars are sensitive to the historical implications of the term [[Old Testament]] and tend to avoid it in academic writing, as do those involved in interfaith dialog. The Hebrew term [[Tanakh]] is also sometimes used, but is less common than "Hebrew Bible" because of its unfamiliarity to non-experts.
-Because "Hebrew Bible" refers to the common portions of the Jewish and Christian biblical canons, it does not encompass the [[deuterocanonical books]] (largely from the [[Koine Greek]] [[Septuagint]] translation (LXX), included in the canon of the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] churches). Thus the term "Hebrew Bible" corresponds most fully to the Old Testament in use by [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations (adhering to [[Jerome]]'s ''Hebraica veritas'' doctrine).
+The Jewish version of the Hebrew Bible differs from the Christian version in its original [[language]], organization, division, and numbering of its books.
-==See also==
+===Language===
-* [[Books of the Bible]] for the differences between Bible versions of different groups, or the much more detailed [[Biblical canon]].
+Although the content of Christian and Jewish versions of the Hebrew Bible is virtually the same, different translations are usually involved. Most [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] versions of the [[Tanakh]], as well as [[English language|English]] translations, are based on the Hebrew [[Masoretic text]], while Christian versions or more influenced by the Latin [[Vulgate]] Bible and the Greek [[Septuagint]] (LXX) version. The Septuagint was created by Greek-speaking Jews about the second century B.C.E. in [[Alexandria]], Egypt. It was widely used by [[diaspora]]n Jews in the Greek and Roman world, but is influenced by the Greek language and philosophical concepts and was thus not preferred by rabbinical tradition. The Vulgate was created mostly by [[St. Jerome]] in the fifth century C.E., based on both Hebrew and Greek texts. The Masoretic is a purely Hebrew text.
-*[[Greek Scriptures]]
-* [[Masoretic Text]], the standard Hebrew text recognized by most [[Judeo-Christian]] groups.
-*[[Society of Biblical Literature]], creators of the SBL Handbook which recommends standard biblical terminology.
-* [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
-* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
-* [[Torah]]
-{{credit|98569221}}
-__________________________________________
-{{for|the [[musical collective]]|Tanakh (band)}}
-{{Jews and Judaism}}
-'''Tanakh''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''תנ״ך''') (also '''Tanach''', {{IPA2|taˈnax}} or {{IPA|[təˈnax]}}, or Tenak, is an [[acronym]] that identifies the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The acronym is based on the initial [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] letters of each of the text's three parts:
-#[[Torah]] {{Hebrew|תורה}} meaning "Instruction". Also called the ''[[Humash|Chumash]]'' {{Hebrew|חומש}} meaning: "The five"; "The five books of Moses." Also called the "[[Pentateuch]]." The Torah is often referred to as the law of the Jewish people.
-#[[Nevi'im]] {{Hebrew|נביאים}} meaning "Prophets." This term is associated with anything to do with the prophets.
-#[[Ketuvim]] {{Hebrew|כתובים}} meaning "Writings" or "Hagiographa."
-The writings are then separated into sections, for example; there are a group of history books namely, Ezra, Chronicles and Nehemiah. Others include the wisdom books these are: Job, Ecclesiastes and Proverbs. Poetry books; Psalms, Lamentation and Song of Solomon. Lastly there are other books, Ruth, Esther and the book of Daniel.
-The Tanakh is also called {{Hebrew|מקרא}}, '''[[Mikra]]''' or '''Miqra''', meaning "that which is read."
-==Terminology==
-===Mikra===
-The three-part division reflected in the acronym [[Tanakh]] is well attested to in documents from the [[Second Temple]] period and in [[Rabbinic literature]].  During that period, however, "Tanakh" was not used as a word or term; rather, the proper title was ''Mikra'' ("Reading"), because the biblical books were read publically. "Mikra" is thus analogous to the Latin term ''Scriptus'', meaning "that which is written" (as in "Scripture" or "The Holy Scriptures").
-'''Mikra''' continues to be used in Hebrew to this day alongside ''Tanakh'' to refer to the Hebrew scriptures.  In modern spoken [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], ''Mikra'' has a more formal flavor than ''Tanakh'', where the former might refer to a university department, and the latter to a popular study group.
-===Hebrew Bible===
-Because the books included in the Tanakh were predominantly written in Hebrew, it may also be called the [[Hebrew Bible]].  Parts of [[Book of Daniel|Daniyel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], as well as a sentence in [[Book of Jeremiah|Yir'm'yahu]] [[Book of Jeremiah|(Jeremiah)]] and a two-word toponym in [[Book of Genesis|B'reshit]] [[Book of Genesis|(Genesis)]], are in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] — but even these are written in the same [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew script]].
-==Number of books==
-According to the Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books (enumerated below).  The ''Torah'' has five books, ''[[Nevi'im]]'' eight books, and ''[[Ketuvim]]'' has eleven.
-These twenty-four books are the same books found in the [[Protestant]] [[Old Testament]], but the order of the books is different.  The enumeration differs as well: Christians count these books as thirty-nine, not twenty-four.  This is because Jews often count as a single book what Christians count as several. However, the term '''Old Testament''', while common, is often considered pejorative by Jews as it can be interpreted as being inferior or outdated relative to the '''New Testament'''.
+Comparative study of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew versions in recent centuries has produced useful insights, and the discovery of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] in the twentieth century—including nearly the entire corpus of the [[Tanakh]]—have provided scholars with yet another ancient scriptural tradition. Comparisons of various texts and manuscripts are often included in footnotes in contemporary translations of the texts.
-As such, one may draw a technical distinction between the Jewish Tanakh and the similar, but not identical, corpus which Protestant Christians call the [[Old Testament]].  Thus, some scholars prefer ''[[Hebrew Bible]]'' as a term that covers the commonality of Tanakh and the Old Testament while avoiding sectarian bias.
+===Organization===
+In terms of organization, Christian versions of the Hebrew Bible use a different order and division of the books than the [[Tanakh]] does. The word ''TaNaKh'', in fact is an [[acronym]] based on the initial [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] letters of each of the text's three parts:
-The [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] Old Testaments contain six books not included in the Tanakh. They are called [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).
+#[[Torah]], meaning "Instruction." Also called the "[[Pentateuch]]" and the "Books of Moses," this part of the Tanakh follows the same order and division of books adopted in the Christian version.
+#[[Nevi'im]], meaning "Prophets." The Jewish tradition includes the "historical" books of [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Books of Kings|Kings]] and [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] in this category.
+#[[Ketuvim]], meaning "Writings." These include this historical writings ([[Ezra]]-[[Nehemiah]] and the [[Books of Chronicles|Book of Chronicles]]); wisdom books ([[Job]], [[Ecclesiastes]] and [[Proverbs]]); [[poetry]] (Psalms, Lamentations and the Song of Solomon); and biographies (Ruth, Esther and Daniel).
-In Christian Bibles, Daniel and the Book of Esther sometimes include extra [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] material that is not included in either the Jewish or most [[Protestant]] canons.
+The organization of this material in Christian Bibles places the ''Prophets'' after the writings and includes the [[Book of Daniel]] with the Prophets, placing it after [[Ezekiel]]. In addition, it groups ''Chronicles'' with ''Kings'' rather than considering it one of the Writings. The result is, among other things, that the last book of the Christian version is [[Malachi]], while the last book of the Jewish version is ''Chronicles''.
-==Books of the Tanakh==
+===Numbering===
-The Hebrew text originally consisted only of [[consonant]]s, together with some inconsistently applied letters used as [[vowel]]s (''[[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]''). During the early middle ages [[Masoretes]] codified the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh by adding two special kinds of symbols to the text: ''[[niqud]]'' (vowel points) and [[cantillation]] signs.  The latter indicate syntax, stress (accentuation), and the melody for reading. According to tradition, this codification was made by [[Ezra]], in the fourth century B.C.E..
+[[Image:Crop Book of Isaiah 2006-06-06.jpg|thumb|200px|A Christian Bible, opened to the Book of Isaiah in the "Old Testament."]]
+The number of books also differs: 24 in the Jewish version and 39 in the Christian, due to the fact that some books which are united in Jewish tradition are divided in the Christian tradition.
-[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|320px|11th century Targum]]
+Also, older Jewish versions of the Bible do not contain chapter and verse designations. Nevertheless, these are noted in modern editions so that verses may be easily located and cited. Although ''Samuel'', ''Kings'', and ''Chronicles'' remain as one book each, chapters of these books often stipulate "I or II" to prevent confusion, since the chapter numbering for these books follows their partition in the Christian textual tradition.
-The books of the Torah have generally-used names which are based on the first prominent word in each book. The [[English language|English]] names are not translations of the Hebrew; they are based on the Greek names created for the [[Septuagint]] which in turn were based on [[Rabbinic]] names describing the thematic content of each of the Books.
-The ''[[Torah]]'' ("Law") [also known as the Pentateuch] consists of:
+The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in [[Spain]], partially in the context of forced debates with priests in [[Europe]]. Nevertheless, because it proved useful this convention continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books.
-: 1. [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] [{{Hebrew|בראשית}} / B'reshit]
-: 2. [[Exodus]] [{{Hebrew|שמות}} / Sh'mot]
-: 3. [[Leviticus]] [{{Hebrew|ויקרא}} / Vayiqra]
-: 4. [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] [{{Hebrew|במדבר}} / B'midbar]
-: 5. [[Deuteronomy]] [{{Hebrew|דברים}} / D'varim]
-The books of ''[[Nevi'im]]'' ("Prophets") are:
+===Apocrypha===
-: 6. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] [{{Hebrew|יהושע}} / Y'hoshua]
+Finally, the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] "Old Testament" contains six books not included in the Tanakh, as well as material included in the books of Daniel, Esther, and other books which does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. Known usually as the [[Apocrypha]], their technical term is the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books (literally "canonized secondly" meaning canonized later).
-: 7. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] [{{Hebrew|שופטים}} / Shophtim]
-: 8. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] (I & II) [{{Hebrew|שמואל}} / Sh'muel]
-: 9.  [[Books of Kings|Kings]] (I & II) [{{Hebrew|מלכים}} / M'lakhim]
-: 10. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] [{{Hebrew|ישעיה}} / Y'shayahu]
-: 11. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [{{Hebrew|ירמיה}} / Yir'mi'yahu]
-: 12. [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel ]] [{{Hebrew|יחזקאל}} / Y'khezqel]
-: 13. The Twelve Minor Prophets [{{Hebrew|תרי עשר}}]
-:: I. [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] [{{Hebrew|הושע}} / Hoshea]
-:: II. [[Book of Joel|Joel]] [{{Hebrew|יואל}} / Yo'el]
-:: III. [[Book of Amos|Amos]] [{{Hebrew|עמוס}} / Amos]
-:: IV. [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] [{{Hebrew|עובדיה}} / Ovadyah]
-:: V. [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] [{{Hebrew|יונה}} / Yonah]
-:: VI. [[Book of Micah|Micah]] [{{Hebrew|מיכה}} / Mikhah]
-:: VII. [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] [{{Hebrew|נחום}} / Nakhum]
-:: VIII. [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] [{{Hebrew|חבקוק}} /Khavaquq]
-:: IX. [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] [{{Hebrew|צפניה}} / Ts'phanyah]
-:: X. [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] [{{Hebrew|חגי}} / Khagai]
-:: XI. [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] [{{Hebrew|זכריה}} / Z'kharyah]
-:: XII. [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] [{{Hebrew|מלאכי}} / Mal'akhi]
-The ''[[Kh'tuvim]]'' ("Writings") are:
+Early editions of the [[King James Version]] of the Bible in English also included them. These books as also known as "intratestimental literature," due to their being written after the time of the [[prophets]] but before the time of [[Jesus]].
-: 14. [[Psalms]] [{{Hebrew|תהלים}} / T'hilim]
-: 15. [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] [{{Hebrew|משלי}} / Mishlei]
-: 16. [[Book of Job|Job]] [{{Hebrew|איוב}} / Iyov]
-: 17. [[Song of Songs]] [{{Hebrew|שיר השירים}} / Shir Hashirim]
-: 18. [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] [{{Hebrew|רות}} / Rut]
-: 19. [[Lamentations]] [{{Hebrew|איכה}} / Eikhah]
-: 20. [[Ecclesiastes]] [{{Hebrew|קהלת}} / Qohelet]
-: 21. [[Book of Esther|Esther]] [{{Hebrew|אסתר}} / Est(h)er]
-: 22. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] [{{Hebrew|דניאל}} / Dani'el]
-: 23. [[Ezra]]-[[Nehemiah]] [{{Hebrew|עזרא ונחמיה}} / Ezra wuNekhem'ya]
-: 24. [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] (I & II) [{{Hebrew|דברי הימים}} / Divrey Hayamim]
-==Chapters and verse numbers, book divisions==
+[[Image:Aleppo Codex (Deut).jpg|thumb|200px|A page from the [[Aleppo Codex]] of the Masoretic text, tenth century C.E.]]
-The chapter divisions and verse numbers have no significance in the Jewish tradition.  Nevertheless, they are noted in all modern editions of the Tanakh so that verses may be located and cited.  The division of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles into parts I and II is also indicated on each page of those books in order to prevent confusion about whether a chapter number is from part I or II, since the chapter numbering for these books follows their partition in the Christian textual tradition.
-The adoption of the Christian chapter divisions by Jews began in the late middle ages in [[Spain]], partially in the context of forced clerical debates which took place against a background of harsh persecution and of the [[Spanish Inquisition]] (the debates required a common system for citing biblical texts). From the standpoint of the Jewish textual tradition, the chapter divisions are not only a foreign feature with no basis in the [[Masoretic Text|mesorah]], but also open to severe criticism of two kinds:
+==Canonization==
+Although the [[Sadducees]] and [[Pharisees]] of the first century C.E. disagreed on much, they seem to have agreed that certain scriptures were to be considered sacred. Some Pharisees developed a tradition requiring that one's hands be washed after handling sacred scriptures. The introduction of this custom would naturally tend to fix the limits of the canon, for only contact with books that were actually used or regarded as fit for use in the [[synagogue]] would demand such a washing of the hands. What was read in public worship constituted the canon.
-* The chapter divisions often reflect Christian [[exegesis]] of the Bible.
+Among the works eliminated by this process were many of the writings that maintained their place in the Alexandrian Jewish tradition, having been brought to Egypt and translated from the original Hebrew or Aramaic, such as [[Baruch]], [[Sirach]], [[I Maccabees]], [[Tobit]] and [[Judith]]; as well works such as the [[Book of Jubilees]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], [[Assumption of Moses]], and the [[Apocalypse]]s of Enoch, Noah, Baruch, Ezra, and others. Some of these works, meanwhile had gained acceptance in Christian circles and were thus adopted as the [[Apocrypha]], while losing their place of spiritual significance among all but a few Jewish readers until recently.<ref>These canonical Christian Apocrypha of the Old Testament, however, should not be confused with the [[New Testament Apocrypha]]. The latter include works of both orthodox and heretical writers, while the former are all deemed worthy of Christian readers by Catholic and Orthodox tradition.</ref>
-* Even when they do not imply Christian exegesis, the chapters often divide the biblical text at numerous points that may be deemed inappropriate for literary or other reasons.
-Nevertheless, because they proved useful — and eventually indispensable — for citations, they continued to be included by Jews in most Hebrew editions of the biblical books.  For more information on the origin of these divisions, see [[chapters and verses of the Bible]].
+==Order of the books of the Tanakh==
+[[Image:Codex Vaticanus B, 2Thess. 3,11-18, Hebr. 1,1-2,2.jpg|thumb|250px|A page from the Codex Vaticanus, a near-complete version of the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible, fourth century C.E., including several of the Apocryha.]]
-The chapter and verse numbers were often indicated very prominently in older editions, to the extent that they overshadowed the traditional Jewish [[Masoretic Text|masoretic]] divisions.  However, in many Jewish editions of the Tanakh published over the past forty years, there has been a major historical trend towards minimizing the impact and prominence of the chapter and verse numbers on the printed page.  Most editions accomplish this by removing them from the text itself and relegating them to the margins of the page.  The main text in these editions is unbroken and uninterrupted at the beginning of chapters (which are noted only in the margin).  The lack of chapter breaks within the text in these editions also serves to reinforce the visual impact created by the spaces and "paragraph" breaks on the page, which indicate the traditional Jewish [[parashah]] divisions. Some versions have even introduced a new chapter system.
+===Torah===
+*[[Genesis]]
-These modern Jewish editions present Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (as well as Ezra) as single books in their title pages, and make no indication inside the main text of their division into two parts (though it is noted in the upper and side margins).  The text of Samuel II, for instance, follows Samuel I on the very same page with no special break at all in the flow of the text, and may even continue on the very same line of text.
+*[[Exodus]]
+*[[Leviticus]]
-==Oral Torah==
+*[[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
-:See: ''[[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law in Judaism]]''.
+*[[Deuteronomy]]
+===Prophets===
-Rabbinical Judaism believes that the Torah was transmitted side by side with an oral tradition. Other groups, such as [[Karaite Judaism]] and the majority of [[Christian]]s, exceptions being certain [[Hebrew Roots]] and [[Messianic]] groups, do not accept this claim. Many terms and definitions used in the written law are undefined within the Torah itself, and the reader is assumed to be familiar with the context and details. This fact is presented as evidence to the antiquity of the oral tradition. An opposing argument is that only a small portion of the vast rabbinic works on the oral tradition can be described as mere clarifications and context. These rabbinic works, collectively known as "the oral law" {{Hebrew|[תורה שבעל פה]}}, include the [[Mishnah]], the [[Tosefta]], the two [[Talmud]]s (Babylonian and Jerusalem), and the early [[Midrash]] compilations.
+*[[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
+*[[Book of Judges|Judges]]
-==Available texts==
+*[[Books of Samuel]] (I & II)
-*''Tanakh'', English translation, Jewish Publication Society, [[1985]], ISBN 0-8276-0252-9
+*[[Books of Kings|Kings]] (I & II)
-*''Jewish Study Bible'', using NJPS (1985) translation, Oxford U Press, [[2003]], ISBN 0-19-529754-7
+*[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
-*''Tanach: The Stone Edition'', Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, [[1996]], ISBN 0-89906-269-5
+*[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
+*[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel ]]
+*The Twelve [[Minor Prophets]]
+===Writings===
+*[[Psalms]]
+*[[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
+*[[Book of Job|Job]]
+*[[Song of Songs]]
+*[[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
+*[[Lamentations]]
+*[[Ecclesiastes]]
+*[[Esther]]
+*[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
+*[[Ezra]]-[[Nehemiah]]
+*[[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] (I & II)
 ==See also==
-* [[Jewish English Bible translations]]
+* [[Tanakh]]
-* [[Bible]]
+* [[Torah]]
+* [[Masoretic Text]]
 * [[Biblical canon]]
-* [[Mikraot Gedolot]]
 * [[Rabbinic literature]]
 * [[Septuagint]]
-* [[Samaritan Pentateuch]]
-* [[Books of the Bible]] for a side-by-side comparison of [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Biblical canon|canons]].
-* [[613 mitzvot]], the formal list of all 613 commandments that Jewish sages traditionally identify in the [[Torah]]
-* [[Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture]]
-* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
-==External links ==
+==Notes==
-{{commonscat|Tanakh}}
+<references/>
+==References==
+*Boadt, Lawrence, Helga B. Croner, and Leon Klenicki. ''Biblical Studies, Meeting Ground of Jews and Christians''. Studies in Judaism and Christianity. New York: Paulist Press, 1980. ISBN 9780809123445
+*Collins, John Joseph. ''Introduction to the Hebrew Bible''. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2004. ISBN 9780800629915
+*Rabin, Elliott. ''Understanding the Hebrew Bible: A Reader's Guide''. Jersey City, N.J.: KTAV, 2006. ISBN 9780881258714
+*Toorn, K. van der. ''Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible''. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2007.
-*[http://www.itanakh.org/ iTanakh.org] An extensive list of links and resources pertaining to the study of the Tanakh
+== External links ==
+All links retrieved December 12, 2017.
-=== Online texts ===
+* [http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml Unicode/XML Westminster Leningrad Codex] ''www.tanach.us''
-* Download the complete Tanakh in Hebrew with translation and transliteration [http://www.levsoftware.com/bible.htm Lev Software]
+* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Aleppo Codex] ''www.mechon-mamre.org''
-* [[Mikraot Gedolot]] (Rabbinic Bible) at '''[[:s:|Wikisource]]''' in [[:s:Mikraot Gedolot|English]] [[:wikisource:MG Genesis 1:1|(sample)]] and [[:s:he:מקראות גדולות|Hebrew]] [[:s:he:מ"ג נחמיה ח ח|(sample)]]
+*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=63255 Judaica Press Translation] (online translation of Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary) ''www.chabad.org''
-* [http://www.tanakhml.org TanakhML] ([[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] and [[King James Version]])
-* [http://www.tanach.us/Tanach.xml Unicode/XML Westminster Leningrad Codex] - A transcription of the electronic source maintained by the Westminster Hebrew Institute. ([[Leningrad Codex]])
-* [http://bible.palconit.com/holy_tanakh/index.htm Holy Tanakh] - English version of the Holy Tanakh
-* [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Mechon Mamre] - The Hebrew text of the Tanakh based on the [[Aleppo codex]], edited according to the system of Rabbi [[Mordechai Breuer]].  Hebrew text comes in four convenient versions (including one with [[cantillation]] marks) and may be downloaded.  The [[JPS]] 1917 English translation is included as well (including a parallel translation).
-* [http://liturgy.exc.com Tanach on Demand] - Custom [[PDF]] versions of any section of the Bible in Hebrew.
+[[Category:Religion]]
+[[Category:History]]
-=== Reading guides ===
+{{credit|98569221}}
-* [http://www.tora.us.fm/tnk1/klli/limud/skadish/tanakh-index.html A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim] - Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the [[Bible#Chapters and Verses|chapter divisions]]).  The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English.
-* [http://www.threetwoone.org/diagrams/HebrewBibleOutlinePresentation.gif A detailed chart of the major figures and events in the Tanakh]
-*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=63255 Judaica Press Translation] (online translation of Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary)
-101596685 credit