Difference between revisions of "Apocalyptic literature" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(30 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Started}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}{{copyedited}}
  
−
'''Apocalyptic literature''' was a new genre of [[prophecy|prophetical]] writing that developed in post-Exilic [[Judaism|Jewish]] culture and was popular among [[millennialism|millennialist]] early [[Christianity|Christians]].  
+
[[Image:St-john.jpg|thumb|300px|The revelation to John of Patmos]]
 +
'''Apocalyptic literature''' is a genre of [[prophecy|prophetical]] writing that developed in post-exile [[Judaism|Jewish]] culture and was popular among early [[Christianity|Christians]]. The term "[[Apocalypse]]" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known."
  
−
"[[Apocalypse]]" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling" (Goswiller 1987, p. 3). The poetry of the [[Book of Revelation]] that is traditionally ascribed to [[John of Patmos|John]] is well known to many Christians who are otherwise unaware of the literary genre it represents.
+
The apocalyptic literature of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the [[Exile in Babylon]] down to the close of the [[Middle Ages]]. The best known literature of this type was created in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E.. Much apocalyptic literature was produced in this period, but only a small portion of it was included in either the [[Hebrew Bible]] or the [[New Testament]].
−
 
+
{{toc}}
−
The apocalyptic literature of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the exile down to the close of the [[middle ages]]. In the present survey, we shall limit ourselves to the great formative periods in this literature—in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E.  
+
Apocalyptic literature is written in [[symbolism]], [[poetry]], and imageries, as well as in an [[Old Testament]] prophetic style (See Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19). In larger works, such forms are woven as a [[tapestry]] to describe [[events]] in cataclysmic terms, such as in the [[Book of Daniel]] and most of all the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]].
−
 
 
−
Apocalyptic literature is written in [[symbolism]], [[poetry]], and imageries, as well as in an [[Old Testament]] prophecy style (Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19), all woven as a [[tapestry]] to describe literal [[events]] but with a twist, using [[language]] with [[symbols]] that are cataclysmic, [[words]] that are exaggerated, and [[metaphors]] that may be lost to a twenty-first century person. Such [[imagery]] is often used for [[God]]’s [[judgments]] and the end of days, and when emploted in [[narrative style]], provides exaggeration for a purpose, such as in [[Daniel]] and most of [[Revelation]]. Apocalyptic writing is a more specific form of prophecy that warns us of future events, but the full meaning is hidden to us for the time being. 
 
−
 
 
−
[[Metaphors]] are very evident in apocalyptic writing, such as when [[Jesus]] says he is the [[bread of life]] (John 6:35) does that mean we only find him in a bakery? Does it mean Jesus is a door, a light, a rock, hears sheep, or that he went to every [[city]], or the [[Lord’s Supper]] is [[cannibalism]] (Matt. 5:14; 9:35, Luke 22:19; John 10:9, 11)? We may not always know the meanings now, but time will flush them out.
 
  
 
==Perspectives on the apocalyptic==
 
==Perspectives on the apocalyptic==
−
An apocalypse is a literary report of a fearful, often violent, vision that reveals truths about past, present, and future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The poet may represent himself as transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled— and even interpreted— by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with threats of punishment and rewards in the coming "[[end times]]." A brief apocalyptic vision is found in ''[[Gospel of Mark]]'' 13 is sometimes called the "Little Apocalypse" and parallel passages can be found in ''Matthew'' 24 and ''Luke'' 21.
+
[[File:The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones.jpg|thumb|300px|Gustave Doré engraving "The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones" - 1866]]
 +
An apocalypse is a literary report of an amazing, often fearful, violent vision that reveals truths about past, present, and/or future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The writer may represent himself as being transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled—and even interpreted—by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with promises of rewards and punishment in the coming "[[end times]]."
  
−
Apocalyptic poetry concentrates the character that [[Northrop Frye]] has found in the Bible as a whole: "a series of ecstatic moments or points of expanding apprehension—this approach is in fact the assumption on which every selection of a text for a sermon is based" (Frye 1957, p. 326).
+
Apocalyptic literature may also have been seen as a form of prophecy using a new idiom. Indeed, the biblical books of [[Isaiah]] and [[Ezekiel]] sometimes used apocalyptic forms. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]], looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.
  
−
In connection with a PBS documentary "Apocalypse!" Dr. L. Michael White said, "Apocalyptic thinking has been called "the child of prophecy in a new idiom." White drew attention to the new direction prophecy took after the Hebrews' return from the trauma of the "[[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]]." Earlier prophets of Israel and Judah had spoken of the word of God, calling the children of Israel to their duty. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of [[Solomon's temple]] looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.
+
Such literature often included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, elements deriving from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[dualism]] inherited by the Jews of Babylon: [[Demon]]s and [[Western dragon|dragons]] or other fantastic beasts, a distinctly realized [[Satan]] in opposition to [[Yahweh]], a city of evil contrasted to the city of God, and the corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the pure light of the world to come. Some, though not all, apocalyptic literature was [[Messiah|messianic]], predicting the imminent arrival of a savior or—as in some in [[Essene]] writings—of more than one savior.
  
−
The throne of David, itself, as it was not unshakeable as events had proved, took on metaphoric meanings. Early examples of the apocalyptic world-view can be found in the late additions made to ''[[Isaiah]]'' by the [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical writer]] called the "Third Isaiah" (chapters 56 to 66), and in the collection of prophetic forecasts of this new kind that are collected as ''[[Ezekiel]]''
+
The overtly [[Allegory|allegorical nature]] of this literature inspired new interpretations of earlier texts, which influenced the development of techniques of [[exegesis]] for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval [[hermeneutics]], which are still practiced today in some circles.
  
−
The new cultural element included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, a distinctly realized Satan in opposition to Yahweh, a city of Evil (Babylon) contrasted to the city of God (Jerusalem), the evil, corruption, and despair of the visible world contrasted with the blinding light of the world to come and often embodied in [[demon]]s and [[Western dragon|dragons]], elements deriving from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[dualism]]. A new focus on [[eschatology]], the End of All Things, was also foreign to the earlier Hebrew tradition. Some, though not all apocalyptic literature was [[Messianic Judaism|messianic]], predicting the imminent arrival of a savior—even in [[Essene]] writings, of more than one savior.  
+
Among the several known books of apocalyptic Jewish prophecy, the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' was accepted into the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Other apocalyptic literature, however, was not included: The ''[[Book of Enoch]],'' some parts of which is older than Daniel, was not considered canonical by Jews or Christians, although it is quoted several times in the [[New Testament]]. The book of ''[[Jubilees]]'' (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called [[Sibylline Oracles]], which were assembled partly in [[Alexandria]], are filled with apocalyptic predictions; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can also be found in later [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] writings.
  
−
The overtly [[Allegory|allegorical nature]] of this new literature inspired new allegorical readings, now applied to every kind of earlier statement, a detailed unravelling of texts, often to give results not originally foreseen, which influenced the development of techniques of [[exegesis]] for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval [[hermeneutics]], which are still practiced today in some traditionalist circles, as "[[Biblical hermeneutics]]."
+
Within the Christian tradition, the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' and ''[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' and several other apocalypses of the [[New Testament Apocrypha]] are examples of revelatory Christian literature that was not included in the Christian Bible.
  
−
Among books of prophecy of this new kind, the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' was accepted into the Hebrew Bible, among the "Writings," as the sense of a canonic literature developed in the Rabbinic tradition during the first centuries of the Common Era. Other apocalyptic literature did not make the cut: The ''[[Book of Enoch]],'' some of which is older than Daniel (though it has received some Christian interpolations and editing in the versions that have survived) was never considered canonical by Jews or Christians, though it is quoted or paralleled dozens of times in the New Testament. ''Enoch'' has been called "an ecstatic elaboration" of the line in ''Genesis'' (v.22): "And Enoch walked with God three hundred years after he begat Methuselah."
+
==Old Testament era apocalyptic literature ==  
−
 
 
−
The book of ''[[Jubilees]]'' (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called [[Sibylline Oracles]], which were assembled partly in Alexandria, are filled with pseudo-prophecy ([[Vaticinium ex eventu|''vaticinium ex eventu'', written after the fact]]) and threatening generalities; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre.
 
−
 
 
−
Within the Christian tradition, the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' and ''[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' are examples of apocalyptic literature that devotees of ''Revelation'' would also enjoy, though their poetry never reaches the same intensity.
 
−
 
 
−
Apocalyptic literature has had a long history. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can be found in the [[Kabbalah]].
 
−
 
 
−
==Old Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature ==  
 
 
===Canonical books===
 
===Canonical books===
−
* [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 24-27; 33; 34-35  
+
[[Image:Four-chariots.jpg|thumb|300px|The prophet Zechariah's vision of four chariots, anticipating the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]
−
* possibly [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 33 14-26?
+
* [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 24-27; 33; 34-35—For example: "the stars of the heavens will be dissolved, and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall." Thought to be the writings of "[[Second Isaiah]]" during the [[Babylonian Exile]] rather than the more ancient [[Isaiah]] of Jerusalem.
−
* [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] ii. 8; 38-39
+
* [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 33:14-26—A messianic prophecy, though not using typical apocalyptic language.
−
* [[Book of Joel|Joel]] 3. 9-17
+
* [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 2:8; 38-39. Ezekiel eats a prophetic scroll given to him by an angel, and reports his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones. In addition, Ezekiel's visions of the heavenly chariot and fantastic angelic beasts influenced later apocalyptic writers.
−
* [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] 12—14
+
* [[Book of Joel|Joel]] 3:9-17—"Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears… Swing the sickle, for the harvest is ripe… Multitudes, multitudes  in the valley of decision! … For the day of the Lord is near. The sun and moon will be darkened, and the stars no longer shine."
−
* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
+
* [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]—This work presents a number of apocalyptic visions and was highly influential on later writers. "I looked up again—and there before me were four chariots coming out from between two mountains—mountains of bronze! The first chariot had red horses, the second black, the third white, and the fourth dappled—all of them powerful."
 +
* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]—The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. "In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven." (7:13) Daniel stands by a river when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows (10:2). The rise and fall of the Greek Empire was revealed in the vision, through a series of visions of fantastic beasts.
  
−
===Non-Canonical Books===
+
===Non-canonical books===
−
*[[Book of Noah]]. This is a lost work, known through fragments.
+
*[[Book of Noah]]. This is a lost work, known only through fragments, such as quotes from the Book of Enoch.
−
*[[1 Enoch]], or the [[Ethiopic Book of Enoch]]. This is the most important of all the apocryphal writings for the history of religious thought.  
+
*[[1 Enoch]], or the [[Ethiopic Book of Enoch]]. Considered the most important of all the apocryphal apocalyptic writings, and quoted several times as scripture in the [[New Testament]].  
−
*[[Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs]]. This book, in some respects, is the most important of Old Testament apocryphs, has only recently come into its own. Owing to Christian interpolations, it was taken to be a Christian apocryph, written originally in Greek in the second century C.E. Now it is acknowledged by Christian and Jewish scholars alike to have been written in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E. From Hebrew it was translated into Greek and from Greek into [[Armenian language|Amenian]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]]. The versions have come down in their entirety, and small portions of the Hebrew text have been recovered from later Jewish writings.
+
*[[Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs]]. Probably written originally in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E., but has undergone later editing, including some Christian interpolations.
−
 
+
*[[Psalms of Solomon]]. These 18 psalms, ascribed to [[Solomon]] by later scribes, contain, among other things, a protest against the Hasmonean dynasty  for usurping the throne of [[David]], and proclaim the coming of the [[Messiah]], the Son of David, who is to set all things right in the last days.
−
The Testaments were written about the same date as the ''Book of Jubilees''. These two books form the only Apology in Jewish literature for the religious and civil hegemony of the [[Maccabees]] from the Pharisaic standpoint. To the Jewish interpolation of the first century B.C.E. (about 60-40), a large interest attaches; for these, like I Enoch 91.-104. and the [[Psalms of Solomon]], constitute an unmeasured attack on every office—prophetic, priestly, and kingly—administered by the Maccabees.
+
[[Image:Elisha-sees-Elijah.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Elisha]] sees his mentor [[Elijah]] ascend into heaven in a chariot of fire.]]
−
 
+
*[[The Assumption of Moses]]. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered in 1861. Written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 C.E. this work protests against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party.
−
*[[Psalms of Solomon]]. These psalms, in all 18, enjoyed but small consideration in early times, for only six direct references to them are found in early literature. Their ascription to [[Solomon]] is due solely to the copyists or translators, for no such claim is made in any of the psalms. They protest against the Asmonaean house for usurping the throne of David, and laying violent hands on the high priesthood (17. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right and establish the supremacy of Israel.
+
*[[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This book deals with the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. In its present form, the book was written or edited soon after 70 C.E.
−
*[[The Assumption of Moses]]. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered by [[Antonio Maria Ceriani]] in 1861 (''Monumenta Sacra'', 1. 1. 55-64) from a palimpsest of the sixth century. Very little was known about the contents of this book prior to this discovery. The book was written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 A.D. As for the author, he was a [[Chasid]] of the ancient type, and glorifies the ideals which were cherished by the old Pharisaic party, but which were now being fast disowned in favor of a more active role in the political life of the nation. His object was to protest against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party through its adoption of popular Messianic beliefs and political ideals.
+
*[[4 Ezra]]. In it earliest Arabic and Ethiopic versions this book is called 1 Ezra; while in some Latin manuscripts and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian bible it is 3 Ezra. The first two chapters seem to be a Christian origin while the remainder of the book is a series of visions ascribed to the prophet/scribe [[Ezra]]. The Ethiopian and Russian Orthodox churches consider the book to be canonical.
−
*[[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This apocalypse has survived only in the Syriac version. The Syriac is a translation from the Greek, and the Greek in turn from the Hebrew. The book treats of the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. The views expressed on several of these subjects are often conflicting. We must, therefore, assume a number of independent sources put together by an editor or else that the book is on the whole the work of one author who made use of independent writings but failed to blend them into one harmonious whole. In its present form the book was written soon after A.D. 70.
+
*[[Greek Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. It was written between 80 and 200 C.E., and deals with the question of the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], affirming the building has been preserved in the heavenly spiritual realm.
−
*[[4 Ezra]]. This apocryph is variously named. In the first Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called 1 Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian 3 Ezra. With the majority of the Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra. In its fullest form this apocryph consists of sixteen chapters, but 1.-2. and 15.-16. are of different authorship from each other and from the main work 3.-14. The book was written originally in Hebrew.  
+
*[[Apocalypse of Abraham]]. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats Abraham's conversion from idolatry, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15, including an encounter between Abraham and the demon [[Azazel]], who was one of the "birds of prey" who descended on Abraham's sacrifice.  
−
*[[Greek Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. The Slavonic is only of secondary value, as it is merely an abbreviated form of the Greek. Even the Greek cannot claim to be the original work, but only to be a recension of it; for, whereas Origen states that this apocalypse contained an account of the seven heavens, the existing Greek work describes only five, and the Slavonic only two. As the original, work presupposes [[2 Enoch]] and the ''Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch'' ([[2 Baruch]]) and was known to [[Origen]], an early Christian scholar, theologian, and one of the most distinguished of the early fathers of the Christian Church. It was written between A.D. 80 and 200, and nearer the earlier date than the later, as it would otherwise be hard to understand how it came to circulate among Christians.  
+
*[[Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph]]. The ''Prayer of Joseph'' is quoted by second century theologian Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
−
*[[Apocalypse of Abraham]]. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats of Abraham's conversion, and the second forms an. apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15.  
 
−
*[[Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph]]. The ''Prayer of Joseph'' is quoted by Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
 
 
*[[Book of Eldad and Modad]]. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
 
*[[Book of Eldad and Modad]]. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
−
*[[Apocalypse of Elijah]].
+
*[[Apocalypse of Elijah]]. Mentioned by [[Origen]] and others as a revelation given by an angel, possibly to Elijah the prophet.
−
*[[Apocalypse of Zephaniah]]. Apart from two of the lists, this work is known to us in its original form only through a citation in [[Clem. Alex.]] ''Strom.'' 5. 2, 77.
+
*[[Apocalypse of Zephaniah]]. Known to us through a citation in [[Clem. Alex.]] ''Strom.'' 5. 2, 77, and by its mention is several lists provided by other Christian writers.
−
*[[2 Enoch]], or the [[Slavonic Enoch]], or the [[Book of the Secrets of Enoch]]. This new fragment of the Enochic literature was recently brought to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. The book in its present form was written before A.D. 70 in Greek by an orthodox Hellenistic Jew, who lived in Egypt.
+
*[[2 Enoch]], or the [[Slavonic Enoch]], or the [[Book of the Secrets of Enoch]]. This work was recently brought to light through five manuscripts discovered in Russia and Serbia. It is a first-person account by Enoch of a journey through the ten heavens that culminates in a meeting with God.
−
*[[Oracles of Hystaspes]].
+
*[[Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs]]. This book deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and presents Abraham's vision of heaven, his deeds having been recorded in a book and being weighed by a balance.
−
*[[Testament of Job]]. ''Apocrypha Anecdota'', 2. pp. 72.-102., 104-137, holds that the book in its present form was written by a Christian Jew in Egypt on the basis of a Hebrew ''[[Midrash]]'' on Job in the second or third century.  
+
*[[Sibylline Oracles]]. A series of visions, some of Jewish origin but others clearly added by Christian editors.
−
*[[Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs]]. This work was written in Egypt, according to James, and survives also in Slavonic, Romanian, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions. It deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and the means by which his death was brought about. With the exception of chaps. 10.-11., it is really a legend and not an apocalypse.
 
−
*[[Sibylline Oracles]]. Of the books which have come down to us, the main part is Jewish, and was written at various dates, 3. 97-829, 4.-5. are decidedly of Jewish authorship, and probably 11.-12., 14. and parts of 1.-2. The oldest portions are in 3., and belong to the second century B.C.E.
 
−
 
 
−
==New Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature==
 
−
Apocalyptic literature of the New Testament era transcends that of the Old Testament in that the newer age is not based on prophetic books bearing the names of the patriarchs, but rather from the words of brave living men who acted as God's messengers. Christianity was, in spirit, the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, which had expressed its highest aspirations and ideals in its apocalyptic literature. Hence, we are not surprised to find that the apocalyptic tradition is fully represented in primitive Christianity. In the stress and storm of the first century, the  forerunner on the side of its declared asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than that of He who came "eating and drinking," declaring both worlds good and both God's.  
 
  
−
Thus, early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature. It was Christianity that preserved the Jewish apocalyptic, when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into Rabbinism, and gave it a Christian character. Moreover, it cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Though the apocalyptic tradition served its purpose in the opening centuries of the Christian era, it must be confessed that in ''many'' of its aspects it did belong to the essence of Christian thought. When once it had taught men that the next world was God's, though it did so at the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had achieved its real task. The time had come for it to quit the stage of history. Christianity appeared as the heir of this true spiritual achievement, but it was no less assuredly the heir of ancient prophecy. Therefore, as spiritual representative of what was true in prophecy and the apocalyptic; Christianity's essential teaching was that of its founder—that both worlds were of God and that both should be made God's.  
+
==New Testament era apocalyptic literature==
 +
Early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature, due to its belief in the [[Final Judgment]] at the [[Second Coming]] of Christ. Indeed, it was Christian scribes who preserved much of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition—sometimes, unfortunately, editing it to their own theological purposes—after it had been abandoned by [[Judaism]]. Moreover, Christianity cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas.
  
 
===Canonical apocryphal works===  
 
===Canonical apocryphal works===  
−
*[[Apocalypse in Mark 13]]:
+
[[Image:Bucium-Voroneţ.JPG|thumb|400px|The trumpet call of an apocalyptic angel]]
−
*[[2 Thessalonians 2]]:
+
*[[Apocalypse in Mark 13]]—"Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains." See also Matt. 24-25; Mark 13.
−
*[[Apocalypse]]Revelation){
+
*[[1 Thessalonians]] 4—"The Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air."
 +
*[[2 Thessalonians]] 2—"The man of lawlessness (will be) revealed, the son of perdition. He will oppose and will exalt himself over everything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he sets himself up in God's temple, proclaiming himself to be God."
 +
*[[Book of Revelation]]—A series of apocalyptic visions dealing with the end times, the [[Antichrist]], the trials of the saints, the [[Battle of Armageddon]], and the coming of the New [[Jerusalem]].
  
 
===Non-Canonical apocryphal works===
 
===Non-Canonical apocryphal works===
−
*[[Greek Apocalypse of Peter]]: The significance of the Apocalypse of Peter as an important witness of the Petrine literature is not to be underestimated. Peter is the decisive witness of the resurrection event. Hence he is also deemed worthy of further revelations, which he hands on (in revelation documents) with authority.
+
*[[Greek Apocalypse of Peter]]: Peter as the decisive witness of the resurrection event and the recipient of several further revelations.
−
*[[Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]]: The Apocalypse of Peter is significant in several respects. It contains important source material for a gnostic Christology that understands Jesus as a docetic redeemer. The view of the Gnostic community, including its relationship to Peter as its originator, is another key theme of this document. Of considerable interest are the identity of the gnostic group to which the writing is addressed, and the stage of the controversy, between emerging orthodoxy and heresy, presupposed by the tractate. It would appear that the Apocalypse of Peter was written in the third century, when this distinction between orthodoxy and heresy was rather clearly drawn
+
*[[Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]]: This Apocalypse of Peter understands [[Jesus]] as a [[Gnostic]] redeemer transcendent of physical reality.
−
*[[Testament of Hezekiah]]: A Christian apocalypse, introduced here by the Christian redactor of the whole work in order to explain Beliar's anger against Isaiah, caused by the last-named's prediction of the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by Nero, and the final judgment.
+
*[[Testament of Hezekiah]]: Predicts the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by [[Nero]], and the Last Judgment.
−
*[[Testament of Abraham]]: The Testament of Abraham is a Jewish work, probably of Egyptian origin, which is generally dated to the latter part of the first century AD. It is most closely related to the Testaments of Isaac and Jacob, both of which are dependent on it. It has many themes in common with several other works, most notably 2En and 3Bar. It should not be confused with the Apocalypse of Abraham, even though the latter work also describes a heavenly tour (chapters 15-29)."
+
*[[Oracles of Hystaspes]]: Unknown except in reports and fragment, this was possibly a non-Christian work, this book predicting the destruction of Rome and the advent of [[Zeus]] (or the [[Messiah]]) to help the godly and destroy the wicked.  
−
*[[Oracles of Hystaspes]]: This eschatological work ( Χρησεις Ὑστασπον: so named by the anonymous 5th-century writer in Buresch, Klaros, 1889, p. 95) is mentioned in conjunction with the Sibyllines by Justin (Apol. i. 20), Clement of Alexandria (Strom. vi. 5), and Lactantius (Inst. VII. xv. 19; xviii. 2-3). According to Lactantius, it prophesied the overthrow of Rome and the advent of Zeus to help the godly and destroy the wicked, but omitted all reference to the sending of the Son of God. According to Justin, it prophesied the destruction of the world by fire. According to the Apocryph of Paul, cited by Clement, Hystaspes foretold the conflict of the Messiah with many kings and His advent.
+
[[Image:Schussenried Kloster Bibliothekssaal Gewölbefresko Scheitel Mitte Jüngstes Gericht Apokalyptisches Lamm.jpg|thumb|400px|The revelation of the Lamb in John's Apocalypse]]
−
*[[Vision of Isaiah]]: The sixth chapter of ''Isaiah'' contains Isaiah's Vision Of The Holy God. It is commonly thought the vision served as his commission to be a prophet of
+
*[[Shepherd of Hermas]]: A widely read book of the late first century presenting the vision of the Roman Christian prophet Hermas, calling the Church to repentance and adherence to a life of strict morality, against the background of great tribulation.
−
God and thus marks the beginning of his ministry.  Others believe it
+
*[[5 Ezra]]: This apocalyptic book contains a strong attack on the Jews, whom it regards as the apostate people of God. It addresses itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom if they respond to God's call.
−
came to him after years of preaching and was designed to deepen his
+
*[[6 Ezra]]: Describes the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. Scholars debate whether it is of Jewish or Christian origin.
−
spirituality (ISBE).  If it occurred at the beginning of his ministry,
+
*[[Christian Sibyllines]]: Although there may be a Jewish origin of large sections of these books, much in them is recognized by scholars as Christian.
−
Isaiah may have delayed its mention to stress his message rather than
+
*[[Apocalypse of Esdras]]: In this Greek production, the prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts.
−
himself as prophet.
+
*[[Apocalypse of Paul]]: Rediscovered at [[Nag Hammadi]] in the twentieth century, this work contains a detailed description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell.
−
 
+
*[[Apocalypse of John]]: This contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous.
−
 
+
*[[Arabic Apocalypse of Peter]]: Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ.
−
*[[Shepherd of Hermas]]:
+
*[[Apocalypse of the Virgin]]: A description of [[Mary]]'s descent into hell.
−
*[[5 Ezra]]:
+
*[[Apocalypse of Sedrach]]: This late apocalypse deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die.
−
*[[6 Ezra]]:
+
*[[The Revelations of Bartholomew]]: A fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew.
−
*[[Christian Sibyllines]]:
+
*[[Questions of St Bartholomew]]: Bartholomew questions Jesus saying, "Lord, reveal unto me the mysteries of the heavens?"
−
*[[Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas, and Stephen]]:
+
*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]: This late apocalypse shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Written in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, it depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: The rise and rule of [[Antichrist]], the invasions of [[Gog]] and [[Magog]], and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.
−
*[[Apocalypse of Esdras]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of Paul]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of John]]:
 
−
*[[Arabic Apocalypse of Peter]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of the Virgin]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of Sedrach]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of Daniel]]:
 
−
*[[Thee Revelations of Bartholomew]]:
 
−
*[[Questions of St Bartholomew]]:
 
−
*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]:
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Chartsworth, James H. ''Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments'', Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
+
* Chartsworth, James H. ''Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments.'' Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
−
*Cook, Stephen L. ''The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts'', Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
+
* Collins, John Joseph. ''The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature.'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
−
*Collins, John Joseph. ''The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
+
* Cook, Stephen L. ''The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts.'' Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
−
*Goswiller, Richard. ''Revelation'', Pacific Study Series, Melbourne, 1987.  
+
* Reddish, Mitchell G. (ed.). ''Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader.'' Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103
−
*Reddish, Mitchell G. ''Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader'', Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/white.html L. Michael White, "Apocalyptic literature in Judaeism and early Christianity"] Thorough historical introduction.
+
All links retrieved August 11, 2023.  
−
*[http://clawww.lmu.edu/faculty/fjust/Bible/Apoc_Def.htm Prof. Felix Just, S.J., offers definitions of apocalypse.]
 
−
*[http://www.geocities.com/davidmwilliams/ntb519c.html David M. Williams, "The Book of Revelation as Jewish Apocalyptic Literature"] Concise introduction to the genre.
 
  
 +
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/white.html Apocalyptic Literature in Judaism and Early Christianity] by Professor L. Michael White, ''Frontline'', PBS.
 +
*[http://sites.silaspartners.com/partner/Article_Display_Page/0,,PTID34418_CHID137699_CIID2304042,00.html Understanding Apocalyptic Literature] by Dr. Richard J. Krejcir, ''With the Word'', February 2007.
  
 
[[Category:Religion]]
 
[[Category:Religion]]
−
 
 
{{Credit|160521426}}
 
{{Credit|160521426}}

Latest revision as of 06:03, 11 August 2023


The revelation to John of Patmos

Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-exile Jewish culture and was popular among early Christians. The term "Apocalypse" is from the Greek word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known."

The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Exile in Babylon down to the close of the Middle Ages. The best known literature of this type was created in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E. Much apocalyptic literature was produced in this period, but only a small portion of it was included in either the Hebrew Bible or the New Testament.

Apocalyptic literature is written in symbolism, poetry, and imageries, as well as in an Old Testament prophetic style (See Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19). In larger works, such forms are woven as a tapestry to describe events in cataclysmic terms, such as in the Book of Daniel and most of all the Revelation.

Perspectives on the apocalyptic

Gustave Doré engraving "The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones" - 1866

An apocalypse is a literary report of an amazing, often fearful, violent vision that reveals truths about past, present, and/or future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The writer may represent himself as being transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled—and even interpreted—by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with promises of rewards and punishment in the coming "end times."

Apocalyptic literature may also have been seen as a form of prophecy using a new idiom. Indeed, the biblical books of Isaiah and Ezekiel sometimes used apocalyptic forms. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of Solomon's Temple, looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.

Such literature often included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, elements deriving from Zoroastrian dualism inherited by the Jews of Babylon: Demons and dragons or other fantastic beasts, a distinctly realized Satan in opposition to Yahweh, a city of evil contrasted to the city of God, and the corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the pure light of the world to come. Some, though not all, apocalyptic literature was messianic, predicting the imminent arrival of a savior or—as in some in Essene writings—of more than one savior.

The overtly allegorical nature of this literature inspired new interpretations of earlier texts, which influenced the development of techniques of exegesis for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval hermeneutics, which are still practiced today in some circles.

Among the several known books of apocalyptic Jewish prophecy, the Book of Daniel was accepted into the Hebrew Bible. Other apocalyptic literature, however, was not included: The Book of Enoch, some parts of which is older than Daniel, was not considered canonical by Jews or Christians, although it is quoted several times in the New Testament. The book of Jubilees (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called Sibylline Oracles, which were assembled partly in Alexandria, are filled with apocalyptic predictions; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can also be found in later kabbalistic writings.

Within the Christian tradition, the Apocalypse of Peter and The Shepherd of Hermas and several other apocalypses of the New Testament Apocrypha are examples of revelatory Christian literature that was not included in the Christian Bible.

Old Testament era apocalyptic literature

Canonical books

The prophet Zechariah's vision of four chariots, anticipating the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
  • Isaiah 24-27; 33; 34-35—For example: "the stars of the heavens will be dissolved, and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall." Thought to be the writings of "Second Isaiah" during the Babylonian Exile rather than the more ancient Isaiah of Jerusalem.
  • Jeremiah 33:14-26—A messianic prophecy, though not using typical apocalyptic language.
  • Ezekiel 2:8; 38-39. Ezekiel eats a prophetic scroll given to him by an angel, and reports his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones. In addition, Ezekiel's visions of the heavenly chariot and fantastic angelic beasts influenced later apocalyptic writers.
  • Joel 3:9-17—"Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears… Swing the sickle, for the harvest is ripe… Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision! … For the day of the Lord is near. The sun and moon will be darkened, and the stars no longer shine."
  • Zechariah—This work presents a number of apocalyptic visions and was highly influential on later writers. "I looked up again—and there before me were four chariots coming out from between two mountains—mountains of bronze! The first chariot had red horses, the second black, the third white, and the fourth dappled—all of them powerful."
  • Daniel—The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. "In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven." (7:13) Daniel stands by a river when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows (10:2). The rise and fall of the Greek Empire was revealed in the vision, through a series of visions of fantastic beasts.

Non-canonical books

  • Book of Noah. This is a lost work, known only through fragments, such as quotes from the Book of Enoch.
  • 1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch. Considered the most important of all the apocryphal apocalyptic writings, and quoted several times as scripture in the New Testament.
  • Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs. Probably written originally in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E., but has undergone later editing, including some Christian interpolations.
  • Psalms of Solomon. These 18 psalms, ascribed to Solomon by later scribes, contain, among other things, a protest against the Hasmonean dynasty for usurping the throne of David, and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right in the last days.
Elisha sees his mentor Elijah ascend into heaven in a chariot of fire.
  • The Assumption of Moses. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered in 1861. Written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 C.E. this work protests against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party.
  • Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch. This book deals with the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. In its present form, the book was written or edited soon after 70 C.E.
  • 4 Ezra. In it earliest Arabic and Ethiopic versions this book is called 1 Ezra; while in some Latin manuscripts and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian bible it is 3 Ezra. The first two chapters seem to be a Christian origin while the remainder of the book is a series of visions ascribed to the prophet/scribe Ezra. The Ethiopian and Russian Orthodox churches consider the book to be canonical.
  • Greek Apocalypse of Baruch. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. It was written between 80 and 200 C.E., and deals with the question of the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, affirming the building has been preserved in the heavenly spiritual realm.
  • Apocalypse of Abraham. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats Abraham's conversion from idolatry, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15, including an encounter between Abraham and the demon Azazel, who was one of the "birds of prey" who descended on Abraham's sacrifice.
  • Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph. The Prayer of Joseph is quoted by second century theologian Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
  • Book of Eldad and Modad. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
  • Apocalypse of Elijah. Mentioned by Origen and others as a revelation given by an angel, possibly to Elijah the prophet.
  • Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Known to us through a citation in Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. 2, 77, and by its mention is several lists provided by other Christian writers.
  • 2 Enoch, or the Slavonic Enoch, or the Book of the Secrets of Enoch. This work was recently brought to light through five manuscripts discovered in Russia and Serbia. It is a first-person account by Enoch of a journey through the ten heavens that culminates in a meeting with God.
  • Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs. This book deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and presents Abraham's vision of heaven, his deeds having been recorded in a book and being weighed by a balance.
  • Sibylline Oracles. A series of visions, some of Jewish origin but others clearly added by Christian editors.

New Testament era apocalyptic literature

Early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature, due to its belief in the Final Judgment at the Second Coming of Christ. Indeed, it was Christian scribes who preserved much of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition—sometimes, unfortunately, editing it to their own theological purposes—after it had been abandoned by Judaism. Moreover, Christianity cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas.

Canonical apocryphal works

The trumpet call of an apocalyptic angel
  • Apocalypse in Mark 13—"Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains." See also Matt. 24-25; Mark 13.
  • 1 Thessalonians 4—"The Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air."
  • 2 Thessalonians 2—"The man of lawlessness (will be) revealed, the son of perdition. He will oppose and will exalt himself over everything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he sets himself up in God's temple, proclaiming himself to be God."
  • Book of Revelation—A series of apocalyptic visions dealing with the end times, the Antichrist, the trials of the saints, the Battle of Armageddon, and the coming of the New Jerusalem.

Non-Canonical apocryphal works

  • Greek Apocalypse of Peter: Peter as the decisive witness of the resurrection event and the recipient of several further revelations.
  • Coptic Apocalypse of Peter: This Apocalypse of Peter understands Jesus as a Gnostic redeemer transcendent of physical reality.
  • Testament of Hezekiah: Predicts the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by Nero, and the Last Judgment.
  • Oracles of Hystaspes: Unknown except in reports and fragment, this was possibly a non-Christian work, this book predicting the destruction of Rome and the advent of Zeus (or the Messiah) to help the godly and destroy the wicked.
The revelation of the Lamb in John's Apocalypse
  • Shepherd of Hermas: A widely read book of the late first century presenting the vision of the Roman Christian prophet Hermas, calling the Church to repentance and adherence to a life of strict morality, against the background of great tribulation.
  • 5 Ezra: This apocalyptic book contains a strong attack on the Jews, whom it regards as the apostate people of God. It addresses itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom if they respond to God's call.
  • 6 Ezra: Describes the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. Scholars debate whether it is of Jewish or Christian origin.
  • Christian Sibyllines: Although there may be a Jewish origin of large sections of these books, much in them is recognized by scholars as Christian.
  • Apocalypse of Esdras: In this Greek production, the prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts.
  • Apocalypse of Paul: Rediscovered at Nag Hammadi in the twentieth century, this work contains a detailed description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell.
  • Apocalypse of John: This contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous.
  • Arabic Apocalypse of Peter: Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ.
  • Apocalypse of the Virgin: A description of Mary's descent into hell.
  • Apocalypse of Sedrach: This late apocalypse deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die.
  • The Revelations of Bartholomew: A fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew.
  • Questions of St Bartholomew: Bartholomew questions Jesus saying, "Lord, reveal unto me the mysteries of the heavens?"
  • Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius: This late apocalypse shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Written in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, it depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: The rise and rule of Antichrist, the invasions of Gog and Magog, and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chartsworth, James H. Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments. Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
  • Collins, John Joseph. The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
  • Cook, Stephen L. The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts. Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
  • Reddish, Mitchell G. (ed.). Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader. Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103

External links

All links retrieved August 11, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Apocalyptic_literature&oldid=1119783

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki