Sexual abstinence

"Sexual abstinence" redirects here.

Celibacy refers either to being unmarried or to sexual abstinence. Common reasons to deliberately abstain from the physical expression of sexual desire include religious or philosophical reasons (e.g. chastity), material reasons (to prevent conception (undesired pregnancy) or STD transmission), or to conform to legal injunctions. The term involuntary celibacy has recently appeared to describe a chronic, unwilling state of celibacy. The popularity of celibacy has waxed and waned through history as sexual mores evolve. Today, debate persists over how healthy and natural celibacy is.

Definition

Celibacy is either abstention from sexual intercourse or the state of being unmarried. Celibacy is sometimes used as a synonym for "abstinence" or "chastity." A vow of celibacy is a promise not to enter into marriage or engage in sexual intercourse.

The word is derived from the Latin "celibatus" meaning "state of being unmarried," which itself came from the Proto-Indo-European roots of "kaiwelo-libs" meaning "alone living."

Reasons for celibacy are varied:

• Religious beliefs (religious celibacy)
• To avoid the risk of venereal disease, to prevent its spread
• To focus energies on other matters, like social issues
• To avoid contributing to overpopulation
• To cultivate a relationship according to an ideal of chastity
• An inability to obtain a willing sexual partner (involuntary celibacy)
• A distaste or lack of appetite for sex (asexuality)
• To avoid persecution (e.g. prosecution for homosexual relations under sodomy laws)

History

Eunuchs, castrated males, have had different roles in many societies throughout history. The earliest record of intentional castration comes from the 21st century B.C.E. in Sumeria. Eunuchs have been called on to be courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In the Byzantine empire, eunuchs were men who had chosen to be celibate or not procreate rather than actually castrated.

Ancient Roman society exalted the Vestal Virgins, who were the high priestesses of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. The Vestal Virgins were all women who chose to become priests around puberty and dedicated themselves to thirty years of chastity.

Historically, there has been a swing from the sexually free end of the Industrial Revolution to the chaste values of the early Victorian period. This was then followed by a new puritanism from the late Victorian era to the mid 1900s. This important transformation often colours discussion of sexual behaviour in the later 20th century period. The First World War began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of abstinence before marriage was retained. With the conclusion of the Second World War, the societal importance of abstinence declined swiftly. The advent of the first oral contraceptive pill and widely available antibiotics suppressed many consequences of wide and free sexual behaviour, while social mores were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies; perhaps even the reverse: that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider re-evaluation of moral values.

Anthropologists and social historians have noted that many cultures such as Victorian Britain or the rural areas in the modern United States, which formally place a high value on abstinence until marriage, actually have a large amount of pre-marital sexual activity in which there is no actual sexual intercourse and which preserve a state known as technical virginity.

In some cultures, those who infringe the rules regarding chastity may be ostracized. Social reacceptance can sometimes be regained by marriage between the two. In the West, even as late as the mid-20th century, there was a stigma attached to being a 'one-parent family' and an illegitimate child could be legitimized by the marriage of the parents. (This latter is still the case in many Western countries, though the lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has rendered this irrelevant to social acceptance.)

Some notable self-proclaimed celibates in history are Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, one of the all time great spiritual figures in Hinduism, Swami Vivekananda, the chief disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the founder of Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission. Dr. Temple Grandin, the American academic whose empathy with animals has led to her being a highly successful designer of humane animal management systems, is a voluntary celibate. Stevie Smith, poet and novelist, was celibate all her adult life, after sampling and rejecting romance and sex in her youth. She was fiercely critical of those who thought that her life must be emotionally impoverished by not having sexual relationships anymore, emphasizing the depth of her friendships, especially her bond with the aunt with whom she lived. Nikola Tesla, who developed the system of alternating electrical current that is the standard nowadays worldwide, was a self-proclaimed celibate. Rock star Sir Cliff Richard converted to Christianity late in life and became abstinent. Also, Sigmund Freud undertook a strict vow of celibacy from about the age of forty-one, which he maintained up to his death.

Types

Religious celibacy

Clerical celibacy is a requirement for priests of some religions or denominations within a religion. These are church laws maintained by the Roman Catholic Church and also by the monastic orders of Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Celibacy is also proclaimed by some religions as an ideal for laypeople, for the unmarried or for homosexuals.

Chastity is a virtue expected of the faithful of many religions, including Christians and Muslims. This usually includes abstinence from sex for the unmarried, and faithfulness to a marriage partner. In many religions some groups of people are expected to practice celibacy — to abstain from sex completely, and remain unmarried. These groups include monks, nuns, and priests in various sects of Christianity. From the Roman Catholic perspective everyone is called to chastity be they married, single, or in a religious order. Chastity is a function of one's respect for the dignity of another especially in a sexual context. Sex with one's spouse is not against chastity so long as both remain open to having children — contraceptives violate true chastity.

Buddhism

In Buddhism, the main goal of living according to the celibate, is to eliminate (or at least decrease) desire. Desire is seen as one of the main causes of suffering, both in the world as in the mind or heart. A commonly-used metaphor sees desire, especially sexual desire, to be like drinking salty water: the more one consumes, the greater the desire - and the worse one's (mental) state of health becomes.

In Buddhism, attachment to impermanent things is regarded as one of the major causes of suffering. Sex is arguably the strongest attachment to impermanent things which human beings have. Therefore in Buddhism celibacy has been regarded as essential to obtaining Nirvana (liberation from suffering).

Digha Nikaya i.167, Kassapasihanada Sutta reads:

"If a man should go naked... feed on potherbs, wild rice, or Nivara seeds...wear coarse hempen cloth, or carry out any other [ascetic] prac- tices... yet the state of blissful attainment in conduct, in heart, in intellect, have not been practiced by him, realized by him, then he is far from shramanaship, far from brahminship. But from the time, O Kassapa, when a monk has cultivated the heart of love that knows no anger, that knows no ill will—from the time when, by the destruction of the deadly intoxications, he dwells in that emancipation of heart, that emancipation of mind, that is free from those intoxications, and that he, while yet in this visible world, has come to realize and know—from that time, O

Kassapa, is it that the monk is called a shramana, is called a brahmin!"

Christianity

The question of celibacy is handled differently by various Christian authorities. One religious argument for celibacy is given by the Apostle Paul in I Corinthians 7:7-8;32-35:

But I would have you to be without solicitude. He that is without a wife is solicitous for the things that belong to the Lord, how he may please God. But he that is with a wife, is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may please his wife: and he is divided. And the unmarried woman and the virgin thinketh on the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and spirit. But she that is married thinketh on the things of this world how she may please her husband. And this I speak for your profit, not to cast a snare upon you, but for that which is decent and which may give you power to attend upon the Lord without impediment.

Catholics understand celibacy to be a reflection of life in Heaven, and a source of detachment from the material world, which aids in one's relationship with God. Catholic priests are called to be espoused to the Church itself, and espoused to God, without overwhelming commitments interfering with the relationship. Catholics understand celibacy as the calling of some, but not of all.

Christians generally believe in a sanctity of the body:

"If with Christ you died to the elemental spirits of the universe, why do you live as if you still belonged to the world? Why do you submit to regulations, "Do not handle, Do not taste, Do not touch" (referring to things which all perish as they are used), according to human precepts and doctrines? These have indeed an appearance of wisdom in promoting rigor of devotion and self-abasement and severity to the body, but they are of no value, serving only to indulge the flesh. If then you have been raised with Christ, seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God. Set your minds on things that are above, not on

things that are on earth" (Colossians 2.20-3.2).

Among Catholics and members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), homosexuals are expected to remain celibate. A Catholic organization promoting chaste celibacy for homosexuals is Courage International. Those who identify as homosexual may not be able to become Catholic priests, however, even if they maintain celibacy. The LDS Church encourages its members not to feed any such tempted desire.

Clerical celibacy

The Catholic Church requires that its priests be celibate. This is so that they can devote themselves completely to the care of Christ's Flock (see Mathew 19:12). The Church has not required celibacy of all ecclesiastics at all times in history (it was not required of the majority of ecclesiastics in the early Church, and in modern times certain converts are permitted to be married when receiving Holy Orders). The Catholic Church's practice of clerical celibacy among priests and bishops of the Latin Rite and bishops of all rites, Eastern and Western, was confirmed by the Second Vatican Council and reaffirmed by Pope Paul VI in his encyclical letter, Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, June 24, 1967.

Clerical celibacy was an important point of disagreement during the Reformation. Reformers argued that requiring a vow of celibacy from a priest was contrary to biblical teaching,, and , a degradation of marriage and a reason for the widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation (e.g., discussed by John Calvin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion IV,12,23-28.

Hinduism

In Hindu culture, celibacy is observed when the young child leads a student life. A Hindu renunciate may take the vow of celibacy at any age when they have understood that living for material/sensual pleasures will never bring the perfect happiness that their soul desires. Thus their life becomes centered on surrender to Guru and God with the firm hope of God realization and the perfect Divine Happiness. The Hindu tradition of Brahmacharya places great emphasis on abstinence as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of spiritual realisation. In males, the semen (Veerja) is considered sacred and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life energy (Ojas) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and spiritual capacities.

In the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, the Brahman (Infinite Being) is regarded as the true Self of all and the ego-personality is a lesser self. The belief that one is the ego rather than the Self is regarded as the root of ignorance which leads to the problems in the world and in one's own life. All desires which centre around the satisfaction of the ego are considered to have their basis in ignorance, because the true Self is all-pervading and therefore without desire for anything outside itself.

In Hinduism, there is a historical difference between monks and priests. Historically, monks take vows of poverty and celibacy and are exempt from most public ceremonies and focused instead on prayer and meditation, focusing on the contemplative side of the Hindu tradition. Priests on the other hand do not have to be celibate and are responsible for the public ceremonies in the Hindu faith. Over the last 100 years however, the public roles between monks and priests have started to change and now some monks function within the social structure in needy areas of society.

Islam

Islam also forbids intercourse outside of marriage, however maintaining celibacy as an act of piety is strongly discouraged, and marriage for all who are able is strongly encouraged. Similar to Judaism, abstinence is practiced during the time of a woman's menstruation. Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced during the dawn to dusk fasts of Ramadan or other fasting days.

Judaism

Judaism forbids intercourse outside marriage (which is termed zenuth or promiscuity), but has no ideal of abstinence for particular clerical groups. In fact, it is practically expected of men in religious functions (e.g. rabbis) to be married. Abstinence is practiced while a woman is menstruating and the week after cessation of flow (the law of niddah), as well as a set period after childbirth. See Abstinence in Judaism.

Premarital chastity

Many religious and ethical systems proscribe sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, including most denominational variations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as have, historically, many legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence is (was) prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. Chastity is sometimes used synonymously with sexual abstinence, but the mechanisms of chastity are typically largely different for persons who assume different societal roles. For example, in most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, coitus within monogamous marriage is not considered to be opposed to chastity.

Ascetism

Lifelong (or at least long-term) abstinence, often associated with religious ascetism, is distinguished from chastity before marriage. Abstinence is often viewed as an admirable act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their "base urges." At other times abstinence has been seen as a great social ill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that chastity allows one to achieve a required self-control or a self-consciousness.

In many religions chastity is required of the respective sacerdotal orders. In some religions, including some branches of Christianity such as Catholicism, celibacy is required for priests and/or monks. The Shakers, on the other hand, impose chastity in the form of celibacy for all members.

While there have been cultures which achieved total sexual abstinence, such as castration cults, it is unlikely that any of them survived for a substantial period of time due to their lack of reproduction. Regardless, the arrival of technology like in vitro fertilisation allows reproduction without sexual intercourse.

Medical aspects of abstinence

Throughout history, and especially prior to the 20th century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of vitality. In modern times the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorus which are also found at high levels in the brain. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body. Before the "sexual revolution" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of nutrients through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality and intellectual prowess. This also applied to auto-erotic practices which were also thought to lead to bedwetting and hairy palms.

However, ill effects have not found to be associated with frequent ejaculation, and one study suggests that frequent ejaculation may lead to a lower risk of prostate cancer. Indeed, there have been numerous studies indicating that excessive repression of the sexual instinct leads to an increase in the overall level of aggression in a given society. For example, psychologist J.M. Prescott, in a cross-cultural investigation published in The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists (1975) found that societies forbidding premarital sex are plagued by acts of rage and tend to have higher rates of crime and violence. Prescott also found a link between sexual repression and aggression, insensitivity, criminal behavior, and a greater likelihood of killing and torturing enemies.

Modern abstinence movements

Abstinence advocates recommend it as a way to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive a child (other than through artificial insemination). By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one will also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs). Note, however, that many STDs can also be transmitted non-sexually. Some STDs (including genital warts due to human papillomavirus) are passed through skin-to-skin contact and are either not prevented by using a condom or only partially effective. Further, some have noted that many do not consider oral sex or similar acts to violate abstinence. One study states that 55% of college students claiming abstinence had indeed performed oral sex. Many of these acts can transmit STDs. Advocates also claim other benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy and resulting ability to focus on education and preparing for their future.

However, critics note that many abstinence education programs include information that although true, is misleading. For example, many programs exaggerate the risks of oral sex; the risk of exposure to HIV through saliva is significantly less than through exposure to semen. Furthermore, HIV is far more likely to be transmitted through saliva when the recipient is already infected with another sexually transmitted infection, such as syphilis. Epidemiological studies from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming infected with HIV in the presence of a genital ulcer such as those caused by syphilis and/or chancroid.

Organizations such as SIECUS have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt." [1] Author Judith Levine has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: "Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, chastity sweeter."

The effectiveness of abstinence programs and movements remains debated, but in spite of these criticisms, abstinence has become the de facto focus of sex education in the United States, so that opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use of condoms and easy availability thereof. Most nations of Western Europe use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the US, abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Mitchell, F.S. Celebrating Celibacy, Xulon Press (2006). ISBN 1597818720
• Mullaney, Jamie. Everyone Is NOT Doing It: Abstinence and Personal Identity, University of Chicago Press (2005). ISBN 0226547574
• Napier, Kristine. The Power of Abstinence, Avon Books (1996). ISBN 0380783711
• Stanosz, Paul. The Struggle for Celibacy: The Culture of Catholic Seminary Life, Herder & Herder (2006). ISBN 0824523814
• Stickler, Alphonso. The Case for Clerical Celibacy: Its Historical Development and Theological Foundations, Ignatius Press (1995). ISBN 0898705339

External links

• James W. Prescott, "Body pleasure and the origins of violence," The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists, November 1975, pp. 10-20 online copy. Claims that somatosensory (including sexual) deprivation as minors causes violent behaviour of grown-ups.
• Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia — a Christian view on chastity
• No New Money for Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Programs advocacy website
• Pure Love Club advocacy group that encourages sexual abstinence and chastity
• Real Love syndicated columnist and abstinence advocate
• Silver Ring Thing abstinence pledge program
• Social Determinants of Attitudes Towards Women's Premarital Sexuality Among Female Turkish University Students
• The True Love Thing to Do abstinence curriculum ( a 2½ hour abstinence seminar ) for teenagers
• WAIT "Washington AIDS International Teens"
• Sabin Russell, San Francisco Chronicle, 24 February 2005, "Uganda's HIV rate drops, but not from abstinence: Study concludes basis of Bush policy apparently irrelevant"
• United States poll shows parents favoring abstinence-based education (Focus on the Family press release)
• Texas A&M study shows abstinence works: Students more likely to abstain
• Shaoni Bhattacharya, NewScientist.com news service, 02 February 2005, "Teen sex abstinence study sparks controversy"

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