Difference between revisions of "Apocalyptic literature" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:St-john.jpg|thumb|300px|The revelation to John of Patmos]]
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:''This entry only concerns the historical genre of apocalyptic literature. Justifications and interpretations within theological contexts are abundantly available at entries for individual books. For other uses, see [[Apocalypse (disambiguation)]] for a list.''
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'''Apocalyptic literature''' is a genre of [[prophecy|prophetical]] writing that developed in post-exile [[Judaism|Jewish]] culture and was popular among early [[Christianity|Christians]]. The term "[[Apocalypse]]" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known."
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'''Apocalyptic literature''' was a new genre of [[prophecy|prophetical]] writing that developed in post-Exilic [[Judaism|Jewish]] culture and was popular among [[millennialism|millennialist]] early [[Christianity|Christians]].  
 
  
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"[[Apocalypse]]" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling" (Goswiller 1987 p. 3). The poetry of the [[Book of Revelation]] that is traditionally ascribed to [[John of Patmos|John]] is well known to many Christians who are otherwise unaware of the literary genre it represents.
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The apocalyptic literature of [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the [[Exile in Babylon]] down to the close of the [[Middle Ages]]. The best known literature of this type was created in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E. Much apocalyptic literature was produced in this period, but only a small portion of it was included in either the [[Hebrew Bible]] or the [[New Testament]].
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Apocalyptic literature is written in [[symbolism]], [[poetry]], and imageries, as well as in an [[Old Testament]] prophetic style (See Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19). In larger works, such forms are woven as a [[tapestry]] to describe [[events]] in cataclysmic terms, such as in the [[Book of Daniel]] and most of all the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]].
  
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The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the exile down to the close of the [[middle ages]]. In the present survey we shall limit ourselves to the great formative periods in this literature—in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E.
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==Perspectives on the apocalyptic==
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[[File:The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones.jpg|thumb|300px|Gustave Doré engraving "The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones" - 1866]]
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An apocalypse is a literary report of an amazing, often fearful, violent vision that reveals truths about past, present, and/or future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The writer may represent himself as being transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled—and even interpreted—by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with promises of rewards and punishment in the coming "[[end times]]."
  
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==Transition from prophecy to apocalyptic literature==
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Apocalyptic literature may also have been seen as a form of prophecy using a new idiom. Indeed, the biblical books of [[Isaiah]] and [[Ezekiel]] sometimes used apocalyptic forms. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]], looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.
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Apocalyptical elements (αποκαλυπτειν, to reveal something hidden) can be detected in the prophetical books of [[Book of Joel|Joel]] and [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], while [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] xxiv.-xxvii. and xxxiii. presents well-developed apocalypses. In the [[Book of Daniel]] we have a fully matured and classic example of this genre of literature.  
 
  
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The way, however, had in an especial degree been prepared for the apocalyptic type of thought and literature by [[Ezekiel]], for with him the word of God had become identical with a written book (ii. 9-iii. 3) by the ''eating'' of which he learned the will of God, just as earlier writing conceived that the eating of the [[Tree of Knowledge]] in the [[Garden of Eden]] imparted spiritual understanding and self-consciousness. When the divine word is thus conceived as a written message, the sole office of the prophet is to communicate what has been written. Thus the human element is reduced, and the conception of prophecy becomes stenographic. And as the personal element disappears in the conception of the prophetic calling, so it tends to disappear in the prophetic view of history, and the future comes to be conceived not as the organic result of the present under the divine guidance, but as mechanically determined from the beginning in the counsels of God, and arranged under artificial categories of time. This is essentially the apocalyptic conception of history, and Ezekiel may be justly represented as in ''certain essential aspects its founder in Israel''<ref>''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911</ref>.
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Such literature often included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, elements deriving from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[dualism]] inherited by the Jews of Babylon: [[Demon]]s and [[Western dragon|dragons]] or other fantastic beasts, a distinctly realized [[Satan]] in opposition to [[Yahweh]], a city of evil contrasted to the city of God, and the corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the pure light of the world to come. Some, though not all, apocalyptic literature was [[Messiah|messianic]], predicting the imminent arrival of a savior or—as in some in [[Essene]] writings—of more than one savior.
  
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== Sources of apocalyptic literature==
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The overtly [[Allegory|allegorical nature]] of this literature inspired new interpretations of earlier texts, which influenced the development of techniques of [[exegesis]] for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval [[hermeneutics]], which are still practiced today in some circles.
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The origin of the apocalyptic genre is to be sought in unfulfilled prophecy and in traditional elements drawn from various sources.  
 
  
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===Unfulfilled prophecy===
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Among the several known books of apocalyptic Jewish prophecy, the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' was accepted into the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Other apocalyptic literature, however, was not included: The ''[[Book of Enoch]],'' some parts of which is older than Daniel, was not considered canonical by Jews or Christians, although it is quoted several times in the [[New Testament]]. The book of ''[[Jubilees]]'' (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called [[Sibylline Oracles]], which were assembled partly in [[Alexandria]], are filled with apocalyptic predictions; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can also be found in later [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] writings.
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The judgments predicted by the pre-exilic prophets had indeed been executed to the letter, but where were the promised glories of the renewed kingdom and Israel's unquestioned sovereignty over the nations of the earth? One such unfulfilled prophecy Ezekiel takes up and reinterprets in such a way as to show that its fulfilment is still to come. The prophets [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]](iv.-vi.) and [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] had foretold the invasion of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] by a mighty people from the north. But as this northern foe had failed to appear Ezekiel re-edited this prophecy in a new form as a final assault of God and his hosts on [[Jerusalem]], and thus established a permanent dogma in Jewish apocalyptic, which in due course passed over into Christian. Another alternative is that the invasion from the north predicted in Jeremiah 4:6; 6:1 was fulfilled in the subsequent invasion of [[Nebuchadnezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]] King of [[Babylon]], since Jeremiah 25:9 suggests that northern armies would assist Nebuchadnezzar in his invasion of Judah.  Other scholars suggest that a [[Scythian]] invasion that possibly occurred during that time was intended by Jeremiah, though this seems unlikely. Thus, the [[Battle of Gog and Magog]] prophesied in Ezekiel 38-39 could be a quite different invasion altogether.
 
  
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But the non-fulfillment of prophecies relating to this or that individual event or people served to popularize the methods of apocalyptic in a very slight degree in comparison with the non-fulfilment of the greatest of all prophecies—the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Thus, though Jeremiah had promised that after seventy years<ref>xxv. 11., xxix. 10.</ref> Israel should be restored to their own land<ref>xxiv. 5, 6.</ref>, and then enjoy the blessings of the Messianic kingdom under the Messianic king<ref>xxiii. 5, 6.</ref>, this period passed by and things remained as of old. On the other hand, some scholars believe that the Messianic kingdom was not necessarily predicted to occur at the end of the seventy years of the Babylonian exile, but at some unspecified time in the future.  The only thing for certain that was predicted is the return of the Jews to their land, which occurred when [[Cyrus the Persian]] conquered Babylon in c. 539 B.C.E.  Thus, the fulfillment of the Messianic kingdom remained in the future for the Jews.
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Within the Christian tradition, the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' and ''[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' and several other apocalypses of the [[New Testament Apocrypha]] are examples of revelatory Christian literature that was not included in the Christian Bible.
  
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[[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] and Zechariah explained the delay by the failure of Judah to rebuild the temple, and so generation after generation the hope of the kingdom persisted, sustained most probably by ever-fresh reinterpretations of ancient prophecy, till in the first half of the 2nd century the delay is explained in the Books of Daniel and [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] as due not to man's shortcomings but to the counsels of God. Regarding the 70 years of exile predicted by Jeremiah in Jeremiah 29:10, the Jews were first exiled in the year 605 B.C.E. in the reign of [[King Jehoiakim]], and were allowed to return to their land in c. 536 B.C.E.. when [[Cyrus the Great|King Cyrus]] conquered Babylon.  This time period was approximately 70 years, as prophesied by Jeremiah. But some people claim that the 70 years of Jeremiah were later interpreted by the angel in Daniel<ref>ix. 25-27.</ref> as 70 weeks of years, of which 69 1/2 have already expired, while the writer of Enoch<ref>lxxxv.-xc.</ref> interprets the 70 years of Jeremiah as the 70 successive reigns of the 70 angelic patrons of the nations, which are to come to a close in his own generation. The Book of Enoch, however, was not considered as inspired Scripture by the Jews, so that any failed prophecy in it is of no consequence to the Jewish faith.
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==Old Testament era apocalyptic literature ==
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===Canonical books===
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[[Image:Four-chariots.jpg|thumb|300px|The prophet Zechariah's vision of four chariots, anticipating the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]
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* [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 24-27; 33; 34-35—For example: "the stars of the heavens will be dissolved, and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall." Thought to be the writings of "[[Second Isaiah]]" during the [[Babylonian Exile]] rather than the more ancient [[Isaiah]] of Jerusalem.
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* [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 33:14-26—A messianic prophecy, though not using typical apocalyptic language.
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* [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 2:8; 38-39. Ezekiel eats a prophetic scroll given to him by an angel, and reports his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones. In addition, Ezekiel's visions of the heavenly chariot and fantastic angelic beasts influenced later apocalyptic writers.  
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* [[Book of Joel|Joel]] 3:9-17—"Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears… Swing the sickle, for the harvest is ripe… Multitudes, multitudes  in the valley of decision! … For the day of the Lord is near. The sun and moon will be darkened, and the stars no longer shine."
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* [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]—This work presents a number of apocalyptic visions and was highly influential on later writers. "I looked up again—and there before me were four chariots coming out from between two mountains--mountains of bronze! The first chariot had red horses, the second black, the third white, and the fourth dappled—all of them powerful."
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* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]--The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. "In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven." (7:13) Daniel stands by a river when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows (10:2). The rise and fall of the Greek Empire was revealed in the vision, through a series of visions of fantastic beasts.  
  
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The above periods came and passed by, and again the expectations of the Jews were disappointed. Presently the Greek empire of the East was overthrown by Rome, and in due course this new phenomenon, so full of meaning for the Jews, called forth a new interpretation of Daniel. The [[Four empires|fourth and last empire]] which, according to Daniel vii. 10-25, was to be Greek, was now declared to be Roman by the [[Book of Baruch|Apocalypse of Baruch]]<ref>xxxvi.-xl.</ref> and [[4 Ezra]]<ref>x. 60-xii. 35.</ref>. (Again, these two books were not considered as inspired Scripture by the Jews, and thus were not authoritative on matters of prophecy.). Earlier in Daniel chapter 7, and also in chapter 2, however, the fourth and final world empire is actually Rome, since Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome were world empires which all clearly arrived in succession. This may mean that according to the Book of Daniel, Rome would be the last world power before the kingdom of God.
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===Non-canonical books===
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*[[Book of Noah]]. This is a lost work, known only through fragments, such as quotes from the Book of Enoch.
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*[[1 Enoch]], or the [[Ethiopic Book of Enoch]]. Considered the most important of all the apocryphal apocalyptic writings, and quoted several times as scripture in the [[New Testament]].
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*[[Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs]]. Probably written originally in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E., but has undergone later editing, including some Christian interpolations.
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*[[Psalms of Solomon]]. These 18 psalms, ascribed to [[Solomon]] by later scribes, contain, among other things, a protest against the Hasmonean dynasty  for usurping the throne of [[David]], and proclaim the coming of the [[Messiah]], the Son of David, who is to set all things right in the last days.
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[[Image:Elisha-sees-Elijah.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Elisha]] sees his mentor [[Elijah]] ascend into heaven in a chariot of fire.]]
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*[[The Assumption of Moses]]. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered in 1861. Written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 C.E. this work protests against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party.
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*[[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This book deals with the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. In its present form, the book was written or edited soon after 70 C.E.
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*[[4 Ezra]]. In it earliest Arabic and Ethiopic versions this book is called 1 Ezra; while in some Latin manuscripts and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian bible it is 3 Ezra. The first two chapters seem to be a Christian origin while the remainder of the book is a series of visions ascribed to the prophet/scribe [[Ezra]]. The Ethiopian and Russian Orthodox churches consider the book to be canonical.
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*[[Greek Apocalypse of Baruch]]. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. It was written between 80 and 200 C.E.., and deals with the question of the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], affirming the building has been preserved in the heavenly spiritual realm.
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*[[Apocalypse of Abraham]]. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats Abraham's conversion from idolatry, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15, including an encounter between Abraham and the demon [[Azazel]], who was one of the "birds of prey" who descended on Abraham's sacrifice.
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*[[Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph]]. The ''Prayer of Joseph'' is quoted by second century theologian Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
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*[[Book of Eldad and Modad]]. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
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*[[Apocalypse of Elijah]]. Mentioned by [[Origen]] and others as a revelation given by an angel, possibly to Elijah the prophet.
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*[[Apocalypse of Zephaniah]]. Known to us through a citation in [[Clem. Alex.]] ''Strom.'' 5. 2, 77, and by its mention is several lists provided by other Christian writers.
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*[[2 Enoch]], or the [[Slavonic Enoch]], or the [[Book of the Secrets of Enoch]]. This work was recently brought to light through five manuscripts discovered in Russia and Serbia. It is a first-person account by Enoch of a journey through the ten heavens that culminates in a meeting with God.
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*[[Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs]]. This book deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and presents Abraham's vision of heaven, his deeds having been recorded in a book and being weighed by a balance.
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*[[Sibylline Oracles]]. A series of visions, some of Jewish origin but others clearly added by Christian editors.
  
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Once more such ideas as those of "the day of Yahweh" and the "new heavens and a new earth" were constantly re-edited by the Jewish people with fresh nuances in conformity with their new settings. Thus the inner development of Jewish apocalyptic was always conditioned by the historical experiences of the nation.  But the prophecies found in Jewish Scriptures, which have not changed over time, await their fulfillment.
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==New Testament era apocalyptic literature==
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Early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature, due to its belief in the [[Final Judgment]] at the [[Second Coming]] of Christ. Indeed, it was Christian scribes who preserved much of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition—sometimes, unfortunately, editing it to their own theological purposes—after it had been abandoned by [[Judaism]]. Moreover, Christianity cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas.
  
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===Traditions===
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===Canonical apocryphal works===  
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Another source of apocalyptic was ''primitive mythological and cosmological traditions'', in which the eye of the seer could see the secrets of the future no less surely than those of the past. Thus the six days of the world's creation, followed by a seventh of rest, were regarded as at once a history of the past and a forecasting of the future. As the world was made in six days its history would be accomplished in six thousand years, since each day with God was as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day; and as the six days of creation were followed by one of rest, so the six thousand years of the world's history would be followed by a rest of a thousand years<ref>2 Enoch xxxii. 2-xxxiii. 2.</ref>. Of primitive mythological traditions we might mention the primeval serpent, [[leviathan]], [[behemoth]], while to ideas native to or familiar in apocalyptic belong those of the [[seven archangels]], the angelic patrons of the nations<ref>Deut. xxxii. 8, in LXX.; Isaiah xxiv. 21; Dan. x. 13, 20, &c.</ref>, the [[mountain of God]] in the north<ref>Isaiah xiv. 13; Ezek. i. 4, &c.</ref>, the [[garden of Eden]].
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[[Image:Bucium-Voroneţ.JPG|thumb|400px|The trumpet call of an apocalyptic angel]]
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*[[Apocalypse in Mark 13]]—"Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains." See also Matt. 24-25; Mark 13.
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*[[1 Thessalonians]] 4—"The Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air."
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*[[2 Thessalonians]] 2—"The man of lawlessness (will be) revealed, the son of perdition. He will oppose and will exalt himself over everything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he sets himself up in God's temple, proclaiming himself to be God."
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*[[Book of Revelation]]—A series of apocalyptic visions dealing with the end times, the [[Antichrist]], the trials of the saints, the [[Battle of Armageddon]], and the coming of the New [[Jerusalem]].
  
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== Object and contents of apocalyptic literature==
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===Non-Canonical apocryphal works===
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The object of this literature in general was to solve the difficulties connected with the righteousness of God and the suffering condition of His righteous servants on earth. The righteousness of God postulated according to the law the temporal prosperity of the righteous and the ''temporal'' prosperity of necessity; for as yet there was no promise of life or recompense beyond the grave. But this connexion was not found to obtain as a rule in life, and the difficulties arising from this conflict between promise and experience centred round the lot of the righteous as a community and the lot of the righteous man as an individual. [[Old Testament]] prophecy had addressed itself to both these problems, though it was hardly conscious of the claims of this latter. It concerned itself essentially with the present, and with the future only as growing organically out of the present. It taught the absolute need of personal and national righteousness, and foretold the ultimate blessedness of the righteous nation on the present earth.  But its views were not systematic and comprehensive in regard to the nations in general, while as regards the individual it held that God's service here was its own and adequate reward, and saw no need of postulating another world to set right the evils of this. But later, with the growing claims of the individual and the acknowledgment of these in the religious and intellectual life, both problems, and especially the latter, pressed themselves irresistibly on the notice of religious thinkers, and made it impossible for any conception of the divine rule and righteousness to gain acceptance, which did not render adequate satisfaction to the claims of both problems. To render such satisfaction was the task undertaken by apocalyptic, as well as to vindicate the righteousness of God alike in respect of the individual and of the nation. To justify their contention they sketched in outline the history of the world and mankind, the origin of evil and its course, and the final consummation of all things. Thus they presented in fact a [[theodicy]], a rudimentary philosophy of religion. The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, even in this world the faithful community should attain its rights in an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessedness here and eternal blessedness hereafter. So far as regards the righteous community. It was, however, in regard to the destiny of the individual that apocalyptic rendered its chief service. Though the individual might perish amid the disorders of this world, he would not fail, apocalyptic taught, to attain through resurrection the recompense that was his due in the Messianic kingdom or in heaven itself. Apocalyptic thus forms the indispensable preparation for the religion of the [[New Testament]].
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*[[Greek Apocalypse of Peter]]: Peter as the decisive witness of the resurrection event and the recipient of several further revelations.
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*[[Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]]: This Apocalypse of Peter understands [[Jesus]] as a [[Gnostic]] redeemer transcendent of physical reality.
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== Apocalyptic literature as a genre ==
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*[[Testament of Hezekiah]]: Predicts the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by [[Nero]], and the Last Judgment.
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The formulas of apocalyptic literature are the marks of a literary form; for we cannot suppose that the writers experienced the voluminous and detailed [[vision (religion)|visions]] we find in their books. On the other hand the emotional value of the visions is to some extent guaranteed by the writer's intense earnestness and by his manifest belief in the divine origin of his message. But the difficulty of regarding the visions as actual experiences, or as in any sense actual, is intensified, when full account is taken of the artifices of the writer; for the major part of his visions consists of what is to him really past history dressed up in the guise of prediction. Moreover, the writer no doubt intended that his reader should take the accuracy of those events already accomplished to be a guarantee for the accuracy of that which was still unrealized.  How, then, it may well be asked, can this be consistent with reality of visionary experience? Are we not obliged to assume that the visions are a literary invention and nothing more?
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*[[Oracles of Hystaspes]]: Unknown except in reports and fragment, this was possibly a non-Christian work, this book predicting the destruction of Rome and the advent of [[Zeus]] (or the [[Messiah]]) to help the godly and destroy the wicked.
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[[Image:Schussenried Kloster Bibliothekssaal Gewölbefresko Scheitel Mitte Jüngstes Gericht Apokalyptisches Lamm.jpg|thumb|400px|The revelation of the Lamb in John's Apocalypse]]
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However we may explain the inconsistency, we are precluded by the moral earnestness of the writer from assuming the visions to be pure inventions. But the inconsistency has in part been explained by [[Hermann Gunkel|Gunkel]], who has rightly emphasized that the writer did not freely invent his materials but derived them in the main from tradition, as he held that these mysterious traditions of his people were, if rightly expounded, forecasts of the time to come. Furthermore, the visionary who is found at most periods of great spiritual excitement was forced by the prejudice of his time, which refused to acknowledge any inspiration in the present, to ascribe his visionary experiences and reinterpretations of the mysterious traditions of his people to some heroic figure of the past. Moreover, there will always be a difficulty in determining what belongs to his actual vision and what to the literary skill or free invention of the author, seeing that the visionary must be dependent on memory and past experience for the forms and much of the matter of the actual vision.
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*[[Shepherd of Hermas]]: A widely read book of the late first century presenting the vision of the Roman Christian prophet Hermas, calling the Church to repentance and adherence to a life of strict morality, against the background of great tribulation.
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*[[5 Ezra]]: This apocalyptic book contains a strong attack on the Jews, whom it regards as the apostate people of God. It addresses itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom if they respond to God's call.
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== Apocalyptic literature as distinguished from prophecy ==
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*[[6 Ezra]]: Describes the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. Scholars debate whether it is of Jewish or Christian origin.
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We have already dwelt on certain notable differences between [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] and [[prophecy]]; but there are certain others that call for attention.
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*[[Christian Sibyllines]]: Although there may be a Jewish origin of large sections of these books, much in them is recognized by scholars as Christian.
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*[[Apocalypse of Esdras]]: In this Greek production, the prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts.
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=== In the nature of its message ===
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*[[Apocalypse of Paul]]: Rediscovered at [[Nag Hammadi]] in the twentieth century, this work contains a detailed description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell.  
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The message of the prophets was primarily a preaching of repentance and righteousness if the nation would escape judgment; the message of the apocalyptic writers was of patience and trust for that deliverance and reward were sure to come.
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*[[Apocalypse of John]]: This contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous.
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*[[Arabic Apocalypse of Peter]]: Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ.
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=== By its dualistic theology ===
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*[[Apocalypse of the Virgin]]: A description of [[Mary]]'s descent into hell.  
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Prophecy believes that this world is God's world and that in this world His goodness and truth will yet be vindicated. Hence the prophet prophesies of a definite future arising out of and organically connected with the present. The apocalyptic writer on the other hand despairs of the present, and directs his hopes absolutely to the future, to a new world standing in essential opposition to the present.<ref>''Non fecit Altissimus unum saeculum sed duo'', [[4 Ezra]] vii. 50.</ref> Here we have essentially a dualistic principle, which, though it can largely be accounted for by the interaction of certain inner tendencies and outward sorrowful experience on the part of Judaism, may ultimately be derived from [[Ahura Mazda|Mazdean]] influences. This principle, which shows itself clearly at first in the conception that the various nations are under angelic rulers, who are in a greater or less degree in rebellion against God, as in Daniel and Enoch, grows in strength with each succeeding age, till at last [[Satan]] is conceived as "the ruler of this world"<ref>John xii. 31.</ref> or "the god of this age"<ref>2 Cor. iv. 4.</ref>.
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*[[Apocalypse of Sedrach]]: This late apocalypse deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die.
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*[[The Revelations of Bartholomew]]: A fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew.
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Under the guidance of such a principle the writer naturally expected the world's culmination in evil to be the immediate precursor of God's intervention on behalf of the righteous, and every fresh growth in evil to be an additional sign that the time was at hand. The natural concomitant in conduct of such a belief is an uncompromising asceticism. He that would live to the next world must shun this. Visions are vouchsafed only to those who to prayer have added fasting.
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*[[Questions of St Bartholomew]]: Bartholomew questions Jesus saying, "Lord, reveal unto me the mysteries of the heavens?"
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*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]: This late apocalypse shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Written in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, it depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: The rise and rule of [[Antichrist]], the invasions of [[Gog]] and [[Magog]], and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.
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=== By pseudonymous authorship ===
 
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We have already touched on this characteristic of apocalyptic. The prophet stood in direct relations with his people; his prophecy was first spoken and afterwards written. The apocalyptic writer could obtain no hearing from his contemporaries, who held that, though God spoke in the past, "there was no more any prophet." This pessimism and want of faith limited and defined the form in which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed as a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly addressed his book to future generations. Generally directions as to the hiding and sealing of the book<ref>Dan. xii. 4, 9; 1 Enoch i. 4; Ass. Mos. i. 16-18.</ref> were given in the text in order to explain its publication so long after the date of its professed period.  Moreover, there was a sense in which such books were not wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of ancient prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and, though they might recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as their own inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the eyes of its writer be in some degree but a fresh edition of the traditions naturally attaching themselves to great names in Israel's past, and thus the books named respectively Enoch, [[Noah]], Ezra would to some slight extent be not pseudonymous.
 
−
 
 
−
=== By its comprehensive and deterministic conception of history ===
 
−
Apocalyptic took an indefinitely wider view of the world's history than prophecy. Thus, whereas prophecy had to deal with temporary reverses at the hands of some heathen power, apocalyptic arose at a time when Israel had been subject for generations to the sway of one or other of the great world-powers. Hence to harmonize such difficulties with belief in God's righteousness, it had to take account of the rôle of such empires in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and downfall of each in turn, till finally the lordship of the world passed into the hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events belonged in the main to the past, but the writer represented them as still in the future, arranged under certain artificial categories of time definitely determined from the beginning in the counsels of God and revealed by Him to His servants the prophets. [[Determinism]] thus became a leading characteristic of Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history became severely mechanical.
 
−
 
 
−
== Old Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature ==
 
−
 
 
−
=== Canonical books ===
 
−
* [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] xxiv-xxvii; xxxiii; xxxiv-xxxv
 
−
* possibly [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] xxxiii 14-26?
 
−
* [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] ii. 8; xxxviii-xxxix
 
−
* [[Book of Joel|Joel]] iii. 9-17
 
−
* [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] xii—xiv
 
−
* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
 
−
 
 
−
(See the separate headings for the various apocalyptic books mentioned in this article.)  All are probably pseudepigraphic except the passages from Ezekiel and Joel. Of the remaining passages and books, large sections of Daniel belong unquestionably to the [[Maccabean period]], and the rest possibly to the same period. Isaiah xxxiii. was probably written about 163 B.C.E.<ref>Duhm and Marti.</ref>; Zech. xii.-xiv. about 160 B.C.E., Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. about 128 B.C.E., and xxxiv.-xxxv. sometime in the reign of [[John Hyrcanus]]. Jeremiah xxxiii. 14-26 is assigned by Marti to Maccabean times, but this is highly questionable.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Non-Canonical Books ===
 
−
==== Book of Noah ====
 
−
{{details|book of Noah}}
 
−
 
 
−
This is a lost work, known through fragments.
 
−
 
 
−
==== 1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch ====
 
−
{{main|Book of Enoch}}
 
−
This is the most important of all the apocryphal writings for the history of religious thought. Like the [[Pentateuch]], the [[Psalms]], the [[Megilloth]] and the [[Pirke Aboth]], this work was divided into five parts, which, as we shall notice presently, spring from five different sources.
 
−
 
 
−
Originally written partly in [[Aramaic]] (i.e. vi.-xxxvi.) and partly in [[Hebrew]] (i.-vi., xxxvii.-cviii.), it was translated into Greek, and from Greek into [[Ethiopic]] and possibly [[Latin]]. Only one-fifth of the Greek version in two forms survives. The various elements of the book were written by different authors at different dates, vi.-xxxvi. was written before 166 B.C.E., lxxii.-lxxxii. before the ''Book of Jubilees'', i.e. before 120 B.C.E. or thereabouts, lxxxiii.-xc. about 166 B.C.E., i.-v., xci.-civ. before 95 B.C.E., and xxxvii.-lxxi. before 64 B.C.E. There are many interpolations drawn mainly from the Book of Noah.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Testaments of the XII Patriarchs ====
 
−
{{main|Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs}}
 
−
 
 
−
This book, in some respects the most important of Old Testament apocryphs, has only recently come into its own. Owing to Christian interpolations, it was taken to be a Christian apocryph, written originally in Greek in the 2nd century C.E. Now it is acknowledged by Christian and Jewish scholars alike to have been written in Hebrew in the 2nd century B.C.E.
 
−
 
 
−
From Hebrew it was translated into Greek and from Greek into [[Armenian language|Amenian]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]]. The versions have come down in their entirety, and small portions of the Hebrew text have been recovered from later Jewish writings.
 
−
 
 
−
The Testaments were written about the same date as the ''Book of Jubilees''. These two books form the only Apology in Jewish literature for the religious and civil hegemony of the [[Maccabees]] from the Pharisaic standpoint. To the Jewish interpolation of the 1st century B.C.E. (about 60-40)<ref>i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.; T. Jud. xxii.-xxiii., &c.</ref> a large interest attaches; for these, like I Enoch xci.-civ. and the [[Psalms of Solomon]], constitute an unmeasured attack on every office—prophetic, priestly and kingly—administered by the Maccabees.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Psalms of Solomon ====
 
−
These psalms, in all eighteen, enjoyed but small consideration in early times, for only six direct references to them are found in early literature. Their ascription to [[Solomon]] is due solely to the copyists or translators, for no such claim is made in any of the psalms. On the whole, Ryle and James are no doubt right in assigning 70-40 B.C.E. as the limits within which the psalms were written. The authors were Pharisees. They divide their countrymen into two classes—"the righteous," ii. 38-39, iii. 3-5, 7, 8, &c., and "the sinners," ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9, &c.; "the saints," iii. 10, &c., and "the transgressors," iv. II, &c. The former are the Pharisees; the latter the Sadducees. They protest against the Asmonaean house for usurping the throne of David, and laying violent hands on the high priesthood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right and establish the supremacy of Israel. Pss. xvii.-xviii. and i.-xvi. cannot be assigned to the same authorship. The hopes of the Messiah are confined to the former, and a somewhat different eschatology underlies the two works. Since the Psalms were written in Hebrew, and intended for public worship in the synagogues, it is most probable that they were composed in [[Palestine]]. (See [[Psalms of Solomon]])
 
−
 
 
−
==== The Assumption of Moses ====
 
−
{{main|Assumption of Moses}}
 
−
This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered by [[Antonio Maria Ceriani]] in 1861 (''Monumenta Sacra'', I. i. 55-64) from a palimpsest of the 6th century. Very little was known about the contents of this book prior to this discovery.
 
−
 
 
−
The present book is possibly the long-lost Διαθηκη Μωυσεως mentioned in some ancient lists, for it never speaks of the assumption of [[Moses]], but always of his natural death. About a half of the original Testament is preserved in the Latin version. The latter half probably dealt with questions about the creation. With this "Testament" the "Assumption," to which almost all the patristic references and that of Jude are made, was subsequently edited. The book was written between 4 B.C.E. and A.D. 7. As for the author, he was no Essene, for he recognizes animal sacrifices and cherishes the Messianic hope; he was not a Sadducee, for he looks forward to the establishment of the Messianic kingdom (x.); nor a Zealot, for the quietistic ideal is upheld (ix.), and the kingdom is established by God Himself (x.). He is therefore a [[Chasid]] of the ancient type, and glorifies the ideals which were cherished by the old Pharisaic party, but which were now being fast disowned in favour of a more active role in the political life of the nation. He pours his most scathing invectives on the Sadducees, who are described in vii. in terms that recall the anti-Sadducean Psalms of Solomon. His object, therefore, is to protest against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party through its adoption of popular Messianic beliefs and political ideals.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch ====
 
−
{{main|2 Baruch}}
 
−
This apocalypse has survived only in the Syriac version. The Syriac is a translation from the Greek, and the Greek in turn from the Hebrew. The book treats of the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, works, &c. The views expressed on several of these subjects are often conflicting. We must, therefore, assume a number of independent sources put together by an editor or else that the book is on the whole the work of one author who made use of independent writings but failed to blend them into one harmonious whole. In its present form the book was written soon after A.D. 70. For fuller treatment see [[Baruch]].
 
−
 
 
−
==== 4 Ezra ====
 
−
{{main|2 Esdras}}
 
−
This apocryph is variously named. In the first Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called 1 Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian 3 Ezra. With the majority of the Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra.
 
−
 
 
−
In its fullest form this apocryph consists of sixteen chapters, but i.-ii. and xv.-xvi. are of different authorship from each other and from the main work iii.-xiv. The book was written originally in Hebrew. There are Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic (two), and Armenian versions. The Greek version is lost. This apocalypse is of very great importance, on account of its very full treatment of the theological questions rife in the latter half of the 1st century of the Christian era. The book, even if written by one author, was based on a variety of already existing works. It springs from the same school of thought as the ''[[Apocalypse of Baruch]]'', and its affinities with the latter are so numerous and profound that scholars have not yet come to any consensus as to the relative priority of either. In its present form it was composed A.D. 80-100.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Greek Apocalypse of Baruch ====
 
−
{{main|3 Baruch}}
 
−
This work is referred to by [[Origen]] (''de Princip.'' II. iii. 6):
 
−
 
 
−
:"Denique etiam Baruch prophetae librum in assertionis hujus' testimonium vocant, quod ibi de septem mundis vel caelis evidentius indicatur."
 
−
 
 
−
This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. The former was translated by [[Bonwetsch]] in 1896, in the ''Nachrichten von der königl. Ges. der Wiss. zu, Gott''. pp. 91-101; the latter by James in 1897 in ''Anecdota'', ii. 84-94, with an elaborate introduction (pp. li.-lxxi.). The Slavonic is only of secondary value, as it is merely an abbreviated form of the Greek. Even the Greek cannot claim to be the original work, but only to be a recension of it; for, whereas Origen states that this apocalypse contained an account of the seven heavens, the existing Greek work describes only five, and the Slavonic only two.
 
−
 
 
−
As the original, work presupposes [[2 Enoch]] and the ''Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch'' ([[2 Baruch]]) and was known to Origen, it was written between A.D. 80 and 200, and nearer the earlier date than the later, as it would otherwise be hard to understand how it came to circulate among Christians. The superscription shows points of connexion with the ''Rest of the Words of Baruch'', but little weight can be attached to the fact, since titles and superscriptions were so frequently transformed and expanded in ancient times. As James and Kohler have pointed out, part of section 4 on the Vine is a Christian addition. A German translation of the Greek appears in [[Emil Kautzsch]]'s ''Apok. u. Pseud'', ii. 448-457, and a strong article by [[Kohler]] on the Jewish authorship of the book in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', ii. 549-551. (See [[Baruch]].)
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Abraham ====
 
−
{{main|Apocalypse of Abraham}}
 
−
This book is found only in the Slavonic (edited by Bonwetsch, ''Studien zur Geschichte d. Theologie und Kirche'', 1897), a translation from the Greek. It is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats of Abraham's conversion, and the second forms an. apocalyptic expansion of Gen. xv. This book was possibly known to the author of the ''Clem. Recognitions'', i. 32, a passage, however, which may refer to Jubilees. It is most probably distinct from the Αποκαλυψις Αβρααμ used by the gnostic Sethites (Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxxix. 5), which was very heretical. On the other hand, it is probably identical with the apocryphal book Αβρααμ mentioned in the ''[[Stichometry of Nicephorus]]'', and the ''[[Synopsis Athanasii]]'', together with the Apocalypses of Enoch, &c.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph ====
 
−
The ''Prayer of Joseph'' is quoted by Origen<ref> [''In Joann.'' II. xxv, ([[Lommatzsch]], i. 147, 148); ''in Gen.'' III. ix. (Lommatzsch, viii. 30-31)]</ref>. The fragments in Origen represent [[Jacob]] as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.<ref>See [[Emil Schürer]], iii. 265-266.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==== Book of Eldad and Modad ====
 
−
This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. xi. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. xi. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel. The Shepherd of Hermas quotes it ''Vis.'' ii. 3. (See Marshall in Hastings' ''Bible Dictionary'', i. 677.)
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Elijah ====
 
−
{{main|Apocalypse of Elijah}}
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Zephaniah ====
 
−
{{Main|Apocalypse of Zephaniah}}
 
−
 
 
−
Apart from two of the lists this work is known to us in its original form only through a citation in [[Clem. Alex.]] ''Strom.'' v. II, 77.
 
−
 
 
−
==== 2 ''Enoch'', or the ''Slavonic Enoch'', or the ''Book of the Secrets of Enoch'' ====
 
−
This new fragment of the Enochic literature was recently brought to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. The book in its present form was written before A.D. 70 in Greek by an orthodox Hellenistic Jew, who lived in Egypt. For a fuller account see [[2 Enoch]]. 
 
−
 
 
−
==== Oracles of Hystaspes ====
 
−
See under ''N. T. Apocalypses'', below.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Testament of Job ====
 
−
{{main|Testament of Job}}
 
−
 
 
−
This book was first printed from one MS. by [[Mai]], ''Script. Vet. Nov. Coll.'' (1833), VII. i. 180, and translated into French in [[Migne]]'s ''Dictionnaire des Apocryphes'', ii. 403. An excellent edition from two MSS. is given by [[M. R. James]], ''Apocrypha Anecdota'', ii. pp. lxxii.-cii., 104-137, who holds that the book in its present form was written by a Christian Jew in Egypt on the basis of a Hebrew ''[[Midrash]]'' on Job in the 2nd or 3rd century. [[A. D. Kohler]] (''Kohut Memorial Volume'', 1897, pp. 264-338) has given good grounds for regarding the whole work, with the exception of some interpolations, as "one of the most remarkable productions of the pre-Christian era, explicable only when viewed in the light of [[Hasidean]] practice." See ''Jewish Encycl.'' vii. 200-202.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Testaments of the III Patriarchs ====
 
−
For an account of these three Testaments (referred to in the ''Apost. Const.'' vi. 16), the first of which only is preserved in the Greek and is assigned by James to the 2nd century C.E., see that scholar's "Testament of Abraham," ''Texts and Studies'', ii. 2 (1892), which appears in two recensions from six and three MSS. respectively, and Vassiliev's ''Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina'', (1893), pp. 292-308, from one MS. already used by James. This work was written in Egypt, according to James, and survives also in Slavonic, Romanian, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions. It deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and the means by which his death was brought about. James holds that this book is referred to by Origen (''Hom. in Luc.'' xxxv.), but this is denied by Schürer, who also questions its Jewish origin. With the exception of chaps. x.-xi., it is really a legend and not an apocalypse. An English translation of James's texts will be found in the ''Ante-Nicene Christian Library'' (Clark, 1897), pp. 185-201. The Testaments of Isaac and Jacob are still preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic (see James, ''op. cit.'' 140-161). See [[Testaments of the III Patriarchs]].
 
−
 
 
−
==== Sibylline Oracles ====
 
−
{{main|Sibylline oracles}}
 
−
Of the books which have come down to us the main part is Jewish, and was written at various dates, iii. 97-829, iv.-v. are decidedly of Jewish authorship, and probably xi.-xii., xiv. and parts of i.-ii. The oldest portions are in iii., and belong to the 2nd century B.C.E.
 
−
 
 
−
== New Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature ==
 
−
 
 
−
When we pass from Jewish literature to that of the New Testament, we enter into a new and larger atmosphere at once recalling and transcending what had been best in the prophetic periods of the past. Again the heavens had opened and the divine teaching come to mankind, no longer merely in books bearing the names of ancient patriarchs, but on the lips of living men, who had taken courage to appear in person as God's messengers before His people. But though Christianity was in spirit the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, it was no less truly the child of that Judaism which had expressed its highest aspirations and ideals in pseudepigraphic and apocalyptic literature. Hence we shall not be surprised to find that the two tendencies are fully represented in primitive Christianity, and, still more strange as it may appear, that New Testament apocalyptic found a more ready hearing amid the stress and storm of the 1st century than the prophetic side of Christianity, and that the type of the forerunner on the side of its declared asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than that of Him who came "eating and drinking," declaring both worlds good and both God's.
 
−
 
 
−
Early Christianity had thus naturally a special fondness for this class of literature. It was Christianity that preserved Jewish apocalyptic, when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into Rabbinism, and gave it a Christian character either by a forcible exegesis or by a systematic process of interpolation. Moreover, it cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Though apocalyptic served its purpose in the opening centuries of the Christian era, it must be confessed that in ''many'' of its aspects its office is transitory, as they belong not to the essence of Christian thought. When once it had taught men that the next world was God's world, though it did so at the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had achieved its real task, and the time had come for it to quit the stage of history, when Christianity appeared as the heir of this true spiritual achievement. But Christianity was no less assuredly the heir of ancient prophecy, and thus as spiritual representative of what was true in prophecy and apocalyptic; its essential teaching was as that of its Founder that both worlds were of God and that both should be made God's.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Canonical ===
 
−
==== Apocalypse in Mark xiii ====
 
−
According to the teaching of the Gospels the second advent was to take the world by surprise.  Only one passage (Mark xiii. = Matt. xxiv. = Luke xxi.) conflicts with this view, and is therefore suspicious. This represents the second advent as heralded by a succession of signs which are unmistakable precursors of its appearance, such as wars, earthquakes, famines, the destruction of Jerusalem and the like. Our suspicion is justified by a further examination of Mark xiii. For the words "let him that ''readeth'' understand" (ver. 14) indicate that the prediction referred to appeared first not in a spoken address but in a written form, as was characteristic of apocalypses. Again, in ver. 30, it is declared that this generation shall not pass away until all these things be fulfilled, whereas in 32 we have an undoubted declaration of Christ "Of that day or of that hour knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." On these and other grounds verses 7, 8, 14-20, 24-27, 30, 31 should be removed from their present context. Taken together they constitute a Christian adaptation of an originally Jewish work, written A.D. 67-68, during the troubles preceding the fall of Jerusalem. The apocalypse consists of three Acts: Act i. consisting of verses 7, 8, enumerating the woes heralding the parusia, Act ii. describing the actual tribulation, and Act iii. the parusia itself. (See Wendt, ''Lehre Jesu'', i. 12-21; Charles, ''Eschatology'', 325 sqq.; H. S. Holtzmann, ''N. T. Theol.'' 1-325 sqq. with literature there given.)
 
−
 
 
−
==== 2 Thessalonians ii ====
 
−
The earliest form of Pauline eschatology is essentially Jewish. He starts from the fundamental thought of Jewish apocalyptic that the end of the world will be brought about by the direct intervention of God when evil has reached its climax. The manifestation of evil culminates in the Antichrist whose parusia (2 Thess. ii. 9) is the Satanic counterfeit of that of the true Messiah. But the climax of evil is the immediate herald of its destruction; for thereupon Christ will descend from heaven and destroy the Antichrist (ii. 8). Nowhere in his later epistles does this forecast of the future reappear. Rather under the influence of the great formative Christian conceptions he parted gradually with the eschatology he had inherited from Judaism, and entered on a progressive development, in the course of which the heterogeneous elements were for the most part silently dropped.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse (Revelation) ====
 
−
Since this book is discussed separately we shall content ourselves here with indicating a few of the conclusions now generally accepted. The apocalypse was written about A.D. 96. Its object, like other Jewish apocalypses, was to encourage faith under persecution; its burden is not a call to repentance but a promise of deliverance. It is derived from one author, who has made free use of a variety of elements, some of which are Jewish and consort but ill with their new context. The question of the pseudonymity of the book is still an open one. It is also speculated in some [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] circles that this book is also a depiction of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in Heaven and a testament to the sacrificial nature of the Mass and was written poetically so as not to bring attention to the first century Christians who were under much persecution at the time from the Romans as well as their Jewish counterparts.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Non-Canonical ===
 
−
====Greek Apocalypse of Peter ====
 
−
{{main|Apocalypse of Peter}}
 
−
Until 1892 only some five or more fragments of this book were known to exist. These are preserved in [[Clement of Alexandria]] and in [[Macarius Magnes]]<ref>See [[Hilgenfeld]], ''N. T. extra Can.'' iv. 74 sqq.; [[Zahn]], ''Gesch. Kanons'' ii. 818-819.</ref>. It is mentioned in the [[Muratorian Canon]], and according to [[Eusebius]]<ref>''H.E.'' vi. 14. i.</ref> was commented on by Clement of Alexandria. 
 
−
 
 
−
In the fragment found at [[Akhmim]] there is a prediction of the last things, and a vision of the abode and blessedness of the righteous, and of the abode and torments of the wicked.
 
−
 
 
−
====Coptic Apocalypse of Peter====
 
−
''See main article: [[Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]]''
 
−
 
 
−
==== Testament of Hezekiah ====
 
−
This writing is fragmentary, and has been preserved merely as a constituent of the Ascension of Isaiah. To it belongs iii. 13b-iv. 18 of that book. It is found under the above name, Διαθηκη Εζεκιον, only in Cedrenus i. 120-121, who quotes partially iv. 12. 14 and refers to iv. 15-18. For a full account see [[Ascension of Isaiah]].
 
−
 
 
−
==== Testament of Abraham ====
 
−
This work in two recensions was first published by James, ''Texts and Studies'', ii. 2. Its editor is of opinion that it was written by a Jewish Christian in Egypt in the 2nd century C.E., but that it embodies legends of an earlier date, and that it received its present form in the 9th or 10th century. It treats of Michael being sent to announce to Abraham his death: of the tree speaking with a human voice (iii.), Michael's sojourn with Abraham (iv.-v.) and Sarah's recognition of him as one of the three angels, Abraham's refusal to die (vii.), and the vision of judgment (x.-xx.).
 
−
 
 
−
==== Oracles of Hystaspes ====
 
−
This eschatological work ( Χρησεις Ὑστασπον: so named by the anonymous 5th-century writer in Buresch, ''Klaros'', 1889, p. 95) is mentioned in conjunction with the Sibyllines by Justin (''Apol.'' i. 20), Clement of Alexandria (''Strom.'' vi. 5), and Lactantius (''Inst.'' VII. xv. 19; xviii. 2-3).  According to Lactantius, it prophesied the overthrow of Rome and the advent of Zeus to help the godly and destroy the wicked, but omitted all reference to the sending of the Son of God.  According to Justin, it prophesied the destruction of the world by fire. According to the ''Apocryph of Paul'', cited by Clement, Hystaspes foretold the conflict of the Messiah with many kings and His advent. Finally, an unknown 5th-century writer (see Buresch, ''Klaros'', 1889, pp. 87-126) says that the ''Oracles of Hystaspes'' dealt with the incarnation of the Saviour. The work referred to in the last two writers has Christian elements, which were absent from it in Lactantius's copy. The lost oracles were therefore in all probability originally Jewish, and subsequently re-edited by a Christian.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Vision of Isaiah ====
 
−
{{details|Ascension of Isaiah}}
 
−
 
 
−
This writing has been preserved in its entirety in the ''Ascension of Isaiah'', of which it constitutes chaps, vi.-xi. Before its incorporation in the latter work it circulated independently in Greek. There are independent versions of these chapters in Latin and Slavonic.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Shepherd of Hermas ====
 
−
{{main|The Shepherd of Hermas}}
 
−
In the 2nd century this book enjoyed a respect bordering on that paid to the writings that were eventually incorporated into the New Testament. [[Irenaeus]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]] quote it as Scripture, though [[Tertullian]] speaks slightingly of it. The writer belongs really to the prophetic and not to the apocalyptic school.
 
−
 
 
−
His book is divided into three parts containing visions, commands, similitudes. He lets us know that he had been engaged in trade, that his wife was a termagant, and that his children were badly brought up. Various views have been held as to the identity of the author: some have made him out to be the Hermas to whom salutation is sent at the end of the ''[[Epistle to the Romans]]'', others that he was the brother of [[Pius, bishop of Rome]] in the middle of the 2nd century, and others that he was a contemporary of [[Clement, bishop of Rome]] at the close of the 1st century.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Theodor Zahn]] fixes the date at 97, Salmon a few years later, [[Richard Adelbert Lipsius]] 142.<ref>The literature of this book (see [[Shepherd of Hermas]]) is very extensive. Among the chief editions are those of Zahn, ''Der Hirt des Hermas'' (1868); Gebhardt and Harnack, ''Patres Apostolici'' (1877, with full bibliographical material); Funk, ''Patres Apost.'' (1878). Further see Harnack, ''Gesch. d. altchristl. Literatur'', i. 49-58; II. i. 257-267, 437 f.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==== 5 Ezra ====
 
−
This book, which constitutes in the later MSS. the first two chapters to 4 Ezra, falls obviously into two parts. The first (i. 5-ii. 9) contains a strong attack on the Jews whom it regards as the people of God; the second (ii. 10-47) addresses itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom. It is not improbable that these chapters are based on an earlier Jewish writing. In its present form it may have been written before A.D. 200, though James and other scholars assign it to the 3rd century. Its tone is strongly anti-Jewish. The style is very vigorous and the materials of a strongly apocalyptic character.<ref>See [[Hilgenfeld]], ''Messias Judaeorum'' (1869); James in [[Bensly]]'s edition of 4 Ezra, pp. xxxviii.-lxxx.; [[Weinel]] in [[Hennecke]]'s ''N.T. Apokryphen'', 331-336.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==== 6 Ezra ====
 
−
This work consists of chapters xv.-xvi. of 4 Ezra. It may have been written as an appendix to 4 Ezra, as it has no proper introduction. Its contents relate to the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. There is nothing specifically Christian in the book, which represents a persecution which extends over the whole eastern part of the Empire. Moreover, the idiom is particularly Semitic. Thus we have xv. 8 ''nec sustinebo in his quae inique exercent'', that is בשא ב ; in 9 ''vindicans vindicabo'': in 22 ''non parcet dextera mea super peccatores'' = φεισεται ... επι = יתמול...על. In verses 9, 19 the manifest corruptions may be explicable from a Semitic background.  There are other Hebraisms in the text. It is true that these might have been due to the writer's borrowings from earlier Greek works ultimately of Hebrew origin. The date of the book is also quite uncertain, though several scholars have ascribed it to the 3rd century.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Christian Sibyllines ====
 
−
Critics are still at variance as to the extent of the Christian Sibyllines. It is practically agreed that vi.-viii. are of Christian origin. As for i.-ii., xi.-xiv. most writers are in favour of Christian authorship; but not so [[Johannes Geffcken]] (''Oracula Sibyllina'', 1902), who strongly insists on the Jewish origin of large sections of these books.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas and Stephen ====
 
−
These are mentioned in the Gelasian decree. The first may possibly be the [Greek: Anabagikon Paulou] mentioned by Epiphanius (''Haer''. xxxviii. 2) as current among the Cainites. It is not to be confounded with the apocalypse mentioned two sections later.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Esdras ====
 
−
This Greek production resembles the more ancient fourth book of Esdras in some respects. The prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts. Since they have sinned in consequence of Adam's fall, their fate is considered worse than that of the irrational creation. The description of the tortures suffered in the infernal regions is tolerably minute. At last the prophet consents to give up his spirit to God, who has prepared for him a crown of immortality. The book is a poor imitation of the ancient Jewish one. It may belong, however, to the 2nd or 3rd centuries of the Christian era. See [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], ''Apocalypses Apocryphae'', pp. 24-33.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Paul ====
 
−
{{main|Apocalypse of Paul}}
 
−
This work<ref>Referred to by Augustine, ''Tractat. in Joan.'' 98.</ref> contains a description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell. The text, as first published in the original Greek by Tischendorf (''Apocalypses Apocr.'' 34-69), consists of fifty-one chapters, but is imperfect.
 
−
 
 
−
Internal evidence assigns it to the time of Theodosius, i.e. about A.D. 388. Where the author lived is uncertain. [[Justin Perkins]] found a Syriac MS. of this apocalypse, which he translated into English, and printed in the ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 1864, vol. viii.  This was republished by Tischendorf below the Greek version in the above work. In 1893 the Latin version from one MS. was edited by M. R. James, ''Texts and Studies'', ii. 1-42, who shows that the Latin version is the most complete of the three, and that the Greek in its present form is abbreviated.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of John ====
 
−
(Tischendorf, ''Apocalypses Apocr.'' 70 sqq.) contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous. It appears to be the work of a Jewish Christian. The date is late, for the writer speaks of the "venerable and holy images," as well as "the glorious and precious crosses and the sacred things of the churches" (xiv.), which points to the 5th century, when such things were first introduced into churches.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Arabic Apocalypse of Peter ====
 
−
Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ. The book is said to have been written by Clement, Peter's disciple. This Arabic work has not been printed, but a summary of the contents is given by [[Alexander Nicoll]] in his catalogue of the Oriental MSS. belonging to the Bodleian (p. 49, xlviii.). There are eighty-eight chapters. It is a late production; for Ishmaelites are spoken of, the Crusades, and the taking of Jerusalem. See [[Tischendorf]], ''Apocalypses Apocrypae'' pp. xx.-xxiv.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of the Virgin ====
 
−
This book contains her descent into hell. It is not entirely published, but only several portions from Greek MSS. in different libraries, by Tischendorf in his ''Apocalypses Apocryphae'', pp. 95 sqq.; James, ''Texts and Studies'', ii. 3. 109-126.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Sedrach ====
 
−
This late apocalypse, which M. R. James assigns to the 10th or 11th century, deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die. See James, ''Texts and Studies'', ii. 3. 127-137.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Apocalypse of Daniel ====
 
−
See Vassiliev's ''Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina'' (Moscow, 1893), pp. 38-44; ''Uncanonical Books of the Old Testament'' (Venice, 1901), pp. 237 sqq., 387 sqq.
 
−
 
 
−
==== The Revelations of Bartholomew ====
 
−
Dulaurier published from a Parisian Sahidic MS., subjoining a French translation, what is termed a fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew (''Fragment des révélations apocryphes de Saint Barthélemy, &c.'', Paris, 1835), and of the history of the religious communities founded by St Pachomius. After narrating the pardon obtained by Adam, it is said that the Son ascending from Olivet prays the Father on behalf of His apostles; who consequently receive consecration from the Father, together with the Son and Holy Spirit—Peter being made archbishop of the universe. The late date of the production is obvious.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Questions of St Bartholomew ====
 
−
See Vassiliev, ''Anec. Graeco-Byzantina'' (1893), pp. 10-22. The introduction, which is wanting in the Greek MS., has been supplied by a Latin translation from the Slavonic version (see pp. vii.-ix.). The book contains disclosures by Christ, the Virgin and Beliar and much of the subject-matter is ancient.
 
−
 
 
−
====Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius====
 
−
''See [[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]''
 
−
 
 
−
==More thoughts on apocalyptic==
 
−
 
 
−
An apocalypse is a literary report of a fearful, often violent, vision that reveals truths about past, present and future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The poet may represent himself as transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled&mdash; and even interpreted&mdash; by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with threats of punishment and rewards in the coming "[[end times]]."  A brief apocalyptic vision is found in ''[[Gospel of Mark]]'' 13 is sometimes called the "Little Apocalypse" and parallel passages can be found in ''Matthew'' 24 and ''Luke'' 21.
 
−
 
 
−
Apocalyptic poetry concentrates the character that [[Northrop Frye]] has found in the Bible as a whole: "a series of ecstatic moments or points of expanding apprehension&mdash;this approach is in fact the assumption on which every selection of a text for a sermon is based" (Frye 1957 p 326).
 
−
 
 
−
In connection with a PBS documentary "Apocalypse!" Dr. L. Michael White said, "Apocalyptic thinking has been called "the child of prophecy in a new idiom." ''(see link)''. White drew attention to the new direction prophecy took after the Hebrews' return from the trauma of the "[[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]]." Earlier prophets of Israel and Judah had spoken of the word of God, calling the children of Israel to their duty. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of [[Solomon's temple]] looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair. The throne of David itself, as it was not unshakeable as events had proved, took on metaphoric meanings. Early examples of the apocalyptic world-view can be found in the late additions made to ''[[Isaiah]]'' by the [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical writer]] called the "Third Isaiah" (chapters 56 to 66), and in the collection of prophetic forecasts of this new kind that are collected as ''[[Ezekiel]]''
 
−
 
 
−
The new cultural element included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, a distinctly realized Satan in opposition to Yahweh, a city of Evil (Babylon) contrasted to the city of God (Jerusalem), the evil and corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the blinding light of the world to come and often embodied in [[demon]]s and [[Western dragon|dragons]], elements deriving from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[dualism]]. A new focus on [[eschatology]], the End of All Things, was also foreign to the earlier Hebrew tradition. Some, though not all apocalyptic literature was [[Messianic Judaism|messianic]], predicting the imminent arrival of a savior&mdash;even in [[Essene]] writings, of more than one savior.
 
−
 
 
−
The overtly [[Allegory|allegorical nature]] of this new literature inspired new allegorical readings, now applied to every kind of earlier statement, a detailed unravelling of texts, often to give results not originally foreseen, which influenced the development of techniques of [[exegesis]] for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval [[hermeneutics]], which are still practiced today in some traditionalist circles, as "[[Biblical hermeneutics]]."
 
−
 
 
−
Among books of prophecy of this new kind, the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' was accepted into the Hebrew Bible, among the "Writings," as the sense of a canonic literature developed in the Rabbinic tradition during the first centuries of the Common Era. Other apocalyptic literature did not make the cut: The ''[[Book of Enoch]],'' some of which is older than Daniel (though it has received some Christian interpolations and editing in the versions that have survived) was never considered canonical by Jews or Christians, though it is quoted or paralleled dozens of times in the New Testament. ''Enoch'' has been called "an ecstatic elaboration" of the line in ''Genesis'' (v.22): "And Enoch walked with God three hundred years after he begat Methuselah." The book of ''[[Jubilees]]'' (2nd century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called [[Sibylline Oracles]], which were assembled partly in Alexandria, are filled with pseudo-prophecy ([[Vaticinium ex eventu|''vaticinium ex eventu'', written after the fact]]) and threatening generalities; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre.
 
−
 
 
−
Within the Christian tradition, the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' and ''[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' are examples of apocalyptic literature that devotees of ''Revelation'' would also enjoy, though their poetry never reaches the same intensity.
 
−
 
 
−
Apocalyptic literature has had a long history. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can be found in the [[Kabbalah]].
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==
 
−
{{col-begin}}
 
−
{{col-2}}
 
−
* '''General topics'''
 
−
**[[Apocalypse]]
 
−
**[[Apocalypticism]]
 
−
**[[Millennialism]]
 
−
**[[New Testament apocrypha]]
 
−
**[[Pseudepigraphy]]
 
−
**[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]
 
−
**[[Gnosticism]]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
{{col-2}}
 
−
* '''Related literature'''
 
−
** [[List of Gospels]]
 
−
** [[Acts of the Apostles (genre)]]
 
−
** [[Epistles]]
 
−
** [[List of New Testament papyri]]
 
−
** [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic science fiction]]
 
−
{{col-end}}
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes==
 
−
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* {{1911}}
+
* Chartsworth, James H. ''Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments.'' Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
 +
* Collins, John Joseph. ''The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature.'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
 +
* Cook, Stephen L. ''The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts.'' Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
 +
* Reddish, Mitchell G. (ed.). ''Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader.'' Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/white.html L. Michael White, "Apocalyptic literature in Judaeism and early Christianity"] Thorough historical introduction.
+
All links retrieved August 11, 2023.
−
*[http://clawww.lmu.edu/faculty/fjust/Bible/Apoc_Def.htm Prof. Felix Just, S.J., offers definitions of apocalypse.]
+
 
−
*[http://www.geocities.com/davidmwilliams/ntb519c.html David M. Williams, "The Book of Revelation as Jewish Apocalyptic Literature"] Concise introduction to the genre.
+
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/white.html Apocalyptic Literature in Judaism and Early Christianity] by Professor L. Michael White, ''Frontline'', PBS.  
 +
*[http://sites.silaspartners.com/partner/Article_Display_Page/0,,PTID34418_CHID137699_CIID2304042,00.html Understanding Apocalyptic Literature] by Dr. Richard J. Krejcir, ''With the Word'', February 2007.
  
−
==Bibliography==
 
−
* Charlesworth, James H. ed., ''The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha'', Vol. 1: ''Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments'', (Anchor Bible).
 
−
* Collins, John Joseph ''The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature'' (The Biblical Resource Series).
 
−
* Cook, David, ''Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature'', (Religion and Politics).
 
−
* Cook, Stephen L., ''The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts''.
 
−
*[[Northrop Frye|Frye, Northrop]], 1957. ''Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays''.
 
−
* [[Richard Goswiller|Goswiller, Richard]], ''Revelation'', Pacific Study Series, Melbourne, (1987).
 
−
*Reddish, Mitchell G. ''Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader''.
 
−
 
−
 
 
[[Category:Religion]]
 
[[Category:Religion]]
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Latest revision as of 06:03, 11 August 2023


The revelation to John of Patmos

Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-exile Jewish culture and was popular among early Christians. The term "Apocalypse" is from the Greek word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known."

The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Exile in Babylon down to the close of the Middle Ages. The best known literature of this type was created in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E. Much apocalyptic literature was produced in this period, but only a small portion of it was included in either the Hebrew Bible or the New Testament.

Apocalyptic literature is written in symbolism, poetry, and imageries, as well as in an Old Testament prophetic style (See Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19). In larger works, such forms are woven as a tapestry to describe events in cataclysmic terms, such as in the Book of Daniel and most of all the Revelation.

Perspectives on the apocalyptic

Gustave Doré engraving "The Vision of The Valley of The Dry Bones" - 1866

An apocalypse is a literary report of an amazing, often fearful, violent vision that reveals truths about past, present, and/or future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The writer may represent himself as being transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled—and even interpreted—by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with promises of rewards and punishment in the coming "end times."

Apocalyptic literature may also have been seen as a form of prophecy using a new idiom. Indeed, the biblical books of Isaiah and Ezekiel sometimes used apocalyptic forms. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of Solomon's Temple, looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.

Such literature often included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, elements deriving from Zoroastrian dualism inherited by the Jews of Babylon: Demons and dragons or other fantastic beasts, a distinctly realized Satan in opposition to Yahweh, a city of evil contrasted to the city of God, and the corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the pure light of the world to come. Some, though not all, apocalyptic literature was messianic, predicting the imminent arrival of a savior or—as in some in Essene writings—of more than one savior.

The overtly allegorical nature of this literature inspired new interpretations of earlier texts, which influenced the development of techniques of exegesis for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval hermeneutics, which are still practiced today in some circles.

Among the several known books of apocalyptic Jewish prophecy, the Book of Daniel was accepted into the Hebrew Bible. Other apocalyptic literature, however, was not included: The Book of Enoch, some parts of which is older than Daniel, was not considered canonical by Jews or Christians, although it is quoted several times in the New Testament. The book of Jubilees (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called Sibylline Oracles, which were assembled partly in Alexandria, are filled with apocalyptic predictions; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can also be found in later kabbalistic writings.

Within the Christian tradition, the Apocalypse of Peter and The Shepherd of Hermas and several other apocalypses of the New Testament Apocrypha are examples of revelatory Christian literature that was not included in the Christian Bible.

Old Testament era apocalyptic literature

Canonical books

The prophet Zechariah's vision of four chariots, anticipating the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
  • Isaiah 24-27; 33; 34-35—For example: "the stars of the heavens will be dissolved, and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall." Thought to be the writings of "Second Isaiah" during the Babylonian Exile rather than the more ancient Isaiah of Jerusalem.
  • Jeremiah 33:14-26—A messianic prophecy, though not using typical apocalyptic language.
  • Ezekiel 2:8; 38-39. Ezekiel eats a prophetic scroll given to him by an angel, and reports his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones. In addition, Ezekiel's visions of the heavenly chariot and fantastic angelic beasts influenced later apocalyptic writers.
  • Joel 3:9-17—"Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears… Swing the sickle, for the harvest is ripe… Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision! … For the day of the Lord is near. The sun and moon will be darkened, and the stars no longer shine."
  • Zechariah—This work presents a number of apocalyptic visions and was highly influential on later writers. "I looked up again—and there before me were four chariots coming out from between two mountains—mountains of bronze! The first chariot had red horses, the second black, the third white, and the fourth dappled—all of them powerful."
  • Daniel—The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. "In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven." (7:13) Daniel stands by a river when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows (10:2). The rise and fall of the Greek Empire was revealed in the vision, through a series of visions of fantastic beasts.

Non-canonical books

  • Book of Noah. This is a lost work, known only through fragments, such as quotes from the Book of Enoch.
  • 1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch. Considered the most important of all the apocryphal apocalyptic writings, and quoted several times as scripture in the New Testament.
  • Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs. Probably written originally in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E., but has undergone later editing, including some Christian interpolations.
  • Psalms of Solomon. These 18 psalms, ascribed to Solomon by later scribes, contain, among other things, a protest against the Hasmonean dynasty for usurping the throne of David, and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right in the last days.
Elisha sees his mentor Elijah ascend into heaven in a chariot of fire.
  • The Assumption of Moses. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered in 1861. Written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 C.E. this work protests against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party.
  • Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch. This book deals with the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. In its present form, the book was written or edited soon after 70 C.E.
  • 4 Ezra. In it earliest Arabic and Ethiopic versions this book is called 1 Ezra; while in some Latin manuscripts and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian bible it is 3 Ezra. The first two chapters seem to be a Christian origin while the remainder of the book is a series of visions ascribed to the prophet/scribe Ezra. The Ethiopian and Russian Orthodox churches consider the book to be canonical.
  • Greek Apocalypse of Baruch. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. It was written between 80 and 200 C.E., and deals with the question of the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, affirming the building has been preserved in the heavenly spiritual realm.
  • Apocalypse of Abraham. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats Abraham's conversion from idolatry, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15, including an encounter between Abraham and the demon Azazel, who was one of the "birds of prey" who descended on Abraham's sacrifice.
  • Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph. The Prayer of Joseph is quoted by second century theologian Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
  • Book of Eldad and Modad. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
  • Apocalypse of Elijah. Mentioned by Origen and others as a revelation given by an angel, possibly to Elijah the prophet.
  • Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Known to us through a citation in Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. 2, 77, and by its mention is several lists provided by other Christian writers.
  • 2 Enoch, or the Slavonic Enoch, or the Book of the Secrets of Enoch. This work was recently brought to light through five manuscripts discovered in Russia and Serbia. It is a first-person account by Enoch of a journey through the ten heavens that culminates in a meeting with God.
  • Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs. This book deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and presents Abraham's vision of heaven, his deeds having been recorded in a book and being weighed by a balance.
  • Sibylline Oracles. A series of visions, some of Jewish origin but others clearly added by Christian editors.

New Testament era apocalyptic literature

Early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature, due to its belief in the Final Judgment at the Second Coming of Christ. Indeed, it was Christian scribes who preserved much of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition—sometimes, unfortunately, editing it to their own theological purposes—after it had been abandoned by Judaism. Moreover, Christianity cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas.

Canonical apocryphal works

The trumpet call of an apocalyptic angel
  • Apocalypse in Mark 13—"Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and famines. These are the beginning of birth pains." See also Matt. 24-25; Mark 13.
  • 1 Thessalonians 4—"The Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air."
  • 2 Thessalonians 2—"The man of lawlessness (will be) revealed, the son of perdition. He will oppose and will exalt himself over everything that is called God or is worshiped, so that he sets himself up in God's temple, proclaiming himself to be God."
  • Book of Revelation—A series of apocalyptic visions dealing with the end times, the Antichrist, the trials of the saints, the Battle of Armageddon, and the coming of the New Jerusalem.

Non-Canonical apocryphal works

  • Greek Apocalypse of Peter: Peter as the decisive witness of the resurrection event and the recipient of several further revelations.
  • Coptic Apocalypse of Peter: This Apocalypse of Peter understands Jesus as a Gnostic redeemer transcendent of physical reality.
  • Testament of Hezekiah: Predicts the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by Nero, and the Last Judgment.
  • Oracles of Hystaspes: Unknown except in reports and fragment, this was possibly a non-Christian work, this book predicting the destruction of Rome and the advent of Zeus (or the Messiah) to help the godly and destroy the wicked.
The revelation of the Lamb in John's Apocalypse
  • Shepherd of Hermas: A widely read book of the late first century presenting the vision of the Roman Christian prophet Hermas, calling the Church to repentance and adherence to a life of strict morality, against the background of great tribulation.
  • 5 Ezra: This apocalyptic book contains a strong attack on the Jews, whom it regards as the apostate people of God. It addresses itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom if they respond to God's call.
  • 6 Ezra: Describes the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. Scholars debate whether it is of Jewish or Christian origin.
  • Christian Sibyllines: Although there may be a Jewish origin of large sections of these books, much in them is recognized by scholars as Christian.
  • Apocalypse of Esdras: In this Greek production, the prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts.
  • Apocalypse of Paul: Rediscovered at Nag Hammadi in the twentieth century, this work contains a detailed description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell.
  • Apocalypse of John: This contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous.
  • Arabic Apocalypse of Peter: Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ.
  • Apocalypse of the Virgin: A description of Mary's descent into hell.
  • Apocalypse of Sedrach: This late apocalypse deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die.
  • The Revelations of Bartholomew: A fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew.
  • Questions of St Bartholomew: Bartholomew questions Jesus saying, "Lord, reveal unto me the mysteries of the heavens?"
  • Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius: This late apocalypse shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Written in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, it depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: The rise and rule of Antichrist, the invasions of Gog and Magog, and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chartsworth, James H. Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments. Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
  • Collins, John Joseph. The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
  • Cook, Stephen L. The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts. Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
  • Reddish, Mitchell G. (ed.). Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader. Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103

External links

All links retrieved August 11, 2023.

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